L4, L5, & L6 (02 August 2013)

Semiconductor Electronics
This time we will begin to discusses the operation of semiconductor electronic devices (such as diodes and transistors) that are used in many circuits and devices for switching or amplification purposes.

L4.1. Introduction to Semiconductor-(also see textbook p.74)

1. Overview Silicon and germanium are semiconductor materials used in the manufacture of diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Semiconductor material is refined to an extreme level of purity, and then minute, controlled amounts of a specific impurity are added (a process called doping). Based on which impurity is added to a region of a semiconductor crystal, that region is said to be N type or P type. In addition to electrons (which are negative charge carriers used to conduct charge in a conventional conductor), semiconductors contain positive charge carriers called holes. The impurities added to an N type region increases the number of electrons capable of conducting charge, whereas the impurities added to a P type region increase the number of holes capable of conducting charge. When a semiconductor chip contains an N doped region adjacent to a P doped region, a diode junction (often called a pn-junction) is formed. Diode junctions can also be made with either silicon or germanium. However, silicon and germanium are never mixed when making pn-junctions. 2. The Definition of Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors Recall from basic chemistry that the electrons in an atom orbit the nucleus in different shells. The atoms chemical activity is determined by the electrons in the outermost shell, called valence electrons, and how complete this shell is. For example, neon exhibits a complete outermost shell (with eight electrons) and hence no tendency for chemical reactions. On the other hand, sodium has only one valence electron, ready to relinquish it, and chloride has seven valence electrons, eager to receive one more. Both elements are therefore highly reactive. The above principles suggest that atoms having approximately four valence electrons fall somewhere between inert gases and highly volatile elements, possibly displaying interesting chemical and physical properties. Shown in figure below is a section of the periodic table containing a number of elements with three to five valence electrons. As the most popular material in microelectronics, silicon merits a detailed analysis.

Figure 1.

Section of the periodic table (Razavi, 2014), p.23. 1

Materials (such as air or plastic) have atoms with valence electrons that like to keep their electrons close to home (i.e., tightly bound) and when an electric field is applied, the electrons do not move easily, are called insulators. On other hand, materials (such as copper, aluminium, and other metals) that contain loosely bound outer electrons are called conductors. A semiconductor is a material whose properties are in between a conductor and an insulator.

As shown in figure below, when a voltage is applied across a semiconductor, some of the valence electrons easily jump to the conductance band and then move in the electric field to produce a current, although smaller than that which would be produced in a conductor.

Figure 2.

Valence and conduction bands of materials.

With a device made from semiconductor materials, such as silicon and germanium, you can precisely control the flow of electrical charge carriers in one area of the device by adjusting a voltage in another area of the device. For use in semiconductor electronic circuits, small quantities of other elements (such as boron and phosophorous) are added to silicon or germanium crystals to alter their properties. 3. Semiconductor Physics Covalent Bonds

A silicon atom residing in isolation contains four valence electrons, requiring another four to complete its outermost shell. If processed properly, the atoms of semiconductor materials align themselves in a structured way, forming a very regular, three-dimensional patter - a crystal - as shown figure below.

Figure 3. Semi-conductor materials, such as silicon, contain strong covalent bounds that hold the atoms together in a crystalline structure (Shamieh & McComb, 2009), p.114. As a result, each atom shares one valence electron with its neighbours, thereby completing its own shell and those of the neighbours. The bond thus formed between atoms is called a covalent bond to emphasize the sharing of valence electrons. The uniform crystal depicted in figure above plays a crucial role in semiconductor devices. But, does it carry current in response to a voltage? At temperatures near absolute zero, the valence electrons are confined to their respective covalent bonds, refusing to move freely. In other words, the silicon crystal behaves as an insulator for T 0 K . However, at higher temperatures, electrons gain thermal energy, occasionally breaking away from the bonds and acting as free charge carriers (see figure below (c)) until they fall into another incomplete bond. We will hereafter use the term electrons to refer to free electrons.

Figure 4. Holes

(a) Silicon atom; (b) Covalent bonds between atoms; (c) Free electron released by thermal energy (Razavi, 2014), p.23.

When freed from a covalent bond, an electron leaves a void behind because the bond is now incomplete. Called a hole, such a void can readily absorb a free electron if one becomes available.

Thus, we say an electron-hole pair is generated when an electron is freed, and an electron-hole recombination occurs when an electron falls into a hole. Why do we bother with the concept of the hole? After all, it is the free electron that actually moves in the crystal. To appreciate the usefulness of holes, consider the time evolution illustrated in figure below.

Figure 5.

Movement of electron through crystal (Razavi, 2014), p23.

Suppose covalent bond number 1 contains a hole after losing an electron some time before t = t1 . At t = t2 , an electron breaks away from bond number 2 and recombines with the hole in bond number 1. Similarly, at t = t3 , an electron leaves bond number 3 and falls into the hole in bond number 2. Looking at the three snapshots, we can say one electron has travelled from right to left, or, alternatively, one hole has moved from left to right. This view of current flow by holes proves extremely useful in the analysis of semiconductor devices. N-type and P-type Semiconductor

Impurities that free up electrons (negative charges) to move through a semiconductor are called donor dopants, and the doped semiconductor is known as an N-type semiconductor. Arsenic is a typical donor dopant. On the other hand, impurities that free up holes (like positive charges) to move through a semiconductor are called acceptor dopants, and the doped semiconductor is known as a P-type semiconductor. Boron is a typical acceptor dopant. In summary, the purpose for doping a semiconductor such as silicon is to elevate and control the number of charge carriers in the semiconductor. In an N-type semiconductor, the charge carriers are electrons, and in a P-type semiconductor, they are holes (see figure below).

Figure 6.

Summary of charge carriers in silicon (Razavi, 2014), p.27.

