Psychogenesis of Psychology Ancient Man has tried to explain behavior since time immemorial.

Although man is is not quite aware that they are utilizing psychology the most, the most common way of explaining behavior during the Ancient times is the use of animism. Essentially it is the gods and spirits who were attributed to be the direct cause of events and activities of man. Greek Period Psychology began with tha ancient Greeks' earlist quest for the knowledge of human nature. Democritus (460-370BCE) theorized the human mind is composed of atoms, which penetrate in and out of our system. Plato (428/427-348/347 BCE) believed that the soul is distinct to man and it is God-given. Thus, it inhibits the body as "knower," "thinker" and "determiner" of the individual's actions. Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) is conseened as the father of psychology because he is the first person to put into writing his explanation pertaining the behavior of man. He introduced the three functions of the soul: vegetative which deals with the basic maintenance of lif; appetitive, which focuses on the desire and motives; and the rational, governs reason that is located in the heart. According to the belief of Aristotle the brain is merely a gland and would perform minor functions. Hippocrates (460-370 BCE), the father of medicine, first theorized that mental disorders arose from natural causes. He was also the first to classify different mental disorders during the classical period. Galen (129-216 AD) theorized the relation of temperament to physiological factors. According to Galen, behavior maybe attributed to the "humors" or vital juices of the body or the bile. The temperament corresponds as sanguine (yellow bile) for cheerfulness, phlegmatic (green bile) for sluggishness, melancholic (black bile) for saddness, and choleric (red bile) for irascibility. Medieval Period St. Augustine of Hippo, a Catholic saint, combined the Greek Platonic thought with Christian thinking and introduced the method of introspection. In this method, the individual tries to discribe his own mental processes. St. Thomas of Aquinas merged Aristotle's idea that the mind is a living matter to his idea of immortality. This is the belief that when the body dies the soul seperates and become a spirit. Pre-modern Period In 1590, German scholastic philosopher, Rudolf Gockel (1547-1628) is often attributed for the initial use of the term "psychology" in his writing. "Yucologia hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu."

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) first proposed that psychology should seperate from philosophy and should be treated as a natural science. This is his concept of naturalism. Rene Descartes (1649) introduced the idea of dualism and the concept of reflex action which indicates that the mind and body interact. The mind is the spiritual entity and the body is the physical or material entity. Although, they are considered to be distinct and seperate, they work together to make the individual functional. According to Thomas Hobbes (1651) human beings are physical objects and sophisticated machines whose functions and activities can be describe and explained in purely mechanistic terms. John Locke (1690) in his writing An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , introduced the idea that all experiences may be analyzed. He also linked the idea on his concept of Tabula Rasa of which at birth, the mind is ylike a blank tablet that gathers its content through the experiences that an individual will have in his entire life. George Berkly(1709) In his theory of knowledge reiterated that your ideas become the only reality. Therefore, the idea of an individual becomes true only to himself because this is the level of knowledge that he believed in. Christian Von Wolff (1732) had his theory of reality which is broadly devided into two parts: ontology, which treats of possible things, and metaphysics, which treats of actual things. Metaphysics itself has three special subject: the universe, the soul and God. David Hume (1748) gave the difference between empressions and ideas, between created images and direct sensation. Franz Anton Mezmer (1774) utilized the method of "animal magnetism" in curing hysteria. Immanuel Kant (1782) stated that the mind is not blank, but rather, the mind is capable of acquiring knowledge through sensory experiences. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1816) was responsible for making psychology as a science. Ernst Weber (1817) pioneered areas about the ideas that is necessary to be stimulated in order to be able to gain sensation. Modern Psychology Wihelm Wundt establish the first psychological laboratory in leipzig, Germany. He was regarded as the father of the modern/scientific psychology.

William James the founder of American psychology, met with Wilhelm Wundt and went on to publish a two volume book Principles of Psychology. Emil Kraeplin a German psychiatrist, was the first to formally describe bipolar disorder. He coined the term "maniac depressive" to explain mania and depression affect the patient. Edward Titchner studied under Wilhelm Wundt and went on to develop the idea of Stuturalism. Contemporary Psychology Sigmund Freud the father of psychoanalysis who underwent a thorough study of the unconscious mind and developed the psychoanalytic process of free association. Carl Jung a very close associate of Freud who developed his theory of the origin of neurosis. Alfred Adler is another Neo-Freudian who conceptualized the importance of superiority and inferiority as a factor that affects man's existence. Karen Horney made the theory that human beings have the "basic need for love and security". Karl Pearson had his major contribution to psychology through thje statistical evaluation of human behavior. Charles Spearman is recognized as the "first systematicpsychometrician" and father of natural test theory. Alfred Binet and Theodore Simondeveloped the first Intelligence Quotient (IQ test). Ivan Pavlov a Russian physiologist whose research on the physiology of digestion led to the development of first experimental model of learning, Classical Conditioning. William McDougall is considered by some to have been the foremost psychologist of all English-speaking countries. Edward Thorndlike the father of educational psychology. BF Skinner contributed the system of operant conditioning. Schools of Psychology Structuralism. It is grew out of the work of James Wundt, and their associates. These psychologists believed the chief purpose of psychology was to describe, analyze, and explain conscious experience, particularly feelings and sensations. Structuralist believes in the importance of the structure of the mind.

Functionalism. John Dewey, William James, James Rowland Angell, and Harvey Carr spearheaded the group which tried to retract the idea of structuralism. The group, who calls themselves as functionalist challenge the idea of presented by structuralism by stating the importance of the function of the mind rather than the structure of the mind. Behaviorism. John Watson, an American psychologist introduced Behaviorism in 1913. Watson and his followers believed that observable behavior, not inner experience, was the only reliable source of information. This concentration on observable events was a reaction against the structuralists emphasis on introspection. The behaviorists also stressed the importance of the environment in shaping the individuals behavior. Gestalt. Just like the other movement developed as a reaction against structuralism. Founded about 1912 by Max Wertheimer, a German psychologist, Gestalt literally means to configure or to form a pattern. Instead of individual sensations, Gestalt psychologists believed that the human beings are other animals perceive the external world as an organized pattern. Psychoanalysis. Was founded during the late 1800s and early 1900s by the Australian doctor Sigmund Freud. It was based on the theory that behavior is determined by powerful inner forces, most of which are buried in the unconscious mind. Cognitive Psychology. Is a theoretical perceptive that focuses in the realms of human perception, thought, and memory. It portrays learners as active processors of information - a metaphor borrowed from the computer world and assigns critical role to the knowledge and perceptive students bring to their learning. Existentialist Psychology. From this new Humanistic 3rd force grew existential psychology. Existentialist psychology started from Humanistic Psychologys focus in human condition and took it to an extreme. Humanistic. Believing that psychoanalysis and behaviorism were guilty of neglecting significant and unique aspects of the human condition. Humanistic psychology called upon romantic and existential ideas to restore the creative, healthy emotional side of humanity. The humanists also sought to create a more non directive from the therapy that gave the client stronger feelings of self-efficacy and choice both in therapy and in their lives. Major Branches of Psychology Abnormal Psychology. It is a branch of psychology that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. Behavioral Psychology. Also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.

Biopsychology. A branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain influences behavior. Cognitive Psychology. The branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. Comparative Psychology. Is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. Developmental Psychology. Branch of psychology looks at development throughout the lifespan from childhood to adulthood. Educational Psychology. Is the branch of psychology concerned with schools teaching psychology, educational issues, and student concerns. Experimental Psychology. Is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the brain and behavior. Personality Psychology. Is the branch of psychology focused on the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Social Psychology. It seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks and diverse topics including group behavior, social interaction, leadership, nonverbal communication, and social influences on decision-making. Subfields in Psychology Clinical Psychologist. Gives assessment and treat mental, emotional and behavioral disorders. Cognitive and Perceptual Psychologist. Study human perception, thinking and memory. They are also inclined to the study of reasoning, judgement and decision making. Couseling Psychologist. Help people recognize their strengths and resorces to cope woth their problems. Counseling psychoologist do counseling/psychotherapy, teaching, and scientific research with individuals of all ages, families, and organizations. Developmental Psychologist. Study the psychological development of the human being that takes place throughout life.. Educational Psychologist. Concentrate on the study and research of effectiveness on how teaching and learning take place. Engineering Psychologist. Conduct researches on how people work best with machines.

Evolutionary Psychologist. Study how evolutionary principles such as mutation, adaptation, and selective fitness influence human thought, feeling, and behavior. Experimental Psychologist. Are interested in a wide range of psychological phenonmena, including cognitive processes, comparative psychology, learning and conditioning, and psychophysics. Forensic Psychologist. Apply psychological principles to legal issues. Health Psychologist. Specialize in how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness. Industrial/Organizational Psychologist. Apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace in the interest of improving productivity and the quality of work of life. Neuropsychologist and Behavioral Neuropsychologist. Explore the relationships between brain systems and behavior. Quantitative and Measurement Psychologist. Focus on the methods and techniques for designing experiments and analyzing psychological data. Rehabilitation Psychologist. Work with stroke and accident victims, people with mental retardation, and those with the developmental disabilities caused by such conditions as cerebral palsy,epilepsy, and autism. School Psychologist. Work directly with public and private schools . Social Psychologist. Study how a person's mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with other people. Sports Psychologist. Help athletes refine their focus on competition goals, become more motivated, and learn to deal with the anxiety and fear of failure that often accompany competition. Methods of Psychology The study of different method is found to be very essential in the field of psychology. A chemist preparing chemicals for a product would have to familiarize herself with the different tools in order to perform the operation satisfactorily. This would imply the different instruments that she will be utilizing to make the event successful. As a psychology practitioner, it is important that he or she is familiar with the different methods of psychology so he would be effective in administering and interpret certain human behavior. Controlled Experiments

Psychology as a science is based on systematic gathering of facts and data and one way of gathering information is through experiments. An experimental psychological research is usually conducted in a laboratory under condition that is controlled. Animal Studies Animal learning experiments are important in different aspects of psychology. It may prove useful in investigatingand accumulating proofs is the biological bais of learning, memory, and behavior. Qualitative and Descriptive Research In the study of Jane Goodall, about the role of chimpanzee's social and family life, psychologists conduct similar observational studies in human's social, professional, and family lives. Survey Questionnaires The method is commonly used in applied setting, such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment. Commonly, psychology practitioners utilize the tradition paper-and-pencil surveys. Longitudinal Studies A longitudinal study is a research method which observes a particular population over certain period of time. Neuropsychological Methods Nueropsychological involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either brain injury or mental illness. Computational Modeling Computational modeling is a tool often used in mathematical psychology and cognitie psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. The Beginning of Life Developmental psychologist are usually concerned with the changes in behavior over the life span. They usually concentrate on how an individual who is constantly changing reacts to the many changes in an ever changing environment. As they focus on changes from the time of conception through late adulthood, they describe, explain, and predict behavior, and give suggestion for controlling it. For the purpose of helping individuals to develop their potentials to the fullest (Baltes, Reese, and Lipsitt; 1980) Physical Development Physical development, like changes in bodily appearance and structure, with changes in bodily activities like motor skills; psychosocial development which includes changes in the thought processes that could affect language, learning abilities, and memory. These are the three major paths of human development. These three are closely inter related because each one is affected and is also influenced by the other.

Two Kinds of Change Development Qualitative Changes refer to a progressive series of change leading to improvement like those changes in kind that distinguish an infant who have underdeveloped motor skill from a baby who can walk already. Quantitative Changes refer to the measurable changes in an individual like changes in height, body proportion, and the like. Heredity and Environment We attribute most likely the differences among individuals as to talent and abilities, skills, and even personalities to these two factors of development: nature and nurture. There are extreme views that we are either the product of our nature, the inherited traits or our nurture, or of the individuals experiences. The nature nurture debate is a never ending issue, and opinion regarding the answer to it are relatively varied. Heredity Heredity is a process whereby traits of parents are handed down to their offspring via the genes. Environment Environment refers to all the forces that affect man, like physical forces, natural forces, and social forces. Role of Maturation and Learning in Development Maturation Maturation is the gradual unfolding of hereditary traits and potentials. Maturity Maturity marks the end of growth and development Phylogenetic Function Phylogenetic Function are common to the race like sitting and walking, and development occurs through maturation. Ontogenetic Function Ontogenetic Function traits specific to the individual like swimming and writing are learned through training. Mechanics of Heredity It is right to think that every individual and its part is the product of the joint function and interaction of three factors which are indispensable namely, time, heredity, and environment.

