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Chapter 11 - Robotics in Manufacturing Processes Introduction SECTION 11.1 Robots and Robotics SECTION 11.

2 Robots in Manufacturing Chapter 11 Review and Assess

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ESSENTIAL QUESTION How can robots improve the efficiency of a manufacturing facility? Automobile manufacturers have used assembly lines to build cars and trucks since the early part of the twentieth century. Starting in the 1970s, many production facilities have included automated systems, or robots, that can perform many tasks. Today, millions of industrial robots worldwide have been incorporated into manufacturing systems. In many processes, robots have replaced humans in jobs that are particularly hazardous or repetitive. In automotive plants, robots often perform spot welding and spray painting tasks with higher efficiency than skilled human workers. These jobs are particularly hazardous, exposing workers to dangerous equipment or chemicals. Despite some predictions made decades ago, robots have not taken over all manufacturing jobs. It turns out that many complex tasks require human judgment and dexterity. Future improvements in mechanical design and computer control will expand the range of applications for robots. While robots will replace workers in some jobs, they also create new jobs in designing and manufacturing the robots themselves and for programmers and technicians to operate and maintain them.

Industrial Robots - These bright yellow robots can handle many repetitive jobs more efficiently than humans. Name another reason you think robots might be used instead of human workers. Photo Credit: Stockbyte/Getty Images STANDARDS TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY ITEEA STL 7 Students will develop an understanding of the influence of technology on history. DESIGN ITEEA STL 10 Students will develop an understanding of the role of troubleshooting, research and development, invention and innovation, and experimentation in problem solving. THE DESIGNED WORLDITEEA STL 19 Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use manufacturing technologies. SCIENCE NSES E Students should develop abilities of technological design, understandings about science and technology. COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS MATHEMATICS Geometry Geometric Measurement and Dimension Explain volume formulas and use them to solve problems. LANGUAGE ARTS Reading Craft and Structure Interpret words and phrases as they are used in the text, including determining technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone.

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Reading Guide - Before You Read How are robots used in industry and manufacturing? What are some similarities and differences between human workers and robots? Objectives

Compare robots with other machines and devices. Describe the parts of a robot. Summarize the history of robots and the field of robotics. Describe how robots are used in manufacturing. Evaluate the ways that robots differ from human-operated tools.

Main Idea Main Idea Robots are used in most manufacturing industries. Robots can help make processes move more smoothly and efficiently. However, robotic processes have not been able to replace all manufacturing processes. Humans still need to do many manufacturing processes. Reading Strategy 1. Use the notebook feature in to write down the colored headings from Chapter 11. 2. As you read the text, visualize what you are reading. 3. Reflect on what you read by writing a few sentences under each heading to describe it. 4. Continue this process until you have finished the chapter. Use your notes to review key concepts. Go online to Vocabulary Content Vocabulary robot control system actuator manipulator feedback loop robotics kinematics biomimetics end effector degree of freedom robot control for downloadable graphic organizers.

Academic Vocabulary

obstacle versatility autonomous configuration articulated

Chapter 11 - Robotics in Manufacturing Processes Introduction SECTION 11.1 Robots and Robotics SECTION 11.2 Robots in Manufacturing Chapter 11 Review and Assess

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SECTION 11.1 Robots and Robotics What Is a Robot? When you think of a robot, you may picture it having a humanoid (human-like) shape and moving in ways that make it seem alive, such as dancing. (See Figure 11.1) Or you might have thought of a mechanical arm on an assembly line. In either case, you are thinking of a robot. Robots come in hundreds or thousands of shapes and forms, depending on their intended purpose. More than a million robots work in manufacturing plants around the world, handling jobs that are dangerous or boring for humans. Others explore deep in the ocean, inside volcanoes, and even on the surface of Mars. Thousands of homes and businesses, particularly in Japan, are cleaned every night by vacuum-cleaning robots that navigate through rooms on their own as they clean the carpet.

