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Vectors in Physics and The Einstein Summation Convention

Gerardo Urrutia* 24 August 2013

*Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Aut onoma de M exico, Mexico D.F. 04510, M exico *geursan@ciencias.unam.mx Abstract: In this note is explained the Einstein convention for repeated indices in algebraic expressions. I also explain the physical signicance of vectors in covariant and contravariant form along with the respective rules for good algebraic treatment.

Introduction
In previous courses of algebra, we developed a sum with n components of the following form

In general, the expressions (1), (2) and (3) are not suitable for the physicists.

Vectors in Physics
The typical vector is the displacement vector, which points from one event to another and has components equal to the coordinate dierences:

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + + an xn =
i=1

ai xi

(1)

Einstein proposed a convention in the notation for x O (t, x, y, z ) (4) remove sigma symbol in the algebraic expressions, that is to say; when appears the expression ai xi it x is a vector having nothing particular to do with should be understood that the coordinate x, the arrow after x means has components, and the O underneath it means in ai xi = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + + an xn (2) the frame O; the components will always be in the order t, x, y, z (equivalently, indices in the order 0, 1, only when appear repeated indices in a algebraic ex- 2, 3). The notation O is used in order to emppression. The next example sample clearly this idea, hasize the distinction between the vector and its with aii xk and aijxj do so over the respective ranges components. The vector x is an arrow between two events, while the collection of components is a set of 1 i n and 1 j n. If n = 4 then four coordinate-dependent numbers. We shall always emphasize the notion of a vector (and, later, any tenaii xk = a11 xk + a22 xk + a33 xk + a44 xk (3) sor) as a geometrical object: something which can be dened and (sometimes) visualized without referring to a specic coordinate system. Another important aij xj = ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + ai3 x3 + ai4 x4 notation is 1

x O {x }

(5)

e3 O (0, 0, 0, 3)

where by {x } we mean all of x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , If we ask for this vectors components in anot- These denitions dene the basis vectors of the fra , we write her coordinate system, say the frame O has basis vectors me O. Similarly, O
x O {x }

(6) e0 O (1, 0, 0, 0) etc.

That is, we put a bar over the index to denote the new coordinates. The vector x is the same, and Generaly e 0 = e0 since they are dened in dierent no new notation is needed for it when the frame is frames. The denition of the basis vectors is equivachanged. Only the components of it change. lent to The vector structure do not depend of the coordinates, in this sense, they are similar to physical laws. These mathematical objects are in (e ) = (10) variant under linear transformations and it is always possible to nd such a transformation That is, the component of e is the Kronocker delta: 1 if = and 0 if = 3
x = =0 x

(7) Any vector can be expressed in terms of the basis vectors. If

with the Einstein convention only write


x = x

(8)

O A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 A

where is the rule of transformation. The simbol not is the only that may represent a linear trans- then formation.

A = A0 e0 + A1 e1 + A2 e2 + A3 e3

(11)

Basis Vectors
In any frame O there are four special vectors, dened by giving their components: e0 O (1, 0, 0, 0) A = A e For transformation of basis vectors

(12)

e1 O (0, 1, 0, 0)

(9)

e = e

(13)

e2 O (0, 0, 1, 0) 2

A development with more detail is available in [2].

Covariance and contravariance of vec- More about Einstein Convention tors


Covariance and contravariance describe how the quantitative description of certain geometric or physical entities changes with a change of basis. For holonomic bases, this is determined by a change from one coordinate system to another. When an orthogonal basis is rotated into another orthogonal basis, the distinction between co- and contravariance is invisible. However, when considering more general coordinate systems such as skew coordinates, curvilinear coordinates, and coordinate systems on dierentiable manifolds, the distinction is signicant. For a vector (such as a direction vector or velocity vector) to be basis-independent, the components of the vector must contra-vary with a change of basis to compensate. That is, the components must vary with the inverse transformation to that of the change of basis. The components of vectors (as opposed to those of dual vectors) are said to be contravariant. Examples of vectors with contravariant components include the position of an object relative to an observer With the previous considerations the la expression (3) becomes

a x = a00 x + a11 x + a22 x + a33 x

(16)

a x = a0 x0 + a 1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 Free and Dummy Indices In the equations (16), the expression a x involves two sorts of indices. The index of summation, , which ranges over the integers (0, 1, 2, 3) , cannot be preempted. But at the same time, it is clear that the use of the particular character is inessential; e.g. the expressions a x and a x represent exactly the same sum as a x does. For this reason, is called a dummy index. The index , which may take on particular value independently, is called a free index. Note that, although we call the index free in the expression a x , that freedom is limited in the sense that generaly, unless = a x = a x (17)

v = v e

(14)