L4.2. Junction Diode-(also see textbook p.75)

The fundamental physics principles that underlie the functioning of diodes require an understanding of quantum mechanics. 1. pn-junction If a P-type region of silicon is created adjacent to an N-type region, a pn-junction is the result. We begin our study of semiconductor devices with the pn-junction for three reasons: v The device finds application in many electronic systems, e.g., in adaptors that charge the batteries of cell phones. v The pn-junction is among the simplest semiconductor devices, thus providing a good entry point into the study of the operation of such complex structures as transistors. v The pn-junction also serves as part of transistors. We also use the term diode to refer to pn-junctions.

Figure 7.

pn-Junction (Razavi, 2014), p.36.

See figure above (b), The p and n sides are called the anode and the cathode, respectively. In addition, it shows the circuit symbol for a diode. The arrowhead points in the direction of current flow.

Example: pn-junctions. Which diagrams in figure below show pn-junctions?

Solution: Diagrams (b) and (e) only.

Example: anode and cathode. Identify which part of the diode shown in figure below is P-material and which part is N-material?

Solution: The anode is P-material; the cathode is N-material.

Example: current flow in pn-junctions. (a) In a pn-junction, does current flow from anode to cathode, or cathode to anode? (b) See figure below, is the pn-junction connected correctly to permit current to flow? (c) Notice the way the battery and the diode connect. Is the anode at a higher or lower voltage than the cathode?

Solution: (a) Current flows from anode to cathode. (b) Yes. (c) The anode connects to the positive battery terminal, and the cathode connects to the negative battery terminal. Therefore, the anode is at a higher voltage than the cathode. 2. pn-Junction in Equilibrium Let us first study the pn-junction with no external connections, i.e., the terminals are open and no voltage is applied across the device. We say the junction is in equilibrium. While seemingly of no practical value, this condition provides insights that prove useful in understanding the operation under non-equilibrium as well. We begin by examining the interface between the n and p sections, recognizing that one side contains a large excess of holes and the other, a large excess of electrons. The sharp concentration gradient for both electrons and holes across the junction leads to two large diffusion currents: electrons flow from the n side to the p side, and holes flow in the opposite direction.

The diffusion currents transport a great deal of charge from each side to the other, but they must eventually decay to zero. This is because if the terminals are left open (equilibrium condition), the device cannot carry a net current indefinitely. We must now answer an important question: what stops the diffusion currents? We may postulate that the currents stop after enough free carriers have moved across the junction so as to equalize the concentrations on the two sides. However, another effect dominates the situation and stops the diffusion currents well before this point is reached. To understand this effect, we recognize that for every electron that departs from the n side, a positive ion is left behind, i.e., the junction evolves with time as conceptually shown in figure below. In this illustration, the junction is suddenly formed at t = 0 , and the diffusion currents continue to expose more ions as time progresses. Consequently, the immediate vicinity of the junction is depleted of free carriers and hence called the depletion region.

Figure 8.

Evolution of charge concentrations in a pn-junction (Razavi, 2014),p.38.

Now recall from basic physics that a particle or object carrying a net (nonzero) charge creates an electric field around it. Thus, with the formation of the depletion region, an electric field emerges as shown in figure below.

Figure 9.

Electric field in a pn-junction (Razavi, 2014), p.38.

Interestingly, the field tends to force positive charge flow from left to right whereas the concentration gradients necessitate the flow of holes from right to left (and electrons from left to right). We therefore surmise that the junction reaches equilibrium once the electric field is strong enough to completely stop the diffusion currents. Built-in Potential

The existence of an electric field within the depletion region suggests that the junction may exhibit a built-in potential. 3. Biasing the pn-Junction 7

In electronics, the term bias refers to a steady DC voltage or current applied to an electronic device or circuit to get it to operate in a certain way. When you bias a pn-junction, you apply a voltage, known as the bias voltage, across the pn-junction (from anode to cathode) so that the pn-junction either allows current to flow from anode to cathode or blocks current from flowing. These two basic operating modes of a standard pn-junction are known as forward-bias (conducting) and reverse-bias (non-conducting). A water pipe analogy proves useful here. Consider the pipe shown in figure below, where a valve (a plate) is hinged on the top and faces a stopper on the bottom. If water pressure is applied from the left, the valve rises, allowing a current. On the other hand, if water pressure is applied from the right, the stopper keeps the valve shut.

Figure 10. Reverse Bias

Water pipe analogy (Razavi, 2014), p.61.

Having analyzed the pn-junction in equilibrium, we can now study its behaviour under more interesting and useful conditions. Let us begin by applying an external voltage across the device as shown in figure below, where the voltage source makes the n side more positive than the p side. We say the junction is under reverse bias to emphasize the connection of the positive voltage to the n terminal. the connection of the positive voltage to the n terminal.

Figure 11.

pn-Junction under reverse bias (Razavi, 2014), p.41. 8

We wish to re-examine the results obtained in equilibrium for the case of reverse bias. Let us first the external voltage enhances the built-in electric field or opposes it. Since under determine whether equilibrium, E is directed from the n side to the p side, VR enhances the field. But, a higher electric field can be sustained only if a larger amount of fixed charge is provided, requiring that more acceptor and donor ions be exposed and, therefore, the depletion region be widened. What happens to the diffusion and drift currents? Since the external voltage has strengthened the field, the barrier rises even higher than that in equilibrium, thus prohibiting the flow of current. In other words, the junction carries a negligible current under reverse bias. With no current conduction, a reverse-biased pn-junction does not seem particularly useful. However, an important observation will prove otherwise. We note that in figure above, as VB (battery voltage) increases, more positive charge appears on the n side and more negative charge on the p side. Thus, the device operates as a capacitor (see figure below (a)).

Figure 12.

Reduction of junction capacitance with reverse bias (Razavi, 2014), p.42.