Chromosomes Chromosomes are threadlike or ropelike bodies that contain the genes, they are usually found in pairs, if not, this can result to chromosomal aberrations and abnormalities of some kind. Chromosomes are either classified as autosomes or trait chromosomes and gonosomes or sex chromosomes. Genes Genes are the real bearers of heriditary traits. Dominant Genes Dominant Genes are strong genes; the trait that dominant genes carry will always be manifested in the offspring. Recessive Genes Recessive Genes are weak genes; the trait that a recessive gene carries can only be manifested if it is paired with another recessive gene of its kind. Principles of Heredity Principle of Reproduction Principle of reproduction states that like begets like, where human individuals will reproduce their own kind. Principle of Variation Principle of variation states that No two individuals of any kind are exactly alike even identical twins have mild differences like one could be slightly taller than the other. Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness Principle of dominance and recessiveness this principle determines the presence of similarities and differences among family members. Principle of Chance Principle of chance within the limits of potential traits transmissible by heredity, chance plays a significant role making absolute prediction almost impossible. Prinsiple of Sex Prinsiple of sex linked characteristics these sex linked traits are carried by the same genes that determine sex. Hereditary Characteristics Physical Traits Physical traits the appearance in general like facial features, complexion, height, and body built.

Mental Traits Mental traits examples are I.Q. level, some cases of mental retardation, and predisposition to mental disorder. Special Talents/Abilities Special talents/abilities like artistic, literary, athletic, musical, and numerical talents. Multiple Births Two Basic Mechanism Account for Multiple Births. Identical or Monozygotic Twins Identical or monozygotic twins arise when one egg cell/ovum further divides into two after being fertilized by one sperm. NonIdentical/Fraternal or Dizygotic Ttwins Nonidentical/fraternal or dizygotic twins arise from two eggs/ova which are fertilized by two different sperm cells. Genetic/Biological Engineering InVitro Fertilization Invitro fertilization an ovum is extracted from the mothers ovary and then, the ovum is allowed to mature in an incubator and fertilized with a few drops of the fathers sperms. Artificial Insemination by a Donor (AID) Artificial Insemination by a Donor (AID) the woman is inseminated with the sperm of a donor who is usually anonymous, because her husband is infertile. Surrogate Motherhood Surrogate motherhood when the man is fertile and the woman is not, in such case another woman may be inseminated with sperm of the father. Cloning/Mapping Cloning/mapping involved the process of creating identical copy or mirror image of an original. Stages of Development Prenatal Stages 1.1. Period of the ovum/germinal stage starts from fertilization to two weeks. 1.2. Period of the embryo from the second week to eight weeks or two months.

1.3. Period of the fetus covers the eight weeks to birth.

Birth Natural or Spontaneous Birth Natural or Spontaneous Birth results when the fetus head emerges first through the birth canal followed by one shoulder then the other, next by the arms one at a time and finally the legs. Instrument Birth Instrument Birth is employed with the aid of surgical instruments if the fetus is too large or if its position does not allow normal birth process. Breech Birth Breech Birth takes place if the fetal buttocks appear first, followed by the legs, arms and eventually the head. Transverse Presentation Birth Transverse Presentation Birth occurs when the fetus lies crosswise in the mothers uterus. CesareanSection Birth CesareanSection Birth is employed when the fetus is delivered surgically by means of a slit created in the maternal abdominal wall. Post Natal Stages 2.1. Infancy Period Infancy Period from birth to two weeks is subdivided into: 2.1.1. Period of the Partunate 2.1.1. Period of the Partunate this covers the first 15 to 20 minutes after birth, once the umbilical cord has been cut; the infant at this point becomes a separate and independent being. 2.1.2. Period of Neonate 2.1.2. Period of Neonate this covers the rest of the infancy period.

During the infancy stage, there are four major adjustment involved: Adjustment to Temperature Changes Adjustment to Temperature Changes while in the mothers uterus, the temperature remains constant at about 100 Fahrenheit or 38 degrees centigrade while in the postnatal environment it is between 70 F or 21 degrees centigrade.

Adjustment to Breathing Adjustment to Breathing after birth, when the umbilical cord is cut off, the infant must inhale and exhale air on his own, unlike before birth, where oxygen is applied from the placenta to the umbilical cord. Adjustment to Taking Nourishment Adjustment to Taking Nourishment the fetus received regular nourishment through the umbilical cord but after birth, the infant has to suck and swallow his nourishment alone. Adjustment to Elimination Adjustment to Elimination the excretory organs of the infant start to function a few minutes or hours after birth.

2.2. Babyhood Period 2.2. Babyhood Period extends from the second week of infancy up to second year of life.

Sucking Reflex Sucking Reflex where newborns starts to suck things that touch their lips. Rooting Reflex Rooting Reflex babies would turn their head toward the source of something that stimulates their cheek or mouth. Babinski Reflex Babinski Reflex where there is fanning out the babys toes when his sole is touched. Darwinian Reflex Darwinian Reflex causes the baby to grasp tightly objective placed in their hands. Moro or Startle Moro or Startle is displayed when the baby hears a loud noise, he usually throw out his arms and put them back together in his chest. Pupillary Reflex Pupillary Reflex wherein the baby closes his eyes when there is a bright ray that hits his eyes. Swimming Reflex Swimming Reflex where babies usually make well-coordinated movements when they are put in water with face down. Childhood Stage

3.1 Early Childhood Stage extends from two years to six years. 3.2 Late Childhood Stage extends from six years up to the onset of puberty, sometimes between eleven to twelve years of age.

Physical Development Physical Development growth cycle among children are influenced by some factors, weather it will run slow or fast and or at a moderate speed. Motor Development Motor Development refers to the ability of the child to have control over his bodily movements. Cognitive Development Cognitive Development through infants have adaptive capacities at birth, the numerous functioning have yet to come. Jean Piaget Jean Piaget - a Swiss biologist and psychologist has the most explanation about intellectual development.

According to him, there are four stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years) Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years) where infants use their senses and their motor behaviors rather than their thinking to learn about their worlds. Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 Years) Pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years) wehre children at this stage use symbols like words to represent people and objects. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 10 Years) Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 10 Years) where children are no longer egocentric. Formal Operation Stage (12 Years and Older) Formal Operation Stage (12 Years and Older) where children at his stage can think like a scientist. Puberty Stage This stage overlaps the end of childhood and it also touches the early part of adolescence. Is known as the Age of Confusion.

The Two Stages of Puberty are: PrePubescence PrePubescence where changes in primary sexual characteristics occur; these are usually changes in the reproduction apparatus. PostPubescence PostPubescencet where this stage is marked by the completion of pubic hair growth. Adolescence Stage Adolescence is subdivided into two parts: Teenager or the Young Adolescent Teenager or the Young Adolescent where most pubertal changes occur. Youth is the Older Adolescent Youth is the Older Adolescent who tends to lack sophistication and displays uncontrolled impulse for sexual behavior. Adolescence is derived from the Latin verb, adolescere, meaning to grow into maturity. Adulthood Stage Over the past two decades, researches looked closely at the ways we develop as adults. Early Adulthood Stage Early Adulthood Stage extends from 21 to 40 years of age. Middle Adulthood (Middle Age) Middle Adulthood (Middle Age) extends from 40 to 60 years of age. Menopause Menopause occurs among women which characterized by loss of reproductive capacity. Climacteric (Andropause) Climacteric (Andropause) takes place which is the cessation in reproductive capacity or decline in active functioning of the sex organ Late Adulthood or Old Age Late Adulthood or Old Age extends from 60 onwards.

The Stage of Senescence is characterized by some physical and psychological changes leading to regression to earlier stages. The Age of Senility, where the individual who turns eccentric, absentminded and careless, and poorly adjusted is labeled to as senile. Physiological Bases of Behavior Biological foundation In its search for understanding human behavior, psychology has drawn this from different fields of study and researches, genetics, sociology and anthropology for instance have supplied some clues to the puzzle of behavior. Only man is capable of making complex patterns of adjustment to the different and never ending changes and demands of his environment. That is why man is labeled, as animal par excellence, and man owes his complex and invariable behavioral adjustments to his nervous system. What is the Nervous System? The nervous system comprises of two main divisions: 1. The central nervous system (CNS) Consist of the brain and the spinal cord. 2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) Composes all the nerve fibers that connect the receptors to the central nervous system and which further connects the central nervous system to the effectors. The nervous system controls all our bodily behavior and behavioral responses. It is made up mainly of neurons or nerve cells which number to about one hundred billion. The Neuron The neuron or nerve cell is the basic structural or functional unit of the nervous system. Its three parts are the cell body (cyton), central portion with a nucleus, cytoplasm, and a cell membrane. Then the dendrites, a short branching processes whose function is to receive nerve impulses and carry them toward the cell body. While the axons are the elongated strand with one or more formations at the far end called end brush, it carries message away from the cell body. Its covered by myelin sheath which serves as the insulators to the neuron. Neurons are grouped into three, according to their function: 1. Sensory or efferent neurons carry messages or nerve impulses from the sense organ toward the brain/central nervous system. 2. Motor or afferent neurons carry messages or nerve impulses away from the brain. 3. Inter-neurons, connector neurons or association neurons carry messages or nerve impulses within the brain or the central nervous system.

Characteristics of neurons 1. Irritability Is the ability of the neurons to react to external stimulation. 2. Conductivity ability of neurons to transmit nerve impulses up to the end of the nerve fiber. Nerve Impulse Stimulus refers to anything that excites or initiates activity, once a stimulus is received by the preceptor. It leads to the creation of nerve impulses or messages. This is then transmitted by the neurons within the nerve fibers. Each neuron has a stored potential energy on it. Inside the neurons there are more negative than positive charged particles. And have more positive ions outside. This resting energy is called resting potential or polarization stage. Firing the neuron down the axon is called action potential. These ranges from 10 120 meter per second or 2 270 miles per hour. Nerves travel through the fibers with such great speed. And passes through several specialized nerve boundaries called synapses. Synapses are spaces between axons of neuron. Once the tip of the axon is reached by nerve impulse a chemical known as transmitter is released to the synapse, the next receptor of receiving neurons catch or bind with the chemical. This is how transmission of nerve impulse occurs. Neurotransmitter in the synapse may sometimes excite the receiving neuron enabling it to fire its own impulses, or at times it may inhibit it from firing. Neurons are capable of receiving numerous synaptic inputs at almost the same time from varying sources, but it is the total excitatory or inhibitory synaptic current that makes it possible for a given nerve cell to fire or not to fire. Each neurons usually can receive message from almost 1,000 other neurons, thus in the human brain the number of synaptic connection most probably exceed a trillion (1,000,000,000,000), this is responsible for everything that we think, sense and feel or do. Laws Governing the Neurons 1. All or nothing law States that it is either the neuron react or not at all, but if it does react, it reacts with fullest strength. 2. Law of dynamic polarity States that the nerve impulses travel only in one direction from neuron to neuron. The central nervous system The central nervous system is situated centrally. It is basically made up of brain and spinal cord. Central nervous system made possible the connection between the receptors and the effectors and consequently, between the nerve impulses/messages that come from the receptor and going out to the effectors or organs of response. It serves as the integrating mechanism of the entire human body.

The Brain It floats on bath of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and protected by the skull. Its like a jelly and extra soft weighing about 1,400 grams. It is the master organ and the busiest part of the body. It is responsible for the integration of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It receives message from the spinal cord and send the message to the appropriate body part. Three major divisions. 1. Forebrain consist of cerebrum, Thalamus, and hypothalamus.

Cerebrum is the most complex and largest part of the brain. Considered as the seat of consciousness. Responsible of higher mental activities like endless thinking and reasoning, memory and understanding, and many other cognitive functioning. Consist of left and right cerebral hemisphere which controls the right and left side of the body (respectively). These hemispheres are subdivided in four lobes, which are the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe. Therefore the highest developed and multi functional part of the brain is the cerebrum. Thalamus is found right on top of the mid brain. It serves as the relay center of the impulses sent to brain. Hypothalamus located underneath the thalamus, is a smaller bundle of nuclei that keeps the balance of different body system. It is considered as the seat of emotion. It maintains the homeostasis by regulating some involuntary activities like body temperature, thirst appetite and sexual drive, as well as our emotional behavior. The two significant structure found in central portions of the cerebral hemispheres are the reticular activating system (RAS) and limbic system. The RAS control our level of sleep and arousal. It plays an important role of regulating the state of arousal or consciousness. This limbic system is made up of complex structures located around the thalamus just about beneath the cerebrum. Also found here is the hippocampus (SEA HORSE) which is responsible in changing short term memories. The amygdale (ALMOND) is another important [art of the limbic system which is believed to cause aggressive behavior among the animals. 2. Midbrain Serves as the bridge between the hindbrain and the fore brain. Its responsible of linking the sensory and motor pathways between the lower and the upper parts of the nervous system. Although its small it is one of the major divisions of the brain because it serves as an intricate switch board of receiving nerve impulses all over the body, and after sorting them out, it sends them to the higher brain centers. 3. Hind brain composed of pons, medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum. It is connected to the spinal cord. Pons located in front of cerebellum. Made up mostly of nerve fibers running from one part of the brain to the others.