Figure 11.1 Robot Variety - Robots come in all shapes and sizes. Some mimic humans, but most are built to do certain tasks, such as vacuuming the floor or exploring a volcano. Suppose you designed a robot to kick a football. What would it look like? Photo Credit: (Tl) Oleksiy Maksymenko Photography/Alamy, (bl) Bill Ingalls/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images, (br) KAZUHIRO NOGI/AFP/Getty Images

What makes a device a robot? While there is no single definition that is universally accepted, there are key elements that separate robots from other machines or devices. A robot can be defined as a programmable system that can sense its environment, compute actions, and act on the environment to perform a task or achieve a goal.

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Parts of a Robot Parts of a Robot - Many kinds of machines can perform a task or achieve a goal but they are not necessarily robots. For example, an automobile performs the task of transporting you from one place to another. Many of the car's functions can even sense or respond to the environment, such as when the car senses that it is dark and turns on its headlights. A car known as Junior, built by engineers at Stanford University, operates without a driver. (See Figure 11.2) It senses its position and locates objects around it using GPS, lidar (light detecting and ranging), and radar. Its computers plan a route and direct the car to a destination. Junior won a prize for completing the DARPA Urban Challenge, a 132-mile challenge course without human intervention. Based on our definition, Junior is definitely a robot.

Figure 11.2 Driver Not Required - Junior is not a normal car. This self-directed car can maneuver around obstacles and even find an alternate route when the road is blocked. How is Junior different from a car that has GPS technology that avoids traveling too closely to another car? Photo Credit: Damian Dovarganes/AP Images What features of Junior make it a robot? The robot must be programmable so that it can function independent of human control. Therefore, the robot needs a control system, the system that allows it to analyze its environment and respond. Junior's control system is the computer hardware and software working with sensors to make decisions about routing and avoiding obstacles and other vehicles.

In order to sense the environment, the robot needs some type of sensor, a device that obtains information about its surroundings or information about a robot's own status. The sensor emulates human senses, using light, sound, or touch by means of devices such as cameras, microphones, and physical probes. Junior uses reflected radio waves (radar) and reflected laser beams (lidar) to sense both stationary and moving objects nearby. Its GPS analyzes signals from satellites and information in its own computer to monitor its location.

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In order to respond, the robot must have an actuator, a mechanism that allows it to move or to manipulate objects. For mobility, an actuator includes a source of power, such as a motor, and mechanisms that produce some kind of motion, such as wheels or legs. Junior is a mobile robot, using an internal combustion engine to provide power. For handling objects, an actuator includes a power source and one or more manipulators. Manipulators are devices such as arms, grippers, and other tools that can move objects. Unlike many industrial robots, Junior does not have arms or hands to move objects. Many robots, including Junior, use their sensors, controller, and actuator to continually monitor and adjust their position or the position of their manipulators. In a feedback loop information is used to make adjustments, which produces new information and adjustments. (See Figure 11.3)

Figure 11.3

Robotic System - A robotic system contains the same parts as other technology systemsinputs, processes, and outputs. One unique input is the programmed instructions. A robotic system also includes feedback, provided by the sensors, which causes changes in the instructions. What parts of this system make up the process portion? The output portion? Check It Out! Describe the purpose of an actuator.

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Development of Robotics The science and technology of robots is called robotics. Robotics combines a number of different fields of knowledge, including mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, industrial engineering, and computer science. Robotics integrates all of the various functional parts to form a system, which is the working robot. (See Figure 11.4) The development of robotics has been closely aligned to the development of computers because robots need the ability to make decisions.

Figure 11.4 Industrial Robot Development - An integrated mechanical arm and tool with a sensor, computer control, and user input device form a complete robot. What might change for one robot to do more than one task? Robotics engineers need to understand how robots move. For example, your hand and wrist have 22 joints, or degrees of freedom. A robotic arm usually has only up to six degrees of freedom. However, while robots have fewer joints, their wrists also have a greater range of motion. For example, your wrist can only bend about 165 degrees, but a robot's wrist can spin 360 degrees. Robotics engineers must think about the physics of circular motion when designing robots of all types.