In essence, we can view the conductive n and p sections as the two plates of the capacitor. We also assume the charge in the depletion region equivalently resides on each plate. After all, since any two parallel plates can form a capacitor, the use of a pn-junction for this purpose is not justified. But, reverse-biased pn-junctions exhibit a unique property that becomes useful in circuit design. Returning to Fig. 9, we recognize that, as VR increases, so does the width of the depletion region. That is, the conceptual diagram of figure above (a) can be drawn as in figure above (b) for increasing values of VR , revealing that the capacitance of the structure decreases as the two plates move away from each other. The junction therefore displays a voltage-dependent capacitance. In summary, a reverse-biased pn-junction carries a negligible current but exhibits a voltagedependent capacitance. An interesting application of reverse-biased diodes is in digital cameras. If light of sufficient energy is applied to a pn-junction, electrons are dislodged from their covalent bonds and hence electronhole pairs are created. With a reverse bias, the electrons are attracted to the positive battery terminal 9

and the holes to the negative battery terminal. As a result, a current flows through the diode that is proportional to the light intensity. We say the pn-junction operates as a photodiode. Forward Bias

Our objective in this section is to show that the pn-junction carries a current if the p side is raised to a more positive voltage than the n side (see figure below). This condition is called forward bias.

Figure 13.

pn-Junction under forward bias (Razavi, 2014), p.45.

From our study of the device in equilibrium and reverse bias, we note that the potential barrier developed in the depletion region determines the devices desire to conduct. The forward-bias a pnjunction - meaning, get it to conduct current - by applying a high enough positive voltage from anode to cathode so that the pn-junction "turns on" (conducts current). This minimum turn-on voltage is known as the forward voltage, and its value depends on the type of pn-junction. In forward bias, the external voltage, VF , tends to create a field directed from the p side toward the n sideopposite to the built-in field that was developed to stop the diffusion currents. We therefore surmise that VF in fact lowers the potential barrier by weakening the field, thus allowing greater diffusion currents. A typical silicon pn-junction has a forward voltage of about 0.6 v to 0.7 v, whereas forward voltages for light-emitting pn-junction (diodes) called LED, range from about 1.5 v to 4.6 v (depending on the colour). When the pn-junction is forward-biased, current, known as forward current, flows easily across the pn-junction, from anode to cathode. You can increase the amount of current flowing through the pnjunction, but the forward voltage drop won't vary that much.

Example: forward and reverse bias. (a) Is the pn-junction forward-biased (see figure below)? Give the reasons for your answer.

10

(b) Draw a reverse-biased pn-junction in the circuit shown in figure below.

Solution: (a) No, it is not forward-biased. The cathode is connected to the positive battery terminal, and the anode is connected to the negative battery terminal. Therefore, the cathode is at a higher voltage than the anode. However, in a forward-biased pn-junction, the anode should connect to a higher voltage than the cathode, and current flows. (b) You drawing should look something like the figure below.

4. Current/Voltage (I/V) Characteristics In studying electronic devices, it is often helpful to accompany equations with graphical visualizations. A common type of plot is that of the current/voltage (I/V) characteristic, i.e., the current that flows through the device as a function of the voltage across it.

Example: I/V characteristics.

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Why are we interested in I/V characteristics rather than V/I characteristics? Solution: In the analysis of circuits, we often prefer to consider the voltage to be the cause and the current, the effect. This is because in typical circuits, voltage polarities can be predicted more readily and intuitively than current polarities. Also, devices such as transistors fundamentally produce current in response to voltage. Let us summarize our thoughts thus far. In forward bias, the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, raising the diffusion currents substantially. In reverse bias, on the other hand, the applied voltage enhances the field, prohibiting current flow. We hereafter write the junction equation as:
V I D = I S exp D - 1 . VT
(1)

where I D and VD denote the diode current and voltage, respectively. I S is called the "reverse saturation current" , VT is called " thermal voltage" ( 26 mV at T = 300 K ) and can be expressed as:

VT =
where q

KT . q

(2)

is the charge of one electron

(1.60 10

-19

C) , K

is Boltzman's constant

( 1.381 10-23 J K ), and T is the absolute temperature of the junction in Kelvin. As expected, VD = 0 yields I D = 0 . As VD becomes positive and exceeds several VT , the
V V exponential term grows rapidly and I D I S exp D . We hereafter assume exp D >> 1 in the VT VT forward bias region. V It can be proved that Eq. ( I D = I S exp D - 1 ) also holds in reverse bias, i.e., for negative VD . If VT V VD < 0 and VD reaches several VT , then exp D << 1 and VT

ID -IS .

(3)

The figure below plots the overall I/V characteristic of the junction, revealing why I S is called the reverse saturation current.

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Figure 14.

I/V characteristic of a pn-junction (Razavi, 2014), p.49.

5. Forming a Junction Diode (pn-junction as Diode) A semiconductor diode is a two-terminal electronic device that consists of a single pn-junction. The circuit symbol for a diode is shown in figure below. Diodes act like one-way valves, allowing current to flow in only one direction when a voltage is applied to them. This capability is sometimes referred to as the rectifying property.

Figure 15.

Symbol for a diode (Shamieh & McComb, 2009), p.116.

You refer to the P-side of the pn-junction in a diode as the anode, and the N-side as the cathode. In the circuit symbol above, the anode is on the left and the cathode is on the right (see figure below).

Figure 16.

Symbol for a diode.

Most diodes allow current to flow from the anode to the cathode (Zener diodes are an exception). You can think of the junction within a diode as a hill and the current as a ball you are tying to move from one side of the hill to the other. It's easy to push the ball down the hill (from anode to cathode), but very difficult to push the ball up the hill (from cathode to anode). Diodes are cylindrical, like resistors, but aren't quite as colourful as resistors. Most diodes sport a stripe or other mark at one end, signifying the cathode (see figure below).