Medulla oblongata Its quits small, about an inch just above the spinal cord. It regulates the involuntary muscles responsible for our heartbeat, rate of breathing or respiration, swallowing and movements of the stomach and intestine. Cerebellum (little brain) it has two hemispheres. Its connected to the brain stem. It is involved in the coordination of voluntary motor activities. It maintains our body balance and posture. It enables us to develop our habbit and skills. It also regulates our tongue and jaw during speech. Spinal Cord

Spinal cord is a long and stem like structure running down the verbal column. Composed of nerves that lead to and from the brain. Nerve distributed in the body parts are divided into various nerve fibers. The main function of the spinal cord is to provide connectors mechanism for reflex reactions and to transmit messages to and from the brain. The first action is made possible by the gray matter that contains connector cells responsible for reflex cell. And the second by the white matter which is consist of ascending and descending fibers. Since the spinal cord is responsible in controlling all bodily activities from neck down and it is also responsible in simple sensory motor reflexes. It is considered as the center of reflex reaction. There are two kind of reflex: monosynaptic reflex (simple reflex) and the polysynaptic reflex (complex reflexes). Monosynaptic reflex takes place due to direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron, without intervening interneuron. When you demonstrate sudden withdrawal of hand from pain or blink because of loud sound. You are experiencing a more complex reflex called poly synaptic reflexes. This kind of reflex involves many synapses in a several countless interneuron. In reflex reaction impulse or message follows a special route known as the reflex arc or the sensory motor arc, also spinal cord arc. This is the simplest form of functional organization between sensory and motor neurons. The Peripheral Nervous System This is the second major division of the nervous system. It is subdivided into two mainly: Somatic division and automatic or visceral division. A. somatic system covers 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which are, distributed in the head region and 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which are distributed in the body region. They are the ones that made the communication between the brain and the whole body possible. Somatic is the one responsible for the voluntary skeletal movements like sensing and movements of the arm and legs and the whole body. The groups of 31 pairs of spinal nerves are:

Cervical (neck) 8 pairs Thoracic region 12 pairs Lumbar region 5 pairs Sacral region 5 pairs Coccygeal region 1 pair The 12 pairs of cranial nerves, where these are distributed and their functions: 1. Olfactory nose sensory nerves 2. Optic eyes sensory nerves 3. Oculo motor eyes motor nervews 4. trochlear eyes motor nerves 5. trigeminal eyes, jaw, cheek, tongue mixed nerves 6. abducent eyes motor nerves 7. facial face and forehead mixed nerves 8. gloss pharyngeal tongue and pharynx mixed nerves 9. vagus neck, thorax and abdomen mixed nerves 10. accessory pharyngeal and laryngeal muscle motor nerve 11. hypoglossal tongue motor nerves 12. Vestibule cochlear ears sensory nerves. B. Autonomic or visceral (viscera or internal organ) nervous system is composed of sympathetic system and parasympathetic system. This division of nervous system is responsible for all involuntary movements within the body that keeps us alive. The sympathetic system covers the activity of the internal organs within the thoracic lumber regions. It also activates and speeds up life activities. It prepares our selves into vigorous action like those of fight or flight reaction to stress. This activation leads us to increase heartbeat and respiration, and profuse sweating. It also leads to increase of adrenaline secretion by the adrenal gland that is needed for threatening or emergency situation. Parasympathetic system covers the cranial sacral regions. It slows down the life activities. This system restores the body stored energy, thus,, calming down the body after resolving a stressful and emergency situation.These two systems are most of the time active, creating homeostasis and equilibrium or balance between them. In any given organ, the two systems are antagonistic in function, yet inter related. The Endocrine System The nervous system works closely with the endocrine system. Another biological system governing mans behavior. The endocrine system or ductless gland is involved with the processor maintaining the biochemical equilibrium in the body of homeostasis

The ductless glands are located in the different areas of the body. The glands secret chemical, excitatory substances called hormones, which go directly into the bloodstream. To help maintain internal balance of homeostasis within the body, the different endocrine gland work together in a well coordinated manner. If one of the glands is hypofunctioning, another gland will release hormone to simulate its activity. Any damage or removal of one endocrine gland may have influence in the functioning of the entire endocrine system. The Endocrine Glands 1. Pituitary gland, also known as the master gland, because it secrets a number of hormones that affect the activities of almost all the endocrine glands. Some effects of the glands due to hormonal imbalance or malfunctioning are: Underactivity of anterior lobe i. Dwarfism

Overactivity of anterior lobe i. Giantism ii. Acromegaly this is characterized by an overgrowth of certain parts of the bone like individuals with a hunch back. Underactivity of the posterior lobe i. Diabetes insipidus is characterized by large urine volume excretion.

2. Pineal gland, also known as gland of childhood located in the head adjacent to the pituitary gland. It controls the reproductive organs. It secretes the hormone, melatonin. This gland responds to the light and dark cycle which governs the time of the day during which reproduction takes place. Underctivity 1. leads to premature appearance of secondary sexual characteristic

3. Thyroid gland is the butterfly shape organ located at the base and the anterior part of the throat. It secrets thyroxine and idothyroxine, which affect growth and metabolism. Overactivity i. Increase body heat production Underactivity i. Cretinism this is characterized to be retarded physical and mental development during childhood

ii. Myxedema this is characterized by gain in weight, thickening of the lips, slowing of motor movements, and yellowing of the skin during adulthood. 4. Parathyroid glands are pea shaped gland located at the posterior (back) of the thyroid gland. It secretes parathormone which controls the calcium level in the blood. Underactivity i. Tetany or lock jaw characterized by a spasm of the muscles of the lower jaw leading to convulsions or muscular rigidity. Overactivity i. Lethargy is characterized by muscular weakness and decreased in nerve cell activity. ii. 5. Thymus gland the gland of babyhood keeps an individual childish. It is located above the chest cavity. It secretes the hormone, thymosin. This gland inhibits sexuality during the childhood years. It also helps in building up the immune system of the body. 6. Adrenal gland located at the tip of each kidney. It has two divisions: the adrenal cortex, which secretes cortin and adrenal androgens and adrenal medulla, which secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline. The hormone cortin controls the appearance of some adults sexual characteristics, while adrenaline gives us extra strength during emergencies thats why its called emergency hormone. Noraadrenaline, causes the blood vessel to constrict when a person is injured and also prevent too much blood loss when a person is injured. Underactivity i. Adisons disease is characterized by bronze like discoloration of the skin and generalized physiological breakdown. ii. Delayed puberty may result to underactivity of the adrenal cortex. Overactivity oof adrenal cortices i. Cushings disease (women) is charactreerized by round or moon shaped face, cessation of menstruation, and appearance of beard, change of voice ( in either sex) ii. Adrenogenital syndrome (girls) is characterized by virilism, an increased masculine features among young girls. 7. Islets of langerhans

These are small bodies made up of clusters of special cells scattered all over the pancreas. It secretes glucagons and insulin. Insulin control the sugar level in the blood, while glucagon promotes the utilization of sugar by our body cells. Percetion and Sensation SENSATION - a sensory message; transmission of information about the environment to the brain

Perception - the interpretation of a sensory message by the brain. Transduction - converting physical energy into neural energy. Direction of Sensation Physical Energy --> The Receptor --> The Receptor Cell --> A Neural Signal --> The Brain

Sublimal Perception Stimulation below the threshold of conscious awareness. There is no evidence to support subliminal perception occurring. Reverse Masking There is no evidence to support reverse masking causes subliminal or any other stimulation. Vision The Structure of the Eye - The Cornea - The Iris - The Pupil - The Lens - The Retina - The Fovea - The Optic Nerve The Back of the Eye At the rear of the eye is the retina containing the receptor cells. Before light gets to the retina, it passes through blood vessels & connecting cells. The Rods - Rods are absent from the fovea - Rods become more common toward the periphery of the retina - Rods have low sensitivity to detail because many of them funnel into a single postsynaptic neuron The Cones - More common toward the center of the retina - Fewer in the periphery of the retina - More of them because fewer cones funnel onto a single postsynaptic neuro

The Retina The Rods - Specialized for low light The Cones - Color vision and bright light - The rods and cones connect to BI-POLAR cells. - The bi-polar cells connect to GANGLION CELLS. - The ganglion cells axon becomes the OPTIC NERVE. Vision Trichromatic Theory Three types of cones: RED GREEN BLUE Opponent Process Theory - Cones are in opposing pairs. When one is activated, the other is suppressed. White/Black Blue/Orange Green/Red The Visible Spectrum We see about 1/1 millionth of a meter of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. The electro-magnetic spectrum includes both invisible long and short waves. Perceiving Reality Apparent Motion The Autokinetic Effect Apparent motion of a single light in total darkness. The Phi Phenomenon A series of blinking lights. The Stroboscopic Effect The jerky effect of a strobe light blinking in total darkness with movement.

Perceptual Organizational Principles Figure Ground - The simplest type of organizational principle Closure - The tendency to perceive an object or shape even when the form isnt complete. Perceiving Depth & Distance Similarity - Similar objects are perceived as being together. Proximity - Stimuli close together are perceived as being together. Interposition - Something is placed between the eye and the object. Texture Gradient - Textured objects further away look smooth. Perceiving Depth & Distance Relative Size The smaller the image of an object is on the retina, the farther away it seems. Relative Height Objects higher in the visual field are perceived as farther away. The Optic Chiasm Point in the temporal area of the brain where the optic nerve crosses over from left to right. This is where stereo vision is created. Stereoscopic Vision - Seeing the world in Three-Dimensions - Binocular cues: Retinal Disparity The difference between the two eyes Convergence The eyes focusing close up Stereoscopic Vision Seeing depth naturally

Perceptual Constancies Size Constancy Objects continue to remain the same size no matter how distant. Shape Constancy Objects remain the same shape even if the image on the retina shows a different shape. Color Constancy Influenced by lighting (artificial, colored, or natural). Hearing The Construction of the Ear The Pinna The External Auditory Canal The Ear Drum The Hammer, Anvil, & Stirrup The Oval Window The Cochlea The Hair Cells The Nerve Cells The Auditory Nerve Inside the Ear The Middle & Inner Ear The Eardrum The Hammer, Anvil, & Stirrup The Oval Window The Cochlea The Semicircular Canals The Cochlea Apparent Motion The Cochlea is the organ of hearing Contained within the Cochlea are the hair cells The hair cells are connected to neurons and the axons of the neurons create the auditory nerve.

Theories of Hearing The Place Theory of Hearing Different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies. High tones register most strongly at the base of the cochlea (near the oval window), lower tones mostly move the hair cells near the outer tip of the cochlea. The Frequency Theory of Hearing The entire basilar membrane acts like a microphone, vibrating as a whole in response to sound. The nerve receptors send out impulses that are tied directly to the frequency of the sounds: Frequency = Impulses Deafness Conduction Deafness When the eardrums or ossicles are damaged or immobilized by disease or injury reducing the transfer of sound to the inner ear. Nerve Deafness When there is damage to the hair cells or auditory nerve. Stimulation Deafness Caused by a noisy environment damaging the hair cells in the cochlea. Sense of Smell Olfaction A chemical sense The Route Nerve Endings to The Neurons to The Olfactory Bulb to The Limbic System The Lock & Key Theory 5 Odors Identified Floral, Camphoric, Musky, Minty , Etherish

Taste Gustation A Chemical Sense The Route The Tongue to The Papillae to The Taste Buds to The Brain 5 Tastes Identified Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami Grace and Balance The Kinesthetic Sense - Keeps us informed about movement of body parts & their position in relation to each other. - Muscle Movement, Posture, & Joints - Information comes from stretch receptors, the tendons, & the internal organs. Balance & Equilibrium Vestibular Senses - The Vestibular Sense keeps us informed about balance & the position of our body in space. - Hair cells in the inner ear bend in relation to the position & movement of the head giving information that the brain uses to help us maintain our balance and to sense changes in our movement through space. Taste Gustation A Chemical Sense The Route The Tongue to The Papillae to The Taste Buds to The Brain 5 Tastes Identified Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami The Tactile Senses Touch Skin receptors that make us aware of how & where were being touched. Pressure Receptors beneath the skin that make us aware of deeper touch.