Photo Credit: Business Wire/Getty Images Publicity/Getty Images

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Raise your hand slowly from below the plane of your desk and pick up a pen on it. As you perform this action, think about how each joint of your armshoulder, elbow, and wristmoves in order to position your hand just right. Robot engineers need to consider every such motion in great detail in order to design a system that functions in response to a command from the controller. Kinematics is the study of how an actuator motion translates into a motion of the manipulator. In your arm, each joint is attached to several actuators, which you know as muscles. The joints in a robotic arm are controlled by actuators such as motors or hydraulic systems. Just as your arm has several different types of joints that function in different ways to position your hand, robots use different types of joints to move a manipulator. Each joint must be controlled by one or more actuators. Robots Today and Tomorrow Robots Today and Tomorrow True robots have not been in use for very long. The first industrial robot, known as Unimate, was installed in a General Motors factory in the early 1960s. (See Figure 11.5) Its instructions were coded on a magnetic drum instead of a computer and its function was to pick up parts and move them to different locations.

Figure 11.5

First Industrial Robot - This rather simple looking robot dropped red-hot metal die-castings into cooling liquid before they were passed down the assembly line for hand finishing. What is one reason a robot was better than a person for this job? Photo Credit: Science & Society Picture Library/SSPL/Getty Images Today, in addition to moving materials around, robots in many industries perform jobs such as welding, assembly, and painting. In general, these robots are fixed in one position and do the same job over and over. They are adaptable, however, and can be configured to handle different kinds of parts and assemble various complex objects. Advances in the design of sensors, such as digital cameras for vision, have increased the number of applications that robots can handle and expanded their versatility. In many cases, they can learn to handle new tasks without a need for reprogramming by humans. Connect Career Center Robotics Engineer People have always been fascinated by robots. Robots have been designed to perform tasks in every field, and their use becomes more common every day. The people that design, program, and service robots are called robotics engineers. Robotics engineers need to understand how to design and build the robots, as well as program them to do the tasks that they have been designed to do. One place for interested potential robotics engineers is robotics competitions. Uses for robots are growing as engineers and computer scientists develop the ability to design more complex robotic systems. Robots can handle hazardous materials in chemical manufacturing plants and produce semiconductors in clean factories where even a small amount of dust tracked in by workers could shut down production. They also explore places where humans cannot travel, such as deep in the ocean, inside volcanoes, and even inside a damaged nuclear power plant. These robots take advantage of another recent technology that will continue to advance new applicationswireless communications. As robots become increasingly able to operate without human direction, they have found jobs in military operations and space exploration. Two Mars rovers built by NASA began exploring the Martian surface in 2004. (See Figure 11.6) Using solar power, they maneuvered around obstacles and analyzed rock and soil, sending their results back to Earth, tens of millions of miles away. One of the rovers explored until it became stuck in soft soil in 2009. Scientists lost contact with it in 2010. The mission was a great success since the rovers were originally expected to function for three months. Autonomous robots, like the rovers, may find many future applications in other places where they can work better than humans. For example, researchers are developing robots that can search for survivors inside buildings that have collapsed during an earthquake.

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Figure 11.6 Exploring Robots - Each of the Mars rovers had the mobility and toolkit to function as a geologist. What other uses of robots can you think of for space exploration? Photo Credit: Purestock/SuperStock Surgeons today use robots as surgical assistants, reducing the size of incisions needed in operations and speeding healing. Biomedical robots can also help to personalize physical therapy and improve mobility of people with disabilities. The science of robotics is likely to touch your life in many ways in the future. Think about how advances in communication, transportation, and computer science have affected people's lives over the last few generations. Robots are likely to have similar effects on future generations. 11.1 Check Your Understanding Perform the following tasks. 1. Explain how the sensors, controller, and actuators of a robot work together in a feedback loop. 2. Analyze the ways that industrial robots have changed employment in heavy manufacturing industries, such as automotive manufacturing. 3. Evaluate the role of advances in computer science and engineering in the development of robotics.

Extend - Develop Communication Skills Speaking - Research the history of robotics. Create a verbal timeline to accompany photos downloaded from the Internet and present your timeline to the class. Section 11.1 Review Chapter 11- Robotics in Manufacturing Processes Introduction SECTION 11.1 Robots and Robotics SECTION 11.2 Robots in Manufacturing Chapter 11 Review and Assess

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SECTION 11.2 Robots in Manufacturing Robotic Manufacturing Processes The main value of robots in a manufacturing plant is that they can perform a function over and over again with high precision for many years. Although robots can be reprogrammed, manufacturing robots generally stay on a single task for long periods of time. Why? It turns out that the costs of programming, setting up or modifying a work cell, and installing different manipulators can actually be much higher than the cost of the robot itself. That means a loss of the very factors that make robots so useful in the first place. While many non-industrial robots are mobile, the majority of manufacturing robots mainly function as an arm that is fixed in place. (See Figure 11.7) These fixed robots are ideal for operating in assembly lines and work cells because they can perform their function and pass material to the next station.