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Figure 17. 6. Ideal Diode

Diodes are similar in size and shape to resistors, but include just one stripe indicating the cathode (Shamieh & McComb, 2009), p116.

Since an ideal diode behaves as a short circuit or an open circuit (see Additional Readings), we first construct the I/V characteristics for two special cases of Ohm's law:
R =0 I = V = . R V = 0. R
(4)

R=I =

(5)

The I/V characteristic curve for the ideal diode is shown by the dark solid lines in figure (b) below. This model implies that the diode is fully on for any voltage greater than or equal to 0. That means, an ideal diode has zero resistance when forward biased and infinite resistance when reverse biased.

Figure 18.

I/V characteristics of (a) Zero and infinite resistors; (b) Ideal diode (Razavi, 2014), p.62. 14

7. Conducting Current Through a Diode After current starts flowing through a diode, the forward voltage drop across the diode remains fairly constant - even if you increase the forward current. For instance, most silicon diodes have a forward voltage of between 0.6 V and 0.7 V over a wide range of forward currents. If you're analyzing a circuit that contains a silicon diode (see figure below), you can assume that the voltage drop across the diode is about 0.7 V - even if you increase the source voltage from 6 V to 9 V. Increasing the source voltage increases the current through the circuit, but the diode voltage drop remains the same, so the increased source voltage is dropped across the lamp.

Figure 19.

The battery forward-biases the diode in this circuit, allowing current to flow through a lamp (Shamieh & McComb, 2009), p.117.

Of course, every electronic component has its limits. If you increase the current through a diode too much, you'll generate a lot of heat within the diode. At some point, the junction will be damaged from all the heat, so you have to be careful not to turn up the source voltage too much.

Diodes are like one-way valves, allowing current to flow in one direction only. If you insert a diode backward in a circuit, either your circuit won't work at all (because no current will flow) (see figure below), or you may damage some components (because you may exceed the (peak reverse voltage) PRV and allow current to flow in reverse - which can damage components such as electrolytic capacitors). Always note the orientation of the diode when you use it in a circuit, double-checking to make sure you have it right.

Figure 20. Because the diode in this circuit is reverse-biased, it acts like a closed valve, prohibiting the flow of current through the circuit (Shamieh & McComb, 2009), p.118. 15

Example: calculate the current. Calculate the current through the diode in the circuit shown in figure below using the steps in the following questions.

(a) The voltage drop across the diode is known. It is 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium. ("Si" near the diode means it is silicon). Write down the diode voltage drop. (b) Find the voltage drop across the resistor. (c) Calculate the current through the resistor. (d) Finally, determine the current through the diode. Solution: (a) VD = 0.7V . (b) This can be calculated using -VS + VR + VD = 0 VR = VS - VD , which is taken from KVL. VR = VS - VD = 5 - 0.7 = 4.3 V . V (c) This can be calculated by using I = R . R VR 4.3 volts I= = = 4.3 mA . R 1 kW (d) It's 4.3 mA. (In a series circuit, the same current runs through each component.)

Example: finding current through the diode. Look at the circuit shown in figure below (Boysen & Kybett, 2012), p.67.

The total current from the battery flows through R1 , and then splits into I 2 and I D . I 2 flows through R2 , and I D flows through the diode. 16

(a) What is the relationship between I T , I 2 , and I D ? (b) What is the value of VD ? (c) Finding I D in the circuit. Solution: (a) Remember KCL, I T = I 2 + I D . (b) VD = 0.7 V . (c) To find I D , we need to go through the following steps, because there is no way to find I D directly: v Find I 2 . This is done using VD = R2 I 2 . v Find VR . For this, use VR = VS - VD (KVL). v Find I T (the current through R1 ). Use VR = I T R1 . v Find I D . This is found by using I T = I 2 + I D (KCL). 8. Reverse Breakdown Recall from the figure before (I/V characteristic of a pn-junction) that the pn-junction carries only a small, relatively constant current in reverse bias. However, as the reverse voltage across the device increases, eventually breakdown occurs and a sudden, enormous current is observed. In other words, all diodes break down when connected in the reverse direction if excess voltage is applied to them. Figure below plots the device I/V characteristic, displaying this effect.

Figure 21.

Reverse breakdown characteristic (Razavi, 2014), p.53.

The breakdown resulting from a high voltage (and hence a high electric field) can occur in any material. A common example is lightning, in which case the electric field in the air reaches such a high level as to ionize the oxygen molecules, thus lowering the resistance of the air and creating a tremendous current. The breakdown phenomenon in pn-junctions occurs by one of two possible mechanisms: Zener effect and avalanche effect. (see Additional Reading)

Example: diode breakdown. 17

The diode in the circuit shown in figure below is known to break down at 100 volts, and it can safely pass 1 ampere without overheating.

Finding the resistance in this circuit that would limit the current to 1 ampere. Solution: -VS + VR + VD = 0 VR = VS - VD = 200 - 100 = 100 V . Because 1 ampere of current is flowing, then V 100 volts R= R = = 100 ohms . I 1 ampere Breakdown is not a catastrophic process and does not destroy the diode. If the excessive supply voltage is removed, the diode can recover and operate normally. You can use it safely many more times, provided the current is limited to prevent the diode from burning out. In fact, a diode always breaks down at the same voltage, no matter how many times it is used.

Example: diode breakdown. (a) Which can permanently destroy a diode, excessive current or excessive voltage? (b) Which is more harmful to a diode, breakdown or burnout? Solution: (a) Excessive current. Excessive voltage cannot harm the diode if the current is limited. (b) Burnout. Breakdown is not necessarily harmful, especially if the current is limited. 9. Using Diodes in Circuits (Application Examples) You'll find several different flavours of semiconductor diodes designed for various applications in electronic circuits. Rectifying AC

The figure below (a) shows a circuit with a silicon diode, a resistor, and an AC power source.