Temperature Receptors are found just beneath the skin to give the sensation of hot, cold, and warm. Pain Pain is adaptive & lets us know theres something wrong. Pain receptors are located not just in the skin, but also in other parts of the body: muscles, joints, ligaments, teeth, & the internal organs. 2 Kinds of Pain Dull (slow) pain Long axons Sharp (fast) pain Short axons The Gate Control Theory of Pain There is a neurological gate in the spinal cord controlling the transmission of pain messages to the brain. Dull, throbbing pain is conducted through the gate by thinner & slower nerve fibers that carry signals for touch & temperature. Faster, thicker nerve fibers cause a bottleneck at the gate, blocking the passage of other messages. What Influences Pain? The Biosocial Theory The interaction of biological, psychological, and cultural factors influence the intensity & duration of pain. The Placebo Effect Any direct or indirect procedure or object that can cause relief from pain or illness. With pain, it appears to come from the release of endorphins. Meaning of Intelligence Lewis Terman Simply defined intelligence as the ability to think abstractly. David Weschler Gave a practical definition: the ability to act purposely, to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment.

Jean Piaget Defined intelligence as ones ability to adapt to ones surroundings. Theories of intelligence First Approach -emphasized on individual differences in intelligence, often known as the psychometric approach. Second Approach -identifies the processes by which an individual uses information to solve problems instead of looking for the particular factors that define intelligence. 1. The Spearmans two-factor theory In 1904, Charles Spearman proposed the G factor (general intelligence) which was believed to be an inherited intellectual capacity that influences all around performance and the S factors (specific abilities) which were thought to account the differences between scores on different tasks, like verbal and number abilities. This division was justified by Charles Spearman by means of emphasizing common phenomenon that individuals scoring high in one type of test most of the time may perform equally well in other tests however, their scores differ somewhat on various abilities. 2. Thurstones primary mental abilities L.L. Thurstone in 1938 used factor analysis in the intelligence test scores of children. He identified seven relatively distinct factors: a. Word Fluency b. Verbal Comprehension c. Reasoning d. Memory e. Perceptual Speed f. Space g. Number 3. J.P. Guilford Factor analysis In 1959 and 1982, Guilford made factor analysis several stages further into a three dimensional, cube-shaped model of intelligence which is composed of about 120 separate factors, without overall general intelligence factor. Recently, Guilford has expanded his model into 150 factors. According to Guilford, these separate factors are the results of the interaction of operations (the ways one think), contents (what one thinks about); and products (results of the application of an operation to a certain content, or our kind of thinking towards a certain subject).

4. Cattel and horns concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence Fluid Intelligence -is employed when you figure out the relationships between two varying concepts, to abstract and reason out. This kind of intelligence depends on the neurological development and it is also free from the influences of culture and education. Crystallized Intelligence -refers to the ability to use an accumulated body of general information in solving problems and making judgments. This kind of intelligence depends on culture and education because general information has to learn. 5. Stenbergs information processing approach Robert Sternberg in 1979 formulated this theory of intelligence. According to him, ask how individuals approach their problems and see problem solving as an aspect of intelligence rather than ask how well the individual solve different kinds of problems. This theory has identified a series of steps on what to do from time to time. The information is perceived up to the time that the information is used to solve the problem. These are the steps: A. Encoding B. Inferring C. Mapping D. Application E. Justification F. Response 6. Howard gardners multiple intelligence theory Howard Gardner (1989) viewed intelligence as the capacity to solve the problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting. his theory was based on a set of criteria or sign of an intelligence that is supported by evidence of: *potential isolation by brain damage; *the existence of idiot savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals; *an identifiable core operation or set of operations; *a distinctive development history, along with a definable set of end state performances; *an evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility *support from experimental psychological tests; *support from psychometric findings; and *susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system

Gardner initially formulated a list of seven(7) intelligences. The first two have educational values, the next three are related with the arts, and the last two are labeled as personal intelligences. They are as follows: 1. Linguistic Intelligence 2. Logical 3. Musical Intelligence 4. Bodily 5. Spatial Intelligence 6. Interpersonal Intelligence 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence Other intelligence: a. Existential intelligence b. moral Intelligence quotient (I.Q.) The term intelligence quotient (I.Q.) was later devised to convert mental age (M.A.) into a number that could be used for all age groups. Intelligence quotient can be obtained with the formula below: I.Q. = M.A. / C.A. x 100 where M.A. is the degree of intelligence exhibit by a person compared to others of his age group, C.A. refers to the chronological age or actual age from birth multiplied by 100 to do away with decimal points. I.Q. or Intelligence Quotient is an index of the rate of an individuals mental progress. I.Q. Levels Verbal Description 140 and up Potential genius 130 - 139 Very Superior 129 - 120 Superior 110 - 119 Bright normal/above average 90 - 109 Normal/average 80 - 89 Dull Normal/below average 70 - 79 Borderline defective 50 - 69 Moron 20 - 49 Imbecile 0 - 19 Idiot Relative Constancy of I.Q. implies that the I.Q. level of an individual remains more or less the same under normal physical and environmental conditions

Characteristics of mentally retarded Mentally retarded individuals have child-like mental capacity and thinking. 1. Morons are mild mentally retarded individuals. 2. Imbeciles are moderate mentally retarded persons. 3. Idiots are severe/profound mentally retarded individuals. Types of tests 1. Individual Test this is usually given to one person at a time by experts. 2. Group Test oftentimes administered to several persons at a time by anybody who can follow direction. 3. Verbal Test there is a predominance of oral communication or language. 4. Non-Verbal Tests or Performance Test measures the intelligence of a person without the use of language and usually given to illiterates, preschoolers, and foreigners who do not have a command of the language used in the verbal test. 5. Power Test measures the amount of work done regardless of time spent. 6. Speed Test measures the amount of work done within the time limit. Other forms of intelligence 1. Emotional Intelligence or Emotional Quotient (EQ) Emotional Intelligence - involves the regulation of emotion in a way that enhances living. Emotional Quotient is not direct opposite of intelligence quotient. There are individuals who are endowed with both to a high degree while others with little degree of either one or both. 2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) This refers to the science and engineering of creating intelligent machine like an intelligent computer program. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand about human intelligence. Significance of testing intelligence Measuring intelligence is useful as a method of predicting academic performance. Scores in an intelligence test can alert parents as well as teachers if the child needs special help, the extent of such help, and also the kind of help that is most beneficial. Knowledge of the intellectual capacity of a person can help educators, psychologists as well as businessmen to create some criteria for rejecting, accepting, and expecting individual roles in different setting educational, social and industrial. Thus, intelligence testing can provide criteria for selective admission and classification of potential applicants to improve especially the performance quality. Nature and Meaning of Learning Man continuously learn, from the day he is born till the time he becomes old. Learning is a non-stop process and there is always something to learn. One of the most important characteristics of man is his ability to learn. This serves as the foundation of his activities and proof of his being rational.

Learning is no doubt a complex and process and much effort has been devoted to arrive at a complete and adequate explanation of this process. Though there are varied definitions of learning, it is possible to come up with some common element which leads to a valid meaning of a process, and these elements are: A. Learning is a complex process B. The presences of learning process can be deduced often by a change in behavior. C. The change in behavior has to be more or less permanent and enduring. D. Practice or exercise (experience) brings about the change in behavior. If we incorporate al this common element into one, then, learning maybe defined as a complex process which bring about an enduring change in behavior as a result of practices. The individual may become adjusted or maladjusted as a result of learning because learning can have either positive or negative effect on the learner. Kinds of Learning Since much of individual do in and out of the society depends on the learning process, psychologists engaged in so many activities to find out how we learn. 1. Habituation It is the simplest kind of learning. This is a phenomenon whereby :we get used to something, meaning we know and we get used to it. 2. Associative learning It is the next level of learning wherein we form new associations between a stimulus and a response (S-R theory). The two kinds of learning by association are classical and operant conditioning Classical conditioning or respondent conditioning involves a transfer of response from one stimulus to another stimulus through repeated pairings. This kind of learning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov (1849 1946), a Russian psychologist where the subject of his experiment was a dog. In the experiment, the bell sounding is a neutral stimulus; a stimulus that does not automatically elicits a response. The food is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), a stimulus that readily elicits a response. Salivation is the unconditioned response to food (UCR), a response that is not learned. It is also called an unconditioned reflex, meaning an inborn reflex. During the course of classical conditioning, the organism (dog), learn a new association between the two events. In the experiment, the association between the bell sounding and the food is learned. How? This occurs by repeatedly pairing the neutral stimulus (bell sounding) with the unconditioned stimulus (food). Once the dog has learned to associate the food and the bell sounding and to response equally to both (salivation) we could say that conditioning learning has occurred.

Some examples of classical conditioning are a mans liking for someone who does him favor, fear of a dog after having been bitten by it, and Childs acquisition of fear in the dark. In classical conditioning, the organism usually learn on how to respond to a new stimulus in the same manner as it respond to an old unconditioned stimulus. Some parameters of classical conditioning are as follows: A.1. Acquisition The constant pairing of a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is referred to as a trial. And, the phase of classical conditioning whereby the stimulus association is learned is known as acquisition. Although sometimes conditioning can take place even after one trial, normally the acquisition of a conditioned response can required several trials. A.2. Reinforcement Reinforcement refers to an event which may enhance or maintain the strength of a response. A.3. Extinction The refers to a decrease in the strength of a conditioned response resulting from repeatedly eliciting the response in the absence of the reinforcement. For instance, a girl's fear toward the dentist can be lost if in her future visit to the dentist, her fear is not reinforced. A.4. Spontaneous Recovery An extinguished conditioned response is possible to recur. This recurrence is called spontaneous recovery. According to Sartain, et al. it is a partial recovery in the strength of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest interval. In the example previously cited, the girl who developed fear of the dentist because of pain she experienced forgot her fear after the pain subsided. But, if she sees the dentist after sometime, her fear of him can recur. A.5. Generalization This is the tendency of the stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response. The girl who learned to fear the dentist may be afraid of other dentist. A.6. Discrimination Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It is the process of responding to the variation or differences between stimuli. For instance, a baby who is being breast feed and taken cared of by her mother will eventually learn to discriminate other women from her mother. A.7. Higher-Order Conditioning This is a phenomenon, which aids the individual to become flexible with his responses to the environment. For instance, vomiting due to eating bitter ground (ampalaya) dish can give a similar response after sometime just with the sight of this vegetable.