Figure 11.7 One-Track Mind - Most industrial robots operate from a fixed position and repeat the same series of tasks over and over. In this case the robot is assembling parts of a truck cab. What do you think would happen if a truck cab did not move into position? Would the robot do its preprogrammed job? Photo Credit: Edward Rozzo/CORBIS Industrial robots have continually evolved since they were first introduced. Compare the robots in the photograph to the photo of Unimate shown in the last section. Recall that Unimate moved small parts from one place to another. Modern arms can lift heavy loads, move them into many different positions, and make extremely precise changes to them. Behind this evolution, there are many engineering accomplishments, including the development of transistors and microprocessors, improved joint materials, and smaller, more powerful motors. Connection Green reSource Robotics and Energy Robotics is one of the fastest growing sciences. It combines an understanding of physical materials, computer programming, and the biological sciences. One of the benefits of using robots to perform certain tasks is that energy usage can often be controlled more efficiently. At the New York City Lego Competition, aspiring robotics engineers needed to find a way to program a robot to complete tasks while controlling the amount of energy the robot used.

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Driving the Parts Driving the Parts The structure of many robots is inspired by living structures. This is called biomimetics. For example, the arm in a manufacturing work cell may resemble a human arm in the way it manipulates tools and materials. In order to do work, the robot arm needs components that correspond to the muscles and nerves of the living arm. An actuator is the mechanism that causes the parts of the robot to move and interact with its environment. Actuators include motors, solenoids, and hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. Some systems use servo motors, which are electric motors connected to a shaft that can be driven to a set point. Each movable part of the arm has a connection to an actuator. The part of the manipulator that is used to handle objects or used to effect the environment is called the end effector. An example of an end effector on your arm is the hand that picks up and throws a ball across a field. You interact with the ball through your hand. The choice of end effector on a robot is determined by its task. Manipulation of objects usually requires a gripper that can close on the object, move it, then release it in place. Many automotive robots have welding torches, arc welders, or paint sprayers at the end of its arm. Some use tools such as drills or sanders as end effectors. Many robots have interchangeable tool sets that give them versatility. (See Figure 11.8)

Figure 11.8 Manipulating Objects - The shape of the end effector on the manipulator determines how efficiently a robot can complete a task. Which of these robots do you think is involved in heart surgery? Photo Credit: (tl) Simon Belcher/Alamy, (tr) Medical Health Care/Alamy Check It Out! Relate the function of the end effector to the task

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Types of Industrial Robots One of the most useful ways to classify industrial robotic arms is based on the type of joints and how parts move around them. A joint is a connection between two parts of the structure that allows them to move relative to one another. Different arm configurations serve different purposes. The most common configurations are cylindrical, rectangular, spherical, and articulated. (See Figure 11.9) Other, less common configurations as well as hybrid configurations that combine two or more designs also exist.

Figure 11.9 Common Robot Configurations - Robotic arms are typically in one of these configurations. In how many ways can each robot move? Degrees of Freedom Degrees of Freedom - The type and degree of motion available to an arm is determined by the number of degrees of freedom of motion that its joints allow. A degree of freedom (DOF) is the ability to move in a certain direction. The six possible motions are movement along the three Cartesian coordinates (sometimes called the x-, y- and z-axes) and rotation around each axis. For example, your arm has seven degrees of freedom: the shoulder rotates in three axes, the wrist rotates in one axis and it moves up/down and left/right, and the elbow bends in one axis.

Connection CONNECTION The Geometry of Robots How do robots move? Like humans, robots have degrees of freedom. In robotics, this refers to a robot's ability to move in a particular direction. Each degree of freedom requires a separate joint. You can find the size of a robotic arm's degree of freedom, or work envelope, by finding the volume of the sphere in which the robotic arm works.