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Figure 22.

(a) A diode operating as a rectifier; (b) Complete rectifier; (c) Input and output waveform; (d) Input/output characteristic (Razavi, 2014), p.66.

We may naturally construct the circuit as shown in figure above (a). Unfortunately, however, the cathode of the diode is floating, the output current is always equal to zero, and the state of the diode is ambiguous. We therefore modify the circuit as depicted in figure above (b) and analyze its response to a sinusoidal input (see figure above (c)). Since R1 has a tendency to maintain the cathode of D1 near zero, as Vin rises, D1 is forward biased, shorting the output to the input. This state holds for the positive half cycle. When Vin falls below zero, D1 turns off and R1 ensures that Vout = 0 . It is instructive to plot the input/output characteristic of the circuit as well. Noting that if Vin < 0, D1 is off and Vout = 0 , and if Vin > 0, D1 is on and Vout = Vin , we obtain the behaviour shown in figure (d) above. The rectifier is a nonlinear circuit because if Vin -Vin then Vout -Vout . Diodes used this way - to convert AC current into varying DC current (it's DC because the current is flowing in one direction only, but it isn't a constant current) - are called rectifier diodes, or just rectifiers. They usually handle currents ranging from several hundred milliamps to a few amps - much higher strengths than general-purpose signal diodes are designed to handle (those currents only go up to about 100 mA). The rectifier circuits are used in the design of power suppliers, where AC power must be transformed into DC power for use in electronic devices and digital circuits. The rectifiers are used in two major ways: v Half-wave rectification: Using a single rectifier diode to clip an AC signal is known as half-wave rectification because it converts half the AC signal into DC. 19

v Full-wave rectification: By arranging four diodes in a circuit known as a bridge rectifier, you can convert both the "ups" and the "downs" of an AC voltage into just "ups" (see figure below). This process, known as full-wave rectification, is the first stage of circuitry in a linear power supply, which converts AC power into a steady DC power supply.

Figure 23.

In a bridge rectifier, four diodes transform an AC current into a varying DC current (Shamieh & McComb, 2009), p.122.

Notice the orientation of the diode in the circuit: its anode (positive end) is connected to the power source. The diode conducts current when it's forward-biased, but not if its reverse-biased. When the AC source is positive (and provides at least 0.7 V to forward-bias the silicon diode), the diode conducts current, when the AC source is less than 0.7 V, the diode does not conduct current. The output voltage is a clipped version of the input voltage; only the portion of the input signal that is greater than 0.7 V passes through to output. If the diode orientation is reversed in the circuit, the opposite happens: only the negative part of the input voltage is passed through to the output: v When the input voltage is positive, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows. v When the input is sufficiently negative (at least - 0.7 V), the diode is forward-biased and current flows. 10. Zener Diode Definition

A Zener diode behaves like a normal diode when it is forward biased, but it can conduct current without destroying itself when the reverse-biased voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, VR . The breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, VZ , can be smaller than that for a normal diode. Those diodes named "Zener" because they exhibit the "Zener effect" - a particular form of voltage breakdown (see Additional Reading). In fact, diodes can be manufactured so that breakdown occurs at lower and more precise voltages than standard diodes. At the Zener voltage, a small current flows through the Zener diode. This current must be maintained to keep the diode at the Zener point. In most cases, a few milliamperes are all that is required. The figure below shows the Zener diode symbol and a simple circuit.

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Figure 24.

Zener diode (Boysen & Kybett, 2012), p.75.

In this circuit, the battery determines the applied voltage. The Zener diode determines the voltage drop (labeled VZ ) across it. The resistor determines the current flow. Zeners are used to maintain a constant voltage at some point in a circuit. Regulating Voltage with Zener Diodes

A common use of Zener diodes is to regulate the output voltage in a circuit when the supply voltage is variable or unstable. The circuit for performing this operation is shown in figure below. Note that the output voltage of this circuit or the voltage drop across the load resistor R2 always will be VZ if the voltage drop across R2 is about to exceed VZ .

Figure 25.

Voltage regulation using a Zener diode (Jouaneh, 2013), p.39.

Example: voltage regulation using a Zener diode. For the circuit shown in figure above, assume that the voltage source is an unregulated supply that varies between 10 to 12 V. Select a Zener diode and appropriate resistors to give close to a 5 V drop across the load resistor R2 using this supply. Solution: Let us select a Zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 5.1 V (which is the closest to 5 V). Select R2 to be 100 W . Then the current across the load resistor R2 is 51 mA, because the potential drop across the R2 resistor is the same as that across the Zener diode for cases when the voltage drop across R2 is about to exceed VZ . The current through the resistor R1 has to be greater than the current through the load resistor, because the Zener diode will not operate unless some current flows through it, since I R1 = I Z + I R2 . This implies that R1 has to 21

be less than 96.1 W for VS = 10 V from the requirement that I R1 > I R2 or VS - VZ VZ > R1 R2 If we select R1 to be 90 W , then the current through R1 will be 54.4 mA for VS = 10 V and 76.7 mA for VS = 12 V . Notice that the current that is not passing through the load is being dissipated through the Zener diode. For the diode not to heat up, the diode power rating must be greater than 5.1 V ( 76.7 - 51) mA or 0.13 W. A 0.25 W diode will do this. A commercially available diode with such specifications is the 1N4689. See figure below for more details.

Figure 26.

Voltage regulation using a Zener diode (Alciatore & Histand, 2012), p.82.