B. Operant Or Instrumental Conditioning The second kind of learning by association is operant conditioning whereby the learner is allowed to discover how his behavioral response affects the environment and vise-versa. This kind of learning was experimented extensively by B.F.Skinner. This learning involves increasing the probability of similar responses due to the presence of reinforcement. Skinner's experiment involved a rat which was placed in a sound-proof box, which was devised by Skinner. The rat was able to press on the lever several times after learning the association between the lever pressing and the coming out of the food pellet which served as the reward, (reinforcement). Some Phenomena of Interest in Operant Conditioning Shaping Extinction Stimulus Generalization Discrimination Learning Partial Reinforcement Secondary Reinforcement Shaping Refers to a series of responses wherein each response leads to the next response. An example of chaining is when one learns the lyrics of a song, singing a line will lead to the next line until the end of the song In case each response is to be treated independently, and chainingis not possible, then the method of approximations or shaping should be employed. For example, In training a dog, the dog is rewarded each time it is able to perform a trick, with the biggest reward given after the most difficult trick is done. Extinction Is a progressive weakening of an instrumental learning to the withdrawal of reinforcement. However, the degree with which an organism resists extinction is indicative of the strength of the conditioned response. If the learned response is strong enough, the more difficult it is to extinguish it. Stimulus Generalization Refers to the tendency of a stimulus, which is similar to the one used in training to elicit the same response. For instance, a girls liking for her tutor may be transferred to her teacher. Discrimination Learning

In here, the response made in one stimulus is not made possible to the others. For instance, a young boy may learn to draw on paper, but not on the walls, clothing, or books. Partial Reinforcement There is a possibility of maintaining operant response in a schedule of intermit-tent or partial reinforcement wherein the res- ponses made by an individual are reinforced only part of the time. For example, In life we do not receive a reward for giving charity. But, we still continue to do so even if we are not given any reward. Secondary Reinforcement These reinforcers are learned, they refer to a stimulus that has gained a reinforcing property by having been paired with a primary reinforcer like money, grades, and praises. Primary reinforcers are biological; they do not need any previous trai-ning in order to strengthen a response. For ins- tance, water for those who are thirsty or food for one who is hungry. Social Learning/Modeling Learning Albert Bandura is the most prominent social learning theorist in the United states, who has engaged in many experiments involving learning by observing which is otherwise known as vicarious learning or modeling, because a model is being imitated. Bandura (1977) identified four steps in the process of modeling learning. Attention -sensing and perceiving the important aspects of the behavior to be imitated. Retention -remembering the behavior either through mental images or languages. Motoric Reproduction -converting the recalled observation into action. Reinforcement -being encouraged and motivated to adopt the behavior. Skill Learning Skill refers to the proficiency and competency in a certain kind of performance. Some forms of skills are verbal, reading, and writing. Others are mechanical and athletic. A well-integrated sequence of perceptual motor activities is involved in all of these. The three stages in learning a skill are cognition, fixation, and automation. Verbal Learning This kind of learning is distinctly human. It involves the use of words either as stimuli or responses. Some forms of linquistic abilities like speaking, reading, writing, and reciting are involved in verbal learning. Kinds of Verbal Learning

1.Serial-Anticipation Learning -where the first item in a list serves as a stimulus to the second, the second serves as stimulus to the next. Thus, the first and last item in the list are better remembered than the middle item. This is called as the serial position effect. 2.Free recall Learning -involves the organization of the verbal materials like groupings of vegetables and fruits. Item when grouped according to categories are easier learned and in free recall, the learned items can be reproduced in any order. 3. Paired-Associate Learning -this kind of learning involves establishing a relationship between the two elements, where one element serves as a stimulus to the other which is the response. Cognitive Learning Learning is not just the result of external forces, it is also internal. A process that we cannot observe and see is taking place. This involves cognitive learning like perceiving of current happenings, recalling previous experiences, thinking, reasoning, evaluating, abstracting. All activities fall under higher mental processes are categorized here. Insightful problem solving, sign learning, and concept learning are good examples of cognitive learning. Methods to Measure Memory Memory makes learning possible and without learning there is nothing to remember. Learning is employed to build up memories for use in the future while memory is used to store and retrieve this information. Memory is evident and it can be present in varying tasks like recall, recognition, reintegration, and relearning, these are some methods to measure memory or remembering. Recall -is the process of reproducing past learning/experience without any clue. Recognition -denotes the ability to identify learned items that are familiar. Reintegration -involves the recollection of past learning/experience with the presence of cues. Relearning -simply refers to reviewing previous learning, the easiest method. Memory Basic Steps in Memory Memory is defined as the extent to which original and previous learned information still persists. It involves the storage of learning items and information that are retrieved for future use. How does memory occur and how do we remember? Our memory usually works in four basic steps: 1. Perception -this first step may be involuntary, for instance, when we hear a sound or we see something which makes an impression to us. Or it may need a voluntary effort for us to focus our attention for keener perception.

2. Encoding/Acquisition -this is the process of classifying information. In order for information to be ready for storage, we have to organize it first into a meaningful manner. Example for us to do is by coding the letters of the alphabet into words, then coding the words into sentences, and sentences into certain ideas. Material can also be encoded according to their sounds and meaning. 3. Storage -is the process of holding the memory of an encoded material or information for future use. 4. Retrieval -this final step is crucial, it involves getting the remembered information out of storage. We have to bring back to the conscious level a stored memory of information. Usually, the efficiency with which we can retrieve the stored information depends on the thoroughness of how we prepare the information for memory. Theories of Memory 1. Short-Term Memory (STM) -this is our working memory and our active memory containing the information that we are presently using.This kind of memory may lasts for up to 20 seconds. Examples are information that come through our sense of sight (iconic memory), hearing, and so forth. These are also called sensory memory (S.M.) in which information usually stays for less than a second, after which if it is still there, it is transferred to a short-term memory. Short-term can be converted into a long term memory through elaborative rehearsal. 2. Long-Term Memory (LTM) -this kind of memory remains for the rest of our lives. Pieces of information stored in the brain for many years that could be retrieved when we need them without any rehearsal fall under the long-term memory (semantic memory, procedural memory, episodic memory). Episodic memory refers to records of personal experiences which are of great significance like your first love, debut party, first dance, and anniversaries. Three Types of Long-Term Memory Semantic Memory -is a type of memories for rules and concepts. This also involves mental models of our environment. Examples of these are the golden rule and the law of gravity. Procedural Memory -this is the most simple and basic form of long-term memory. Examples are rudimentary types of behavior and procedures like self-dressing and self-feeding. Episodic Memory -these are memorable events in your life. Exceptional form of memories Memorists refer to individual with exceptional memory, no matter what task is undertaken by them, whether they pause or not, and no matter how the period of time has lapsed they never forget.

Eidetikers These are the individuals who possess eidetic imagery power> Eidetic children, after looking for 10 to 30 seconds at image usually are able to se the image for 2 to 5 min after it has been remove from their view. Memory disorder Like in the case of amnesia where the memory brakes down. Forms of amnesia Aterograde Amnesia Refers to the inability of the individual to form new permanent memories like remembering the name of their physicians. Retrograde amnesia Is the inability to reproduce or recall pieces of information learned prior to the amnesia. Psychogenic amnesia A rare form of amnesia which is a memory disorder brought about by emotionally disturbing events. Patient of this kind of amnesia most of the time display a worse retrograde than anterograde amnesia, just the opposite of organic amnesia. In addition, psychogenic amnesia usually loses their personal identities, which is never experienced by organic amnesia. How to Study More Effectively 1. The best way to remember material is to make it meaningful to you personally. For instance, when you study a foreign language, imagine your self falling in love using the language. 2. Try to concentrate on concentrating. You forget much by not paying enough attention in the first place. 3. When you study for the firs time, absorb the materials as large chunk as possible. Spread out your study periods when you review before the exam relearning for several days works than doing it in just a day. 4. Reconstruct the notes in your own words, this kind of recoding helps imprint the information and help retention. 5. Practice and rehearse what you learn, reciting key points mentally or loudly or loudly ensure remembering. 6. Formulate some cues for retrieving like putting some heading in your notes. 7. Try to combine verbal and visual images for as long as possible.

8. Remove all form of interference. Eliminate conflicts in studying. Avoid studying two or three test at a time or on the same day. 9. Study first the difficult topics or make it last, to avoid the primacy and the regency effects. In primacy affects, information that are first perceived are more likely to be recalled while in regency effect, information perceived last is more likely to be remembered. 10. Pick out only some key words, dont try to memorize every detail. 11. Give more time to study difficult subject. 12. Employ some mnemonic devices that can help you remember information. You can use here visual imagery to help you in making associations for better memory. forgetting Means failure to retain what is previously learned, It is the extent with which learned information is lost. Theories of Forgetting 1. Interference theory Holds that the cause of forgetting is because of conflict among informational learned earlier or later. a. Proactive interference (P.L) occurs when old learned items impair the retention of the new material to be learned. b. Retroactive interference (R.I) takes place when the new material learned obliterate old materials learned even if we learned it well. 2. Decay theory Suggests the lapse of time is the reason for forgetting. Memory traces disintegrate through disuse of learned information. Rehearsal has been found to prevent the decay of memory traces. This theory is used only for short-term memory (STM) where in the STM is easily lost due to fading away of memory trace if it is converted to a long term memory (LTM). 3. Retrieval based forgetting This is a form cue dependent forgetting. In retrieval failure, the memory trace is present, but one just cannot bring out the information. This shows that even normal people usually have difficulty of retrieving memories. If there is a change in the environment and the cues we depend on to retrieve are absent, the memory then become inaccessible 4. Storage based forgetting - this is due to distortion of learned information in the log term memory like if alteration and changes occurred that prevent them from being accessible when one is in search of what they used to be. It is possible to retrieve such learned information if its new form is looked in to.

5. Motivated forgetting may take the form of suppression, a purposeful or voluntary process of blocking the information learned. This is also called conscious forgetting. Repression takes place if there is involuntary or unconscious forgetting, like in the case in forgetting traumatic experiences. Repression takes place without the conscious effort of individual. Thinking and Problem Solving Nature and meaning of thinking The ability to think makes man superior compared to all other creatures. This thinking capacity enables him to cope with the countless changing demands in everyday living. It is through the products of thinking and reasoning of man that the human race has survived. Advancement in technology and numerous other inventions result to thinking. Indeed, had not our ancestors pass the products of their thinking in every generations that succeeds, it would have been extra difficult for human race to have survived the tremendous change of the environment and demands of life. Thinking is a kind of covert behavior and as such, it is an internal process, thus, it is hard to observe scientifically. A logical analysis of thinking would mean that the following processes are involved in if-there has to be previous representative processes like sensations, perceptions, experiences, and learning most frequently. Thus, thinking maybe objects that are physically absent to the senses. Symbols used maybe numbers, words or language, gestures visual images, graphs, pictures and diagrams. Usually, the though created in the absence of immediate stimulus is the product of thinking. Kinds of Thinking The two extreme form of thinking where we indulged daily are: A. Realistic Thinking is one where you direct your thinking towards problem solving and decisionmaking. It is primarily determined by the needs of the needs of external situations. Two types of realistic thinking according to sir frederick batllet 1. Close-system thinking this is guided by the rules and conventions toward the solution to the problem like solving algebra. It is similar to formal reasoning where logical rules are employed in solving certain problem. 2. Adventurous thinking - here you can device your own tool s towards the solution of the problem like in creative thinking. This is similar to informal reasoning wherein one uses his everyday reasoning to solve some problems. Three (3) Process involved in realistic Thinking a. Deductive thinking is drawing out conclusion from available facts or combining pieces of information previously gained from varying occasions before formulating conclusions.

b. Inductive thinking When you try to formulate test hypotheses as well as go beyond the available facts to solve certain problems. Evaluative/Critical thinking is employed when you judge the suitability and soundness or appropriateness of an idea or a product based on certain norms or set of standard B. Autistic thinking on the other hand, is one where you engage in thinking just for pleasure of it like in the case of daydreaming and wishful thinking. Mechanics of thinking As to the exact nature of the process of thinking and also the important symbols that go with it to make it possible has been the subject of controversy, Psychologists were divided with their explanation on it, where the brain plays an important role. The second theory assumes that there are three (3) tools in the mechanics of thinking namely: 1. The role of implicit muscular movements, that during our thought processes, there are internal bodily movement that take place, which we are not aware of because its happening inside the body. However, this can be detected by means of a special gadget which when attached to the subject can record the tracings of his muscular movements. 2. The Role of Language, that language and word symbol plays as well as a major stimulus in thinking. The role of images, that image play an important part in our thoughts but it has been found out that thinking may go on even without images. Problem Solving Problem usually arises when there seem to be an obstacle that hinders you to reach your goal that can satisfy your needs and motives. If incase you dont have a ready made response and solution to the problem. This will involve an activity aimed to remove the barrier between your need and your goal. Since prostration are present in every point of your life, it is then important to note that most probably your behavior consists of problem-solving activities. Whenever you solve a problem, does it involve the process of thinking? There are some methods used to facilitate solutions to our problem as follows: 1.Trial and error method In some cases, problem solving is based in pure random trial and error, as it usually employed by the lower organisms and animals. But not all trial and error method is random. Sometimes, you would encounter problems with which you have some relative experiences in the past, so that in trying to solve them, you do not actually apply trial and error behavior, but instead tests possible solutions or hypotheses to the problems based on your experiences.

2. Production refers to the generation of some possible solutions. A simple problem just require getting the correct information from long term memory while other complicated problems need more complex technique. There are (3) three basic types of solution strategies: a. Algorithm this strategy exhausts all possible solutions until it comes up with the correct answer. Algorithms non-existent in many problems and when they do exist, they can be very time- consuming. For instance, with the anagram UHB, an algorithm means putting all the possible combination of the three letters BHU, UBH, BUH, HBU until HUB is arrived at which is the correct order. b. Mean-End analysis Where you try to analyze if there exist any difference between the present condition and the desired goal. C. Working Backward Where one start to look for the solution from the start towards the goal and then working towards the middle or given situation. 3. Insight = aha solution, or flashes of insights involves the sudden realization of a certain solution to a problem, insight refers to ones ability to perceive the relationships that are significant in a given situation towards the solution of the problem. Steps in Problem solving 1. Define the problem Identify your specific problem. Be aware and be interested. 2. Formulate your hypothesis hypotheses are forms of intelligent guesses which can be a possible answer to the problem. 3. Testing and Evaluating The suggested solutions or hypotheses are tested objectively. 4. Problem solution generation After having tested all the hypotheses that were raised, the hypotheses with the best result is chosen as the answer to the problem. 5. Conclusion/Generalization - After analyzing and evaluating the data conclusion is formed. Meaning and Nature of Emotion Emotion - is a distinct feeling or quality of consciousness, such a joy or sadness, which reflects the personal significance of an emotion arousing event. - it also involving facial and body changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action, all shaped by cultural rules.

Human emotion is a feeling that is private and subjective. Humans can report an extraordinary range of states, which they can feel or experiance. Some are accompanied by obvious signs of enjoyment or distress, but often these have no overt indicators. Emotional states can be defined by particular constellations of responses. Specifically. these responses involve autonomously innervated visceral organs, like the heart or stomach. Elements of Emotion Emotion, as an expression or display of distinctive somatic and autonomic responses, should consider its following elements:

* The Body * The Mind * The Culture The Body Primary Emotions Primary Emotions this emotions are universal and biological bases that consist of fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust and contempt. Secondary Emotions Secondary Emotions these are developed with cognitive maturity and vary across individual and cultures. The Mind It is said that thought may create emotions. When a person thinks on something to happen, then the emotion may be involved. The two factor theory of emotions: Physiological Arousal Physiological Arousal sweaty palms, increased heart rate, rapid breathing. Cognitive Labeling Cognitive Labeling attribute source of arousal to a cause. The Culture Culture determines what people feel angry, sad, lonely, happy, and ashamed or disgusted about. Some culture have words for specific emotions unknown to other cultures. Three biological areas of emotion: Facial expressions

Facial expressions - primary emotions are universal expression of human emotions. Smiling recognized as a positive reaction to certain situations and events. Bran Regions and Circuits Bran Regions and Circuits - the amygdala is responsible for assessing any eminent threat. Study shows that damage to any amygdala may result in abnormality to process fear. Two kinds of hormones: The release of Epinephrine and the Norepinephrine is common during the experience. This result in increase alertness and arousal. The Autonomic Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System - Lie detectors or Polygraph testing relies on the autonomic nervous system arousal. During situations of agitation, typical measures would include galvanic skin response, increase or decrease in pulse, blood pressure, breathing, and the individual may manifest fidgeting. Aspects of Emotion Physiological Changes - changes within the body are a major element of fear, anger, joy, and other emotions. Emotional Expressions - the ability of the individual to express emotions is important because it is a means to send their feelings to others. Emotional Feelings - the experiences that a person may gather will a reflect on his responses when he or she is placed on different situations. Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory(1884-1885) The theory argued that the emotional feelings follow bodily arousal. Cannon-Bard Theory(1927) The theory proposed that emotional feelings and bodily arousal are both organized by the brain. Schachter's Cognitive Theory of Emotion(1971) Stanley Schachter realized that cognitive(mental) factors also enter into emotion. The theory assumes that when an individual is aroused, he has a need to interpret his feeling. The Evolutionary Perspective

The evolutionary perpectiv started in the late 19th century with Charls Darwin's publication of a book on the expression of emotions in man and animals. Darwin's original idea was the emotions envolved via natural selection for reasons or warning other creatures about their intentions. Sources of Emotion Scientists have developed several theories about how emotions are generated based on subjective feelings, physiological responses, and expressive behavior. Classification of Emotions Anger it is a strong feeling of displeasure which usually goes with antagonism. Fear this is an unpleasant and often strong emotion caused by anticipation or awareness of danger. Sadness affected with or expressive of grief and unhappiness. Joy an unpleasant often strong emotion caused by anticipation or awareness of danger. Disgust marked aversion aroused by something highly distasteful. Curiosity/Interest inquisitive interest in others concerns which leads to usually leads to inquiry. Surprise taking of awareness. Acceptance an agreeing either expressly or by conduct to the act or offer of another. Mixed Emotions Awe mixture of fear and surprise. Disappointment mixture of surprise and sadness.

Remorse mixture of sadness and disgust. Aggression mixture of anger and anticipation. Jealousy could be a mixture of love, anger and fear. Optimism mixture of anticipation and joy. Contempt mixture of disgust and anger Submission mixture of acceptance and fear. Love mixture of joy and acceptance. The Functions of Emotion Basically, it is important that humans are aware of their emotions so that they would be able to ive appropriate reactions to the situations that may tend to arouse them. Three major functions of emotions: Emotions are used in order to communicate and influence others. Individuals communicate their emotions to other individuals using verbal and non-verbal language. This may be in the form of facial expressions, body gestures or postures. Some expressions of emotion have an automatic effect on others. Emotions can be utilized to organized and motivate action. Emotions tend to prepare and motivate individuals into facilitating action. There is an action urge connected to specific emotions tat is hard-wired.Emotions also help us overcome obstacles in our invironment. Emotions can be self Validating. Emotions usually give us different information about a situation or event. They give signals for our body to sense and know that there is somethin going on. Factors Affecting Emotion

Emotion appear in order to serve different physical and psychological purposes. Scientist believe that emotions are one of the fundamentals traits associated with being human. Emotions give color to people's lives and give them their neede depth and differentiation. Strong emotions may be linked to creativity and expressions.Emotions also help people monitor their social behavior and regulate their interactions with others. Effects of Emotion Scientists still find it hard to believe that human emotions have an effect on the immunity and body functioning in general. But researchers are pointing very strongly toward a solid relationship between body and mind. The feelings and attitudes of a person are showing to have a very definite impact on his/her health. Positive attitudes and emotions can help increase your health. Laughter is the best medicine-implies that feelings and attitudes of a person is suggesting positive and optimistic attitudes tend to promote positive impact on the body. Example: when you are feeling positive and blissful, there is a higher level of endorphins in the blood and immune systems. Endorphins- hormones that are related to health and well-being. Positive attitudes and emotions can help improve ones concept. The perception of each individual in his/her world is greatly influenced by the way he/she feels about him/herself. When people learn something, it is laid down in his memory linked to the emotions he is experiencing at the time. This emotion can be used as a trigger to help with recalling what it is that was learned. Development of Emotions Emotion does not surface instantly, sometimes it would have to develop over a certain period of time. 1. General excitement is the only emotional response newborn infants clearly express. 2. Emotional life blossoms rapidly. 3. Adult control and develop gestures that can become unique to various cultures.

SMILE is the most universal and easily recognized facial expression. How to Control Emotions Emotions play the big role in our life. They are twenty-four hours active and alive everyday, even when dream. Emotions literally tell us what to do with ourself, family, job, carrer, and how we love others. Ways to Control Emotions 1. Change the cause of emotions. Fix thoughts, fix the emotions. Circumstances do not cause emotionsrather, your thoughts and attitudes about those circumstances do. 2. Realize that thought is not the same as logic. Logic is a system for reasoning, and reasoning is what you do with your thoughts. 3. Recognize that you have the right to have whatever feelings- and any emotion- you want to have. But you also have the right and responsibility to select and use thoughts that benefit and enrich your life. 4. Increase your awareness of and look out for moments when you feel an irrational thought or attitude coming on. Recognize and identify the emotion and then ask yourself if There is any proof in that? or Is there any evidence that validates this feeling?. 5. Choose the right time and the right place to express your emotion. It doesnt mean that when you control your emotions is that you are ignoring them. 6. Learn to recognize and anticipate triggers that set you off an irrational thought path. Awareness of what triggers us to certain emotions gives us enough time to avoid or handle them. 7. Watch for all or nothing thinking. Most of life is gradient or gray scale, rather than a set of absolutes or extremes. sometimes, its hard to do it yourself. if all fails, seek guidance from a supportive psychologist or therapist. Motivation -Motivation can be defined as an internal state or condition, sometimes described as a need, desire or what that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction (Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1982a). Nature of Motivation Everybody is Motivated

-Contrary to what people think, everyone is motivated but we are not all motivated by the same things, one can be motivated by food but not with a beautifully written poem, motivation can depend on the event, the time, the place. Reasons of Behaving -Looking for the reason behind behavior is difficult. People may lack self-awareness as to the reason for their own behavior. People could be hiding their intentions and may project motivations onto others. Conscious and Unconscious Motivation -Conscious Motivations are motivations that are willful and we are aware of, thus, we can provide rationale and an explanation. -Unconscious Motivations are motivations that we are not aware of. We dont have an understanding of them and people may behave and then question why they did or said that these behaviors may be the result of repressed fears, anxieties, and latent hostilities. Internal or External Locus of Control Internal Locus of Control a person may manifest negative behavior caused by himself. External Locus Control relates the negative behavior to the poor living environment or due to alcoholism, abuse or drug addiction of the parent.

Importance of Motivation Motivation is always present in order to compel action; to set a goal and to drive the individual to try and attain that goal. Whether the goal is actually attainable or not is irrelevant, motivations still exists to compel individuals to try and attain their goals. Theories of Motivation 1. Instinct Theory The assumption of the theory is that there is an innate biological force causing an organism to act in a certain way. These forces are perceived to be automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behavior patterns or reflexive behavior that are elicited when certain stimuli are present.

2. Homeostatic Theories The assumptions of the homeostatic theory are that organisms attempt to maintain homeostasis, the balance of physiological state or equilibrium, by constantly adjusting to the demands of the environment. Two Types of Drives Primary drives one resulting from biological needs, known as innate. Secondary drives drives that result from operant conditioning and the association with primary reinforcements. 3. Arousal Theory The Arousal Theory states that rather than all organisms being motivated to seek to reduce arousal, they seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal and this optimal level varies from organisms to organisms. 4. Incentive Theory According to this theory, people and animals are likely to be activated because they have the tendency to be pulled toward a specific goal. Theorist believes in this idea rather than the assumption that people or animals are pushed to do things. 5. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs One of the most popular theories in motivation is Abraham Maslows Sequential Theory of Development. Maslow made a hypothesis that our needs are prioritized from physiological, to biological, to social, and up to the spiritual. He believed that the needs at the lower levels had to be satisfied before one could focus on satisfying needs at the higher levels. 6. Freudian Concept of Motivation According to the theory of Sigmund Freud, sexual or libidinal and aggressive wishes are the primary motivating forces in human life. 7. Other Concepts of Motivation An American psychologist Magda B. Arnold stated that there are three components of motivation: direction what a person is trying to do effort how hard a person is trying persistence how long a person keeps on trying Two Types of Factors: Intrinsic these are self-generated factors such as responsibility, freedom to act, scope to use and develop skills and abilities.

Extrinsic these are motivations coming from the people around the individual. It may be in a form of rewards, promotion, or even punishment. 8. Needs Theory One of the most influential theories based on the concept of motives is needs theory. This is based on the belief that all behaviors are motivated by unsatisfied needs. 9. Alderfer's ERG Theory Alderfers ERG Theory is the expansion of Maslows hierarchy of needs. He categorized the needs for Existence (E), Relatedness (R), and Growth (G). Alderfer categorized physiological and safety as part of the lower order of needs, the category Existence. 10. McClelland's Needs The theory of motivation by David McClelland is based on Henry Murrays (1938) theory of personality, which sets out a comprehensive model of human needs and motivational processes. Three most important needs: achievement need for competitive success measured against a personal standard of excellence. affiliation need for warm, friendly relationships with others. power need to control and influence others. 11. Herzberg's Two-factor Model Frederick Irving Herzberg (1923-2000) is most famous for introducing job enrichment and the Motivator-Hygiene theory. Motivators are the factors that really motivate people. Hygiene factors are dissatisfiers; with their absence, people would not be motivated but still, with their presence, it is not a guarantee that there will be an improved motivation. Essentially it describes the environment to motivate the individual. 12. Expectancy Theory Victor Vrooms expectancy theory of motivation explained why individuals choose to follow a certain courses of action in organizations, particularly in decision-making and leadership. Expectancy theory predicts that employees in an organization will be motivated when they believe that: -putting in more effort will yield better performance; -better performance will lead to rewards or attainment of reinforcements and; -the rewards received are valued by the individuals. 13. Goal Theory The goal theory could be explained through the identification of the following dichotomies:

a. Mastery/Performance Mastery orientation is described as the individuals desire to become proficient in a certain topic to the best of his/her ability. Therefore, the sense of satisfaction is not influenced by external rewards, but rather it is the sense of self-fulfillment from being able to accomplish something. Ames (1992) stated that mastery orientation is associated with deeper engagement with the task and greater perseverance in the face of setbacks. b. Task/ Ego Involvement This mandates that an individual as a task-involved subject who is interested in the task for its own qualities. This behavior is associated with higher intrinsic motivation. Nicholls (1990) described that taskinvolvement to individuals is less threatening to failure because ego is not tied up in the success of the task. An individual who is ego-involved will seek to perform the task to boost their own ego, for the praise that completing the task might attract, or because completing the task confirms their own selfconcept. Ego-involved individuals can become very anxious or discouraged in the face of failure, because such failure challenges their self-concept. c. Approach/Avoidance goals Basically, not all goals are directed towards approaching a positive outcome. Goals can also be directed towards avoiding an undesirable outcome (Elliot, 1997). It is thought that approach goals contribute positively are higher when individuals are set specific goals. Goals may be difficult but still accepted. As long as they are accepted, difficult goals lead to better performance as compared to those easy goals. In order to enhance the performance, feedback is essential.

14. Adam's Equity Theory John Stacy Adams theory pertains to the perceptions of people about how they are being treated as compared with others. This involves feelings and perceptions as a comparative equitably. Based on the theory, there are two forms of equity Distributive fairness people feel they are rewarded in accordance with their contribution and in comparison with others

Procedural perceptions of employees about fairness of company procedures 15. Other Theories of Motivation Behavioral Theory by Burrhus Skinner. Behavior is learned from conditioning through operations and learning takes place mainly through reinforcement. Attribution theory (Guest) has an explanation of performance after we have invested considerable effort and motivation in a task; there are four (4) types of explanations: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. Motivation depends on the factor used to explain success or failure. Classification of Motives 1. Physiological Motives -these are motives essential for the survival of man for its existence. Need for hunger Hunger is necessary in order for the person to feel the need to take food in the stomach. Need for thirst Water is a life supporting need, without water, dehydration may occur. Need for sleep and rest Rest is both physical and mental need. People need to rest in order to replenish cells damaged due to days activities and at the same time prevent fatigue and boredom. Need for Proper elimination of waste Part of maintaining proper physiological system is the proper elimination of waste. This implies that toxins in the body would be able to get out of our system enabling man to be able to function appropriately. Need for maintaining proper body temperature With regulated amount of temperature, individuals may properly respond to his environment and from its elements. Sex Urges Human sexual behavior is complicated. Males secrete hormones, androgen, while females secrete estrogen. Through these biological factors, these hormones push people for sex.

2. Psychological Motives are motives essential for man to function appropriately as a social being.

Affection It is the nature of man to be attracted towards objects which he considers to be pleasant and moves away from situations which are considered to bring unpleasant stimulations. Security and Safety It is responsible in the stabilization of the persons physical and social life. Affiliation There is always an interest in establishing and maintaining certain relationship with other people whether from his own race of origin or with the others. Status Most individuals have the motive to achieve more compared to their fellowmen. This status may vary from the different groups. Dependency This is the need of having someone to depend on. These could be someone that you could turn to during tight situations, to have someone helping you out, or to be loved and accepted. Social Approval People would then be motivated to try to please the people around them in order to overcome the fear of punishment if the standard are not met.

3. Ego-Integrative Motives are motives that enhance the individuals self-concept. Recognition Man needs to be able to experience a certain degree of achievement for him to develop his worth as part of a group. Power Drive The need for power, a tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual is another type of motivation(Lee-Chai & Bargh, 2001). Achievement This motive tends to define ones goal according to the standards of performance of a person and at the same time the results and output of the performance. General Principles of Motivation

Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to different situations. The environment can be used to focus the individual's attention on what needs to be learned. Interesting objects or materials may motivate individuals by capturing their attention ad curiosity. 1. Incentives Motivate Learning Incentives include privileges and receiving praises. We could determine different forms of incentives that will likely motivate an individual in a particular time. In a general situation, selfmotivation without rewards will not succeed. Individuals must find satisfaction based on the understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things. 2. Both Affiliation and Approval are Strong Motivators People tend to look for others with whom he could compare his abilities, opinions, and emotions. Affiliation can also result in direct reduction of anxiety by the social acceptance and the mere presence of others. 3. Many Behaviors Result from a Combination of Motives Motivation is necessary for maintaining or enhancing behavior that strategies should be planned to organize a continuous and interactive motivational dynamic for maximum effectiveness. Personality Meaning and Nature of Personality Personality is derived from the Latin word persona which means mask. People wear masks in the sense that the behavior that is manifested by differ on the situations that they are in to and people would have to fit in to those situations. Salvador Maddi gave the definition of personality as a STABLE set of INTRAPSYCHIC (INTERNAL) characteristics and tendencies that determines the psychological behavior of people. The behavior determined by personality is RELATIVELY CONSISTENT overtime. According to Adams (1954) - cited personality is I. When you say I, you are summing up everything about yourself your likes and dislikes, fear and virtues, strengths and weaknesses. The word I is what defined you as an individual, as a person separate from all others. Other Definitions of Personality -The entire organization of a human being of any stage of development. -Levels or layers of dispositions, usually with a unifying or integrative principle at the top. -The integration of system or habits that represent an individuals characteristic adjustments to the environment. -Ways of which the person does such things as remembering, thinking, or loving -Those characteristics that account for consistent patterns of behavior -Personality is not an existing substantive entity to be searched for but as a complex construct to be developed and defined by the observer.

-Personality is a dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create a persons characteristics patterns of behavior, thoughts. And feelings. -All that a persona has been, is, and hopes to be (William C. Meanninger) -The sum total of individual characteristics and ways of behaving, which in their organization or patterning, describe an individuals unique adjustment to his environment. (Ernest R. Hilgard) -The total behavior patterns of a person ( Joseph Arnold) -the persons complete package which consists of the individuals physical makeup and thoughts, memories, feelings, motives, reactions and experiences. Factors that Determine and Influence Personality Genetics and Hereditary Factors A new individual develops when the male sex cell (sperm) fertilizes the female sex cell (ovum) during sexual intercourse. Parts of the inherited traits of the person is his aptitude and his ability. It is due to the fact that hereditary influences the childs nervous system which then affects the childs mental development. Environmental Factors A child behavior is also learned from his environment, he learned things like eating, walking, talking and the development of his honesty and fair play based on the accepted behavior patterns in his social environments. The groups of people in which we live with may be classified into two primary groups and secondary groups each of which has some influences in our personality building. Primary Group - An intimate face to face association is the characteristic of the primary group. These are family, playmates, and our neighborhood friends. The school, the church and other small units can also be added to these groups. Secondary Group - Personality development continues in secondary groups. This occurs when the individual increases his level of interaction with his society. Ideally, this happens during the time that the individual enters school or when the family relocates from one place to another. Cultural Influences Personality is not only greatly affected by heredity and its environment. Culture is also considered to be a factor in shaping ones personality. Human beings are involved in social interactions wherein humans have to maintain certain relationships with people and other species in his environment. Traits and States Traits Traits are enduring dimensions of personality characteristics along which people differ, thus it distinguishes the qualities or characteristics of a person. Trait refers to the readiness to think or act in a similar fashion in response to a variety of different stimuli or situations.

State State is considered as a temporary alteration o ones personality, trait assumes that people differ on variables or dimensions that are continuous. People are seen to be different in the amounts or quantities of a characteristic rather than differ in the quality of their characteristics. Idiographic versus Nomothetic Idiographic view Idiographic view views people to have unique personality structures: thus, some traits like the cardinal trait is more important in understanding the structure of some people than others. Nomothetic view Nomothetic view indicates the peoples unique personalities can be understood as having relatively greater or lesser amounts of traits that are consistent across people. It emphasizes comparability among individuals but sees people as unique in their combination of traits. This viewpoint sees traits as having the same psychological meaning in everyone. Theories of Personality Freud proposed five psychosexual stages of personality development: 1. Oral Stage (birth to 1 year old) pleasure is located in the mouth. 2. Anal Stage (2 years old) pleasure is primarily in the anus. 3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years old) manipulation of the phallus is prominent, Oedipus and Electra complex is present. 4. Latency Period (7 years old-puberty) there is repression of sexual interests. Instead, social and intellectual skills are developed. 5. Genital Stage (puberty-onwards) a time of sexual reawakening and the source of sexual pleasure becomes with someone who is outside the family. Trait Theories Lewis Goldberg - proposed a five-dimension personality model, from thee work of Cattell and his associates he developed the theory and nicknamed it as the Big Five. Five Dimension Openness to experience open to new ideas and change vs. traditional and oriented toward routine Conscientiousness dutiful, organized, and orderly vs. laidback, spontaneous, and unreliable Extraversion outgoing and stimulation oriented vs. quiet and stimulation avoiding Agreeableness affable, friendly, conciliatory vs. aggressive, dominant, disagreeable Neuroticism emotionally reactive, prone to negative emotions vs. calm, imperturbable, optimistic Type theories

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. Personality types differ from personality traits in different level of degrees. Dimensions: Extraversion vs. Introversion Intuition vs. Sensing where trust in conceptual/abstract models of reality versus concrete sensoryoriented facts Thinking vs. Feeling it considers thinking as the prime-mover in decision-making vs. feelings as the prime-mover in decision-making Perceiving vs. Judging as desire to perceive events vs. desire to have things done so judgments can be made Psychoanalytic Theories It describes development as primary unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed and understand behavior. In the theory, the emphasis is given to the early experiences that the child had with his/her parents. According to Freud, the human personality can be broken down to three significant components: 1. Id - considered to be the savage desires and raw urges 2. Ego - the reality-testing structure that helps the id in expressing itself 3. Superego - considered as the moral arm of personality, exercises moral judgment and societal rules in keeping the ego and id in check. Neo-Freudian Concepts Alfred Adler, one Sigmund Freuds earlier associates, he believed that birth order may influence personality development. Heinz Kohut thought similarly to Freuds idea of transference. He used narcissism as a model of how we develop our sense of self. Narcissism is the exaggerated sense of one self in which is believed to exist in order to protect ones low self-esteem and sense of worthlessness. Karen Horney, is credited with the development of the real self and the ideal self. Object Relations Theory, the object is the aim of relational needs in human development. It was Freud who coined the term object to refer to the target that an infant uses to satisfy his or her needs. Behavioral theories Behaviorists explain personality in terms of reaction s to external stimuli. Behaviorism believes that children do bad things in order to get the attention they crave. Ivan Pavlov is well-known for his classical conditions experiments utilizing a dog.

John B. Watson, the Father of American Behaviorism, made four major assumptions about radical Behaviorisms: Evolutionary Continuity Reductionism Determinism Empiricism Cognitive theories Cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions or expectations abut the world, especially those about other people. Albert Bandur - a social learning theorist suggested that the forces of memory and emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences. Bandura was known mostly for his studies involving his bobo doll. Other theories central to this field have been: Self-efficacy work - dealing with confidence people have in abilities to do tasks. Locus of control theory - dealing with different beliefs people have about whether their world are controlled by themselves or external factors. Attributional style theory - dealing with different ways in which people explain events in their lives Psychosocial Theory One of the well-known theories of personality is the Psychosocial Theory of Homburger Erikson. Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Eriksons theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Humanistic theories In humanistic psychology, it is emphasized that people have free will and that they play an active role in determining how they behave. Abraham Maslow developed his concept of what he calls self-actualizing persons. Maslow includes four key dimensions: Key Dimensions: 1. Awareness maintaining constant enjoyment and awe of life. These individuals often experienced a peak experience. A peak experience is one in which an individual perceives an expansion of his or herself, and detects a unity and meaningfulness in life. 2. Reality and problem centered have the tendency to be concerned with problems in their surroundings 3. Acceptance/Spontaneity accepts their surroundings and what cannot be changed

4. Unhostile sense of humor/democratic, those who do not like joking about others, which can be viewed as offensive Biopsychological Theories It was in the 1990s that neuroscience entered the domain of personality psychology. Neuroscience introduced powerful brain analysis tools like Electroencephalography (EEG), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to this study. Personality Disorders A personality disorder is identified by a pervasive pattern of experience and behavior that is abnormal with respect to any two of the following: thinking, mood, personal relations, and the control of impulses. There are 10 distinct personality disorders identified in the DSM IV-TR: Antisocial personality Disorder Avoidant Personality Disorder Borderline Personality Disorder Dependent Personality Disorder Histrionic Personality Disorder Narcissistic Personality Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder Paranoid Personality Disorder Schizoid Personality Disorder Schizotypal Personality Disorder Treatment of Personality Disorders Filipino Traits A personality disorder is identified by a pervasive pattern of experience and behavior that is abnormal with respect to any two of the following: thinking, mood, personal relations, and the control of impulses. Smooth Interpersonal Relations or SIR (Pakikisama or concession, Use of euphemistic language, Use of go-between) Hiya Ningas Kugon Utang na Loob Bahala Na Hospitality Amoral Familism Definition

Health Psychology Is the study of psychological or behavioral factors affecting physical health & illnesses. Psychological Factors that Influence Physical & Mental Health It has been proven that are stress related, such as: Headaches, ulcers, tooth decay, diabetes, asthma, arthritis, and heart diseases. Psychological stress makes us more susceptible to the common cold influenza, and other communicable diseases. Women are found to be prone to coronary heart disease. Personality type is also linked to physical disease. Type A behavior pattern is said to be prone to stress and illness. This type of behavior is characterized by: Chronic Activation Which is the tendency to be always on the go , stay alert, & focused in everything he does, even it is mundane. Time consciousness That is no wasted time, time is precious. Multiphasia The tendency to have several works to do simultaneously. STRESS Is a common experience. We may feel stress because of the following reason: We are very busy Have important deadlines to meet. Have too little time to finish all of our tasks Have too little time to finish all of our tasks. Problems at work or in social relationship with family, friends and colleagues at work.. Nature of Stress The word stress seems hard to define because it could be subjective. People dont have the same response to the same circumstances. Instead, stress depends on how people appraise or evaluate environmental events. It is a physical and mental response to an unacceptable disparity between real or imagined personal experience and expectations. TYPES OF STRESSORS

Stressors are psychological or physical demanding events or circumstances. Stressors dont always increase the risk of illness. They tend to affects health more when they are chronic, highly disruptive, or perceived as uncontrollable. Catastrophic Events A catastrophe is a sudden, often life threatening calamity or disasters that pushes people to the outer limits of their coping capability. Catastrophes include natural disasters such as earthquakes, tornadoes, fires, flashfloods, & hurricanes. It also includes man-made disasters like wars, tortures, automobile accidents, violent physical attacks, & sexual assaults. Major life changes Life changes, such as death of a spouse or family member, divorce, imprisonment, losing ones job, & major personal disability or illness. Daily Hassles Pertaining to our jobs, personal relationships, & everyday living circumstances. CAUSES OR INTERNAL SOURCES OF STRESS Stress occurs when people experience frustration, conflict, or pressure. Frustration It occurs when an individual is blocked or thwarted in reaching a goal. Frustration can trigger aggression.

It can be: 1.) Personal frustration- stress may occur if the person cannot accept his limitations & weaknesses. 2.) Environmental frustration may result when environmental situation blocks her attainment of a goal. Conflict Occurs when two incompatible goals possible behavior responses are simultaneously present. When conflicts are unresolved, they cause stress. Four Types or Patterns: Pressure - occurs when a person feels compelled to behave in a particular way because of his selfexpectations from others. Approach-approach conflict the least stressful, occurs when a person tries to choose between two desirable options. Approach-avoidance conflict typically more streesful and quite common, occurs when people must decide whether to do something that has both positive and negative aspects.

Avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when people have to choose between two undesirable options. Double approach-avoidance conflict in real life the individual is frequently faced with having to choose between two or more goals. Effects of Stress 1. The Stress Response When a person appraises an event as stressful, the body undergoes a number of changes that heighten physiological and emotional arousal. Stress could be eustress (positive stress) or distress (negative stress) which are considered challenge or overload, respectively.

Stage 1. Alarm Stage In this stage, an organism detects a threatening situation, thus activating the Sympathetic Nervous System and causes physiological reaction such as increase palpitation of the heart, rises in blood pressure, and activates the adrenal hormone.

Stage 2. Resistance or Adaptation The resistance stage occurs when stress continues.

Stage 3. Exhaustion Stage If stress is prolonged, an organism reaches the exhaustion stage. 2. Disease Physicians increasingly acknowledge that stress is a contributing factor in various health problems. 3. Decreased Immune Response Numerous studies have linked stress with decreased immune response. 4. Mental Illness People who experience a high level of stress for a long time and who cope poorly with stress may become irritable, socially withdrawn, and emotionally unstable. COPING WITH STRESS

Coping with stress means using thoughts and actions to deal with stressful situations and lower our stress levels.

Adjustment - refers to any attempt we make to cope with a stressful situation, balancing our needs and desires against the demands of the environment and the realistic possibilities available to us.

Conscious- attempt of coping with stressful situations is considered as well-adjusted or coping mechanism.

Problems-focused coping- a person tries to short-circuit negative emotion by taking some action to modify, avoid, or minimize the threatening situation. They change their behavior to deal with the stressful situation.

Emotion-focused coping- a person tries to directly moderate or eliminate unpleasant emotions.

Direct Coping- which is an action taken by a person to change an uncomfortable situation. 1. Coping Strategies Defense Mechanism - the unconscious attempt of overcoming frustration. Abnormal or Maladaptive Behavior - when a person cannot cope with his frustration and his coping and defensive. reactions are still inadequate situation. Confrontation - in which by confronting a stressful situation. Compromise usually resolves a conflict by forcing a person to settle for less than what is originally sought. Withdrawal- which sometimes considered as the most effective way of coping with a stressful situation. Meditation - is another method which is designed to achieve contemplation, wisdom, and altered states of consciousness. One of the most common forms is the transcendental meditation. 2. Social Support Support from friends, family members, and others who care for us can help us buffer stress. Social support system provides us with emotional sustenance, tangible resources and aid, and information when we are in need. People with social support feel cared about and valued by others and feel a sense of belonging to a larger social network. 3. Biofeedback Is a technique in which people learn voluntarily control of stress related physiological responses, such as skin temperature, muscle tension, blood pressure and heart rate.

4. Relaxation Is a good way of coping with stress. One method of relaxation is progressive muscular relaxation which involves systematic tensing and then relaxing different groups of skeletal (voluntary) muscles, while directing attention towards the contrasting sensations produced by the two procedures. 5. Aerobic Exercises Is helpful in releasing stress. It increases the endurance of the heart and lungs, thus an aerobically fit individual has lower heart rate and lower blood pressure, less reactivity to stress and can quickly recover from stress. Moreover, studies show that people who exercises regularly have higher self-esteem and suffer less anxiety and depression. continuation... When the frustrations seem overwhelming and the persons coping and defense mechanisms become futile and inadequate, it may result to abnormal reactions, neurosis and psychosis. Neurosis is a mild mental disorder while psychosis is a severe mental disorder that needs hospitalization. 1. Anxiety Neurosis This is characterized by excessive feelings of apprehension, helplessness, and indecision without apparent reasons. 2. Phobia This is an irrational fear of a specific object, situations, or even person. Though the person knows that his reaction is irrational he finds it hard to overcome. 3. Obsessive-compulsive This is characterized by persistent unreasonable ideas and reactions. Obsession is a condition in which useless and irrational ideas seem to persist, in a persons consciousness./ It is impulse to carry out a compulsion. Compulsion is a useless and irrational act which the person is compelled to perform a stereotyped action a ritual such as too frequent washing of hand. An extreme obsessive-compulsive reaction is known as mania such as kleptomania, a compulsive to steal though he does not need it, or sex mania, overindulgence to sexual activity. 4. Conversion Reactions also known conversion hysteria./ This is a condition wherein psychological conflicts are converted into physical symptoms example; hysterical paralysis, inability to move his voluntary muscles; hysterical mutism, inability to speak; hysterical deafness, inability to hear; and hysterical anesthesia, which is loss of sensitivity. Neurasthenia is a less severe conversion reaction whereby the person feels tired all the time. A person who already experiencing burn-out in his job may experience palpitation of the heart and feels pain in his body.

5. Hypochondria A condition whereby a person has an unusual preoccupation of his health. A hypochondriac individual is always worried about his health and physical condition. 6. Dissociative reactions These reactions are neurotic reactions in which important episodes in the life of an individual are repressed in response to extreme stress. A.) Amnesia which refers to temporary loss of memory that would remind him of a threatening situation, but he can still recall episodic part of his memory such as eating, speaking and walking; B.) Fugue is another form characterized by loss of memory that continues for a long period of time and accompanied by physical flight. C.) Multiple personality, this an extreme dissociative reaction whereby a person may develop two or more distinct personalities in which personality developed is completely unaware of each other Other Maladaptive Reactions to Stressful Situations or Frustrations 1. Alcoholism It is a personality disorder characterized by excessive and compulsive drinking and eventually increases his intake until it becomes severe and already accompanied by hallucinations, disorientation, disturbed intellectual function, and deteriorated personality. 2.Drug Addiction People who are confronted with stress and frustrations sometimes resort to drugs if not alcohol. Drugs, whether natural or synthetic when taken repeatedly may cause detrimental effect to the psychological and physical well-being of an individual. It becomes chronic as the person increases his intake and eventually becomes fatal. 3. Sexual Deviations This is brought by underlying conflict and needs at the unconscious level, early exposure to sex and other causes.

3.1 Voyeurism - is a sexual disorder in which a person finds satisfaction by watching erotic behaviors of other people or watching pornographic films. 3.2 Exhibitionism is a behavior in which the person finds satisfaction from exhibiting his body particularly his sex organ to other people. Usually, he finds it enjoyable doing it in public places and creates fear among girls. 3.3 Sadism - refers to sexual disorder in which the person finds gratification when he conflicts pain to other people usually while having sexual activity with his partner.

3.4 Masochism - is a condition whereby the person gained satisfaction when being hurt by others or his partner. 3.5 Frotteurism is the recurrent urge to slap oneself or touching or rubbing against a non- consenting person. 3.6 Pedophilia is the sexual attraction to young children. 3.7 Fetishism is the use of inanimate objects to gain sexual excitement. 3.8Transvestic Fetishism is a sexual attraction towards the clothing of the opposite gender. Psychotic Reactions This is a severe reaction manifested by a person when he can no longer overcome or cope with stressful situations. The person in this condition already loses contact with reality. Schizophrenia Is characterized by withdrawal from reality and a severe disturbance of his intellectual and emotional functioning and continues for six months coupled with deterioration of social and occupational functioning. Manic-depressive psychosis Is also known as bipolar disorder is characterized by emotional distortion consisting of recurrent episodes of depression and elation occurring simultaneously. Schizoaffective Disorder Has both psychotic and mood disturbances. Schizophreniform Disorder Has the same symptoms which schizophrenia but the episode lasts from 1-6 months and there is no deterioration of status. Brief Psychotic Disorder has psychotic symptoms that last between 1 and 30 days. Delusions & Hallucinations Delusions are described as false, inaccurate beliefs that the person holds into himself although he is given already accurate information. 1. Grandiose delusion

Which occurs when a persons belief about his importance or status in life is grossly out of proportion to what is really true like for example a person believes that he is a Messiah. 2. Persecutory delusion Occurs when a person believes that somebody will attack him or there is a conspiracy to harass or punish him.

Hallucinations are internal sensory perceptions such as sight or sound that are not actually present; it includes: 1. Visual hallucinations In which a person who suffers from this condition claims that he sees the image of something that is not real such as seeing the Virgin Mary. 2. Auditory hallucinations In which a person may hear voices that are not really present. Mental health is a psychological state of well-being, characterized by continuing personal growth, a sense of purpose in life, self acceptance, and positive relations with others.

1. Self-acceptance or self esteem 2. Positive evaluation of oneself and ones past experiences; 3. Personal growth reflected in ones sense of continued psychological growth and development; 4. Has sense of purpose and meaning in life; 5. Good interpersonal relationship with others; 6. Environmental mastery; the capacity to manage effectively the surrounding world; 7. Has sense of autonomy; 8. Has sense of self- determination; 9. Has the ability to balance between positive and negative emotions; 10. Has the ability to control ones own life. Psychological and Medical Treatment of