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The cylindrical configuration has three degrees of freedom: up and down on the upright arm, in and out of the horizontal arm, and rotation in one axis around the upright arm. The locations that can be reached by the end of the arm describe a cylinder around the central shaft. (See Figure 11.10) An additional degree of freedom can be added to the arm by installing a gripper that can rotate. This configuration is often used for operations that involve welding and handling materials by moving them from one place to another. Cylindrical robots generally have a longer reach than similar sized robots with other configurations.

Figure 11.10 Degrees of Freedom - The name of the cylindrical robot comes from the shape of the region in which its manipulator can be located. What are the three degrees of freedom of the robot shown? The three-DOF rectilinear arm has one joint that moves back and forth along each axis. The shape of the accessible area is a rectangular solid. Because it does not have any rotational joints, this is a very strong configuration. Rectilinear robots are better able to lift and move heavy loads compared to other configurations.

The three joints of the spherical configuration also provide three DOF. However, because two of the joints are rotational, the shape of accessible space is spherical. The configuration is useful for robots that do welding and that handle machine tools. Articulated robots generally have four or six rotational joints. Each joint provides an additional degree of freedom, so a six-joint configuration is very versatile. It allows the tool to approach the same points as the spherical configuration, but the articulated robot can reach points from any direction while the spherical one can only reach outward. Articulated robots have the greatest dexterity of any configuration so they are very common in manufacturing applications. However, the articulated robot's arrangement of multiple joints is not as strong as some other configurations, so articulated robots cannot handle heavy loads.

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Sensors Sensors The primary task of the robot, in most jobs, is to get the end effector into the correct position. For a robot to operate autonomously, it must be able to sense its environment and then react to it. Without the ability to sense, it is not a robot. A sensor is a physical device that measures some quantity, such as size, distance, pressure, or acceleration and transmits the measurement to the control system. (See Figure 11.11)

Figure 11.11 Sensors - this robot submarine record the effects of global warming at Australia's Great Barrier Reef. What kind of sensors do you think this robot might include? Photo Credit: TORSTEN BLACKWOOD/AFP/Getty Images

Two or more types of sensors work together within a robotic system. First, the robot must be able to detect its own position and motion. Second, it must be able to measure the position and motion of the object with which it is to interact. Most industrial robots integrate information from two or more sensors in order to obtain enough information to make decisions. These sensor systems can include combinations such as strain and inclination measurements to determine the location of the robot itself along with ultrasound reflection and bump detectors to precisely locate an object to be moved. Human vision is a very complex sensor system, incorporating stereoscopic relationships, color, and complex analysis of motion. Some modern robots use cameras and other light sensitive detectors to simulate vision. This requires very complex sensors and a significant amount of processing. Because of these demands, robot designers tend to avoid visual sensing when there are simpler alternatives. Page 195 Control Control Many robots differ from human-operated tools and differ from purely automated tools that perform the same action repeatedly with no ability to adjust to changes. The difference lies in the robot's ability to control its own responses to its environment. Robot control refers to the way in which sensors and actuators are coordinated by the robot's computer. The programming of robots can be very complex but it must be based on the interaction between sensors, manipulators, and the environment. A robot is programmed to adjust to changes that it detects with its sensors. It may adjust to the change by calculating a needed change in the manipulator or it may shut down and signal for help. (See Figure 11.12) In either case, the control program directs the robot's action based on input from internal and external sensors.

Figure 11.12 Robot Control - Robots respond to changes in the environment. Their reactions may involve artificial intelligence. How is using artificial intelligence different from following a program? Some modern robots are programmed to learn how to compute and adapt to changes based on their previous experience. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the science of making computers do things that require the ability to perceive changes and make inferences. Currently, artificial intelligence research has helped robotics engineers build self-controlled cars that can navigate on open roads. It is unlikely, however, that AI systems will be able to duplicate human intelligence in the near future.

11.2 Check Your Understanding Perform the following tasks. 1. Explain why a robotic arm needs more than one actuator. 2. Analyze the role of sensors in allowing a robotic arm to place products into open chambers in a package. 3. Evaluate what factors an engineer would have to consider in determining the best configuration for an industrial robot. Extend Develop Communication Skills Listening Discuss with a classmate the pros and cons of artificial intelligence in robots. Listen carefully to his or her points and develop counterpoints. Section 11.2 Review Chapter 11 - Robotics in Manufacturing Processes Introduction SECTION 11.1 Robots and Robotics SECTION 11.2 Robots in Manufacturing Chapter 11 Review and Assess

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CHAPTER 11 Think Like an Engineer Engineering Design Process: Design a Robotic Arm Design Brief Robots and robotic devices are not just for manufacturing automobiles or exploring volcanoes. People with disabilities due to stroke, cerebral palsy, and other neurological damage can benefit from robots as well. A robotic arm might dispense water to someone unable to raise his or her own arms or grasp a dropped pencil when the brain no longer makes connections to the muscles. 1. Identify a Problem or Opportunity 1. Identify a Problem or Opportunity As part of an engineering team, you will prototype a design for a robotic arm that solves a problem for someone who is unable to grasp or move his or her arms. Working drawings must be provided with your finished model. Make a full-sized model out of cardboard or other materials for your finished design. Your team should define the specific task to be accomplished by the robotic arm. Write a problem statement that describes both the problem and your goal.

2. Define the Project Constraints 2. Define the Project Constraints You will prototype a robotic arm that has at least two degrees of motion. Your robotic arm cannot be more than eighteen inches tall. Your team should create at least two strategies for how the arm might work. Any tools and materials used must be approved by your teacher. 3. Research and Brainstorming 1. With your team, discuss possible solutions. It may help to research robotics motion further. Ask: What kind of object might our robot need to grasp? How can we cause the robot to move? What kinds of materials do we need? 2. Brainstorm ways of creating motion in a robotic arm. Make sketches or work in a computer drawing program. 3. Do a preliminary evaluation of the robot designs by comparing them to the given constraints. 4. Development and Prototyping 1. Propose designs and choose among them. Choose the design that will be the most comfortable and efficient for your classmates. 2. Implement your proposed solution. Decide on the process you will use for making the model or prototype. Gather any tools or materials you may need. Consider using materials such as craft sticks, string, glue, wire, fishing line, cardboard, and tape. Small motors might also be used. 3. Design the model or prototype of your robotic arm design. Build your model. 5. Testing, Analysis, and Optimization 1. Analyze your chosen solution and its consequences. Ask: Does your model work as intended? What positive feedback have you received from your classmates? 2. Refine your design. Based on your evaluation, change the design of your robotic arm if needed. 3. Create the final design. After any changes or improvements take place, build your final model. 6. Evaluation and Presentation 6. Evaluation and Presentation Communicate your processes and present your finished model to the class. Demonstrate how the model works. Be prepared to answer questions. When you turn in your assignment to your teacher, be sure to include your definition of the problem, a description of how you solved the problem, and your final model of your robotic arm.

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Connect Activity Center Go to the Activity Center to review chapter vocabulary. Main Ideas

A robot can be defined as a programmable system that can sense its environment, compute actions, and act on the environment to perform a task or achieve a goal. The main value of manufacturing robots is that they can perform a function many times with extreme precision. Robots are different from hand-operated tools because robots are able to control their responses to the environment.

Understanding Concepts 1. 2. 3. 4. What is robotics? How are robots used in auto manufacturing? What part of a robot helps it to obtain information about its surroundings? Describe robotic surgery. How is it different than when human doctors perform the surgery?

Thinking Critically 1. Describe What are five environments where robots could be used in place of humans for scientific work? 2. Analyze Look at the photo of the robot spot welding in an auto manufacturing plant. How does the robot help to improve safety in the factory? 3. Evaluate Why has the development of robotics been so closely tied to the development of computers? 4. Explain Why do robotics engineers generally avoid visual sensing when designing robots?

Photo Credit: Simon Belcher/Alamy Problem Solving 1. Math If a robotic arm can move in a rectangle 14 inches on the y-axis, 10 inches on the x-axis, and 12 inches on the z-axis, what is the size of its work envelope? 2. Apply Suppose you are a robotics engineer who is designing a robot to help in the school cafeteria. Think about the tasks you would like the robot to perform. Draw a sketch of the robot and label the parts that would perform each needed function in the cafeteria. Ch 11 Review

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