The output voltage of the circuit Vout is maintained or regulated by the Zener diode at the Zener voltage VZ . Even when the current through the Zener diode changes ( DI Z in the figure), the output voltage remains relatively constant (i.e., DVZ is small). The narrowness of the voltage range for a given current change is a measure of the voltage regulation of the circuit. If the input voltage and load do not change much, this circuit is effective in obtaining steady and lower DC voltage values from a source, even if the source is not well regulated. Because the load applied to the voltage regulator will change with time in most applications and the voltage source will exhibit fluctuations, careful consideration must be paid to the effect on the regulated voltage VZ . For the circuit shown in figure above, the Zener current is related to the circuit voltages according to

IZ =

(Vin - VZ ) .
R

(6)

To determine how changes in current are related to changes in voltage, we take the finite (V - VZ ) , which yields differential of I Z = in R 22

DI Z =

1 ( DVin - DVZ ) . R

(7)

The Zener diode is nonlinear circuit element, and therefore DVZ is not directly proportional to DI Z . However, it is useful to define a dynamic resistance Rd that is the slop of the Zener characteristic curve at a particular operating point (see figure below).

Figure 27.

Zener diode's current-voltage relationship (Alciatore & Histand, 2012), p.81.

This allow us to express the Zener current change in terms of the Zener voltage change:

DI Z =

DVZ . Rd

(8)

1 DVZ into DI Z = ( DVin - DVZ ) and solving for DVZ , we can express R Rd changes in the regulator output voltage DVout in terms of fluctuations in the source voltage DVin :

By substituting DI Z =

DVout = DVZ =

Rd DVin . Rd + R

(9)

Therefore, the circuit acts like a voltage divider (for a change in voltage) with the Zener diode represented by its dynamic resistance at the operating current of the circuit. Effects of Load on Voltage Regulator Design

Figure below illustrates a simple voltage regulator circuit where RL is a load resistance and Vin is an unregulated source whose value exceeds the Zener voltage VZ .

Figure 28.

Zener diode voltage regulator circuit (Alciatore & Histand, 2012), p.84. 23

The purpose of this circuit is to provide a constant DC voltage VZ across the load with a corresponding constant current through the load. Providing a stable regulated voltage to a system containing digital integrated circuits is a common application. If we assume the Zener diode is ideal (i.e., its breakdown current-voltage curve is vertical), we can draw some conclusions about the regulator circuit. v First, the load voltage will be VZ as long as the Zener diode is subject to reverse breakdown. Therefore, the load current I L is

IL =

VZ . RL

(10)

v Second, the load current will be the difference between the unregulated input current I in and the Zener diode current I Z : I L = I in - I Z .
(11)

As long as VZ is constant and the load does not change, I L remains constant. This means that the diode current changes to absorb changes from the unregulated source. v Third, the unregulated source current I in is given by

I in =

(Vin - VZ ) .
R

(12)

R is known as a current-limiting resistor because it limits the power dissipated by the zener diode. If I Z gets too large, the Zener diode fails. In summary, Zener diode are useful in circuits where it is necessary to derive smaller regulated voltages from a single higher-voltage source. When designing Zener diode circuits, one must select appropriate current-limiting resistors given the power limitations of the diodes. In simple mechatronics designs that my be powered by a 9 V battery and required good 5 V DC supplies for digital devices, a well-designed Zener regulator is cheap and effective solution if the current requirements are modest.

Examples (a) Examine an application in which a constant voltage is wantedfor example, a lamp driven by a DC generator. In this example, when the generator turns at full speed, it puts out 50 volts. When it runs more slowly, the voltage can drop to 35 volts. You want to illuminate a 20-volt lamp with this generator. Assume that the lamp draws 1.5 amperes.

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(b) Assume now that the 20 ohms resistor calculated is in place, and the voltage output of the generator drops to 35 volts, as shown in figure below.

This is similar to what happens when a battery gets old. Its voltage level decays and it will no longer have sufficient voltage to produce the proper current. This results in the lamp glowing less brightly, or perhaps not at all. Note, however, that the resistance of the lamp stays the same. (c) In many applications, a lowering of voltage across the lamp (or some other component) may be unacceptable. You can prevent this by using a Zener diode, as shown in the circuit in figure below. Then, What happens to the current through the lamp? and What happens to the current through the Zener?

(d) To make this circuit work and keep 20 volts across the lamp at all times, you must find a suitable value of R. This value should allow sufficient total current to flow to provide 1.5 amperes required by the lamp, and the small amount required to keep the diode at its Zener voltage. Find the value of R that enables 1.5 amperes to flow through the lamp. How much current can flow through the Zener diode? (e) Now, take a look at what happens when the generator supplies 50 volts, as shown in figure below.

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(f) Find the power dissipated when the generator voltage is 35 volts and 50 volts, respectively. Solution: (a) You need to determine a suitable value for the resistance. Follow these steps to find a suitable resistance value: V v Find RL , the lamp resistance. Use RL = L . I 20 volts V RL = L = = 13.33 ohms . I 1.5 amperes v Find VR , use VS = VR + VL . VR = 50 volts - 20 volts = 30 volts . V v Find R , use R = R . I V 50 volts - 20 volts 30 volts R= R = = = 20 ohms . I 1.5 amperes 1.5 amperes (b) v Find the total current flowing, use I T =

VS . ( R + RL )

IT =

35 volts 35 volts VS = = = 1.05 amperes . ( R + RL ) 20 ohms + 13.3 ohms 33.3 ohms

v Find the voltage drop across the lamp, use VL = I T RL . VL = I T RL = 1.05 amperes 13.3 ohms = 14 volts . v Have the voltage and current increased or decreased? Both have reduced in value. (c) If you choose a 20-volt zener (that is, one that has a 20-volt drop across it), then the lamp always has 20 volts across it, no matter what the output voltage is from the generator (provided, of course, that the output from the generator is always above 20 volts). So, we can say that the voltage across the lamp is constant, and the generator output drops. Also, the current through the lamp stays constant because the voltage across the lamp stays constant. However, the current decreases through the zener because the total current decreases. (d) To do this, you start at the worst case condition. (Worst case design is a common practice in electronics. It is used to ensure that equipment can work under the most adverse conditions.) The worst case here would occur when the generator puts out only 35 volts. Figure below shows the paths that current would take in this circuit. 26

You can choose any current you like, provided it is above a few milliamperes, and provided it does not cause the Zener diode to burn out. In this example, assume that the Zener current I Z is 0.5 amperes. v What is the total current through R ? I R = I L + I Z = 1.5 amperes + 0.5 amperes = 2 amperes . v Calculate the value of R . (V - VZ ) = 35 volts - 20 volts = 7.5 ohms R= S IR 2 amperes Notice: a different choice of I Z here would produce another value of R . (e) Because the lamp still has 20 volts across it, it can still draw only 1.5 amperes. But the total current and the zener current change. v Find the total current through R .

IR =

(VS - VZ ) = 50 volts - 20 volts = 4 amperes .

R 7.5 ohms

v Find the Zener current. I Z = I R - I L = 4 amperes - 1.5 amperes = 2.5 amperes . That means, Although the lamp voltage and current remain the same, the total current and the Zener current both changed ( I T and I R have increased by 2 amperes). However, the increase in I T flows through the Zener diode and not through the lamp. (f) The power dissipated by the Zener diode changes as the generator voltage changes. v Find the power dissipated when the generator voltage is 35 volts. PZ = V I = 20 volts 0.5 amperes = 10 watts . v Find the power dissipated when the generator voltage is 50 volts. PZ = V I = 20 volts 2.5 amperes = 50 watts . 27

That means, if you use a Zener diode with a power rating of 50 watts or more, it does not burn out.

Example Use figure below to answer the following question.

what power rating should the Zener diode have? The current and voltage ratings of the lamp are given. Solution: At 24 volts, assuming a Zener current of 0.5 amperes:

R=
At 60 volts:

V 24 volts - 15 volts 9 volts = = = 15.7 ohms . I 0.5 amperes + 0.075 amperes 0.575 amperes

IR =

(VS - VZ ) = 60 volts - 15 volts = 2.87 amperes . Therefore,

R 15.7 ohms
PZ = V I = 15 volts 2.8 amperes = 42 watts .

I Z 2.8 amperes .

11. Optoelectronic Diodes Light-emitting diode (LED)

One particularly useful kind of diode is the light-emitting diode (LED), which not only regulates current in a circuit but also emits light of a single wavelength in a very controlled way. LEDs that emit light of many different wavelengths have been manufactured, and they emit light much more efficiently than conventional incandescent bulbs do. In addition, they also can be powered by a digital power supply (5 V DC), since the voltage drop across the LED when it is on is about 2 V. Light intensity is measured in lumens. Light sources can be compared in terms of how many lumens they produce per watt of electrical power.

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A typical LED and its symbol are shown in figure below. Note that the anode or the positive terminal is the one that has a longer lead.

Figure 29.

or Light-emitting diode (Alciatore & Histand, 2012), p.87 and (Jouaneh, 2013), p.39.

Figure below shows a single-colour LED.

Figure 30.

The shorter lead of a typical single-colour LED is attached to the cathode (Shamieh & McComb, 2009), p.124.

Note: You should never connect an LED directly to a power source, or you may fry the LED instantly. Instead, use a resistor in series with the LED to limit the forward current. During the last decade, intensive research into LED technology has resulted in huge increases in the lumens per watt output for LEDs, reaching values of up to 130 to 170 lm/W. This compares very favourably with conventional incandescent lights (which are in the range from 5 to 20 lm/W), halogen lights (20 to 30 lm/W), and even fluorescent high-efficiency lights (30 to 95 lm/W). Prices for LEDs (in particular, white LEDs) are still comparatively high but are expected to decrease significantly. The United States uses over 100 billion kW h of electrical energy for lighting alone each year, which is approximately 10% of the total U.S. energy consumption. Universal use of LED lighting could save 70% to 90% of those 100 billion kW h, approximately the annual energy output of 10 nuclear power plants (~1 GW power each). LEDs are also used in large display screens, where high light output is desirable. Perhaps the most impressive of these was showcased during the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics (see figure below). It used 44,000 individual LEDs and measured an astounding 147 m by 22 m.

29

Figure 31.

Giant LED screen used during the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing (Bauer & Westfall, 2011), p.827.

Photodiode

Another form of a diode is the photodiode. A photodiode (see figure below for a symbol) behaves like an LED but in an opposite fashion. The amount of current that the photodiode passes is proportional to the amount of light it receives, and the current flows from the cathode to the anode (reverse biased). Photodiodes are commonly used as light sensors.

Figure 32. 12. Rating Your Diode

Symbol of a photodiode (Jouaneh, 2013), p.39.

Most diodes don't really have values like resistors and capacitors. A diode simply does its thing in controlling the on/off flow of electrons, without altering the shape or size of the electron flow. But that doesn't mean all diodes are the same. Standard diodes are rated according to two main criteria: peak reverse voltage (PRV) and current. v The PRV rating tells you the maximum reverse voltage the diode can handle before breaking down. v The current rating tells you the maximum forward current the diode can withstand without sustaining damage. 13. Identifying with Diodes Most diodes originating in North America are identified by five-or six-digit codes that are part of an industry-standard identification system. The first two digits are always "1N" for diodes: the "1" specifies the number of pn-junctions, the "N" signifies semiconductor, and the remaining three or four digits indicate specific features of the diode.

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A classic example is the series of rectifier diodes identified as 1N40xx, where xx could be 00,01, and so forth through o8. They are rated at 1 amp with PRV ratings ranging from 50 to 1,000V, depending on the xx number. For instance, the 1N4001 rectifier diodes is rated at 1A and 50V, and 1N4008 is rated at 1A from 50 to 1,000V. You can readily find such information in any catalogue of electronic components or cross-reference book of diode data, generally found online. Some diodes use the same colour-coding scheme on their packaging as resistors, but instead of translating the code into a value (such as resistance), the colour code simply gives you the semiconductor identification number for the diode. For example, the colour sequence "brownorange-red" indicates the numerical sequence "1-3-2" so the diode is a 1N132 germanium diode. Flowing are the PRVs of some common diodes:

Home Works
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Draw the circuit symbol for a diode, labelling each terminal. What semiconductor materials are used in the manufacture of diodes? Draw a circuit with a battery, a resistor, and a forward-biased diode. What is the current through a reverse-biased perfect diode? Draw a typical V-I curve of a forward-biased diode. In the circuit shown in figure below, VS = 10 volts and R = 100 ohms. Find the current through the diode, assuming a perfect diode. (Ge means germanium)

31

7. Calculate question 6 using these values: VS = 3 volts and R = 1 k . 8. In the circuit shown in figure below, find the current through the diode. ( VS = 10 volts, R1 = 10 k , and R2 = 1 k )

9. In the circuit shown in figure below, find the current through the Zener diode. ( VS = 20 volts, VZ = 10 volts , R1 = 10 k , and R2 = 2 k )

10. If the supply voltage for question 10 increases to 45 volts, what is the current in the Zener diode? 11. What is the maximum power dissipated for the diode in questions 9 and 10? References Alciatore, D. G., & Histand, M. B. (2012). Introduction to mechatronics and measurement systems (4th ed.). New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-007-108604-2. Bauer, W., & Westfall, G. D. (2011). University physics with modern physics. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-285736-8. Boysen, E., & Kybett, H. (2012). Complete electronics self-teaching guide with projects. 10475 Crosspoint Boulevard Indianapolis, IN 46256: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-1-11821732-0. 32

Jouaneh, M. (2013). Fundamentals of mechatronics. Stamford, CT, USA: Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-1-111-56901-3. Razavi, B. (2014). Fundamentals of microelectronics. River Street, Hoboken, NJ, USA: JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-1-118-15632-2. Shamieh, C., & McComb, G. (2009). Electronics for dummies (2nd ed.). River Street, Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley Publishing, Inc., ISBN 978-0-470-28697-5. Svoboda, J. A., & Dorf, R. C. (2014). Introduction to electric circuits (9th ed.). River Street, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-47750-2. Additional Readings: 1. pn-junction

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2. Short Circuit and Open Circuit The short circuit and open circuit are special cases of ideal sources. A short circuit is an ideal voltage source having v ( t ) = 0 . The current in a short circuit is determined by the rest of the circuit. An open circuit is an ideal current source having i ( t ) = 0 . The voltage across an open circuit is determined by the rest of the circuit. Figure below shows the symbols used to represent the short circuit and the open circuit.

Figure 33.

Left: open circuit; Right: short circuit (Svoboda & Dorf, 2014), p.30.

Notice that the power absorbed by each of these devices is zero. Open and short circuits can be added to a circuit without disturbing the branch currents and voltages of all the other devices in the circuit. Figure below shows how this can be done.

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Figure 34. (a) An example circuit; (b) Plus an open circuit and a short circuit; (c) The open circuit is replaced by a voltmeter, and the short circuit is replaced by an ammeter (Svoboda & Dorf, 2014), p.31. Figure above (a) shows an example circuit. In figure above (b) an open circuit and a short circuit have been added to this example circuit. The open circuit was connected between two nodes of the original circuit. In contrast, the short circuit was added by cutting a wire and inserting the short circuit. Adding open circuits and short circuits to a network in this way does not change the network. Open circuits and short circuits can also be described as special cases of resistors. A resistor with resistance R = 0 ( G = ) is a short circuit. A resistor with conductance G = 0 ( R = ) is an open circuit. 3. Zener and Avalanche Breakdown Zeber Breakdown

The depletion region in a pn-junction contains atoms that have lost an electron or a hole and, therefore, provide no loosely-connected carriers. However, a high electric field in this region may impart enough energy to the remaining covalent electrons to tear them from their bonds (see figure below (a)). Once freed, the electrons are accelerated by the field and swept to the n side of the junction. This effect occurs at a field strength of about 106 V / cm ( 1 V / m ). This effect called the "Zener effect", this type of breakdown appears for reverse bias voltages on the order of 3-8 V. In order to create such high fields with reasonable voltages, a narrow depletion region is required.

35

Figure 35.

(a) Release of electrons due to high electric field; (b) Avalanche effect (Razavi, 2014), p.54.

Avalanche Breakdown

Junctions with moderate or low doping levels ( < 1015 cm3 ) generally exhibit no Zener breakdown. But, as the reverse bias voltage across such devices increases, an avalanche effect takes place. Even though the leakage current is very small, each carrier entering the depletion region experiences a very high electric field and hence a large acceleration, thus gaining enough energy to break the electrons from their covalent bonds. Called "impact ionization", this phenomenon can lead to avalanche: each electron freed by the impact may itself speed up so much in the field as to collide with another atom with sufficient energy, thereby freeing one more covalent-bond electron. Now, these two electrons may again acquire energy and cause more ionizing collisions, rapidly raising the number of free carriers. An interesting contrast between Zener and avalanche phenomena is that they display opposite temperature coefficients (TCs): VBD has a negative TC for Zener effect and positive TC for avalanche effect. The two TCs cancel each other for VBD 3.5 V (breakdown). For this reason, Zener diodes with 3.5 V rating find application in some voltage regulators. The Zener and avalanche breakdown effects do not damage the diodes if the resulting current remains below a certain limit given by the doping levels and the geometry of the junction. Both the breakdown voltage and the maximum allowable reverse current are specified by diode manufacturers. 4. Rectifier

36