For a dual vector (also called a covector) to be basisindependent, the components of the dual vector must Example Write down explicity the equations repre co-vary with a change of basis to remain representing sented by the expression y = a x . Holding the same covector. That is, the components must xed and summing over yields vary by the same transformation as the change of basis. The components of dual vectors (as opposed y = a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 (18) to those of vectors) are said to be covariant. Next, setting the free index leads to three separate equations : v = v e (15) y0 = a00 x0 + a01 x1 + a02 x2 + a03 x3 Examples of covariant vectors generally appear when taking a gradient of a function. In physics, vectors often have units of distance or distance times some other unit (such as the velocity), whereas covectors have units the inverse of distance or the inverse of distance times some other unit. 3 y1 = a10 x0 + a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 y2 = a20 x0 + a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3

(19)

y3 = a30 x0 + a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3

+...

Remarks
Any expression involving a twice-repeat index (occuring twice as subscript , twice as a superscript or once as a subscript and once once a superscript) shall automatically stand for its sum over the values (0, 1, 2, 3) of the repeated index. The range of this equations is 4. Remark 1: Any free index in a expression shall be have the same range as summation indices, unless stated otherwise. Remark 2: No index may occur more than twice in any given expression.

+ a03 x3 y 0 + a33 x3 y 3

Substitutions

Suppose it is re quired to substitute y = a x in the equation Q = b y x . Disregard of Remark 2 above would lead to an absurd expression like Q = b a x x . The correct procedure is rst to identify any dummy indices in the expression to be substituted that coincide with indices ocurring in the main expression. Changing these dummy indices to characteres not found in the main expression, Example (a) Acoording to Remark 2, an expression one may the carry out the substitution in the usual like a x is without meaning. (b) The meaningless fashion. expression a x x might be presumed to represent 2 a (x ) , which is meaningfull. (c) An expression of the form a (x + y ) or a (x + y ) is considered Step 1 Q = b y x and y = a x dummy index well-dened, for it is obtained by composition of the is duplicated. meaningful expressions a z and z = x + y . In Step 2 y = a x Change the dummy index from other words, the index is regarded as occuring once to . Step 3 Q = b (a x ) x = a b x x in the term (x + y ).

Double sums

Kronecker Delta

An expression can involve more than one summa tion index. For example, a x y indicates a sum =1 mation taking place on both and simultaneously. If an expression has two summation (dummy) indices, there will be a total of 42 or in general n2 terms =0 if in the sum; if there are three indices, there will n3 terms; and so on. The expansion of a x y can be arrived at logically by rst summing over , then Now for example over a x y = a0 x y 0 + a3 x y 3 before (20)
x x = x x = x1 2

(22)

+ x2

+ x3

(23)

Then we deduce the next rules


x x = x x

a x y = a00 x0 y 0 + a03 x0 y 3 + . . .

(21) 4

(24)

a x = a x

(25)

(a + a ) x y = 2a y x

Example Suppose that T = g a y and y = Listed below are several valid identities; they, and b x . If further a b = nd T in terms of the others like them, will be used repeatedly from now x . First write y = b x . Then, by substitution on. a (x + x ) = a x + a y (27)

T = g a b x = g x = g x

(26)

Rules of basic algebra


The following nonidentities should be carefully noted: a (x + x ) = a x + a y

a x y = a y x

(28)

a x x = a x x

(29)

(a + a ) x x = 2x x

(30)

a x y = a y x

(a a ) x x = 0

(31)

Referencias
[1] David C. Kay, Tensor calculus, Mc Graw Hill, USA, 1998 [2] Bernard Schutz, A rst course in General Relativity, 2 ed, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2009 [3] W. Hauser, Introduction to the Principles of Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, USA, 2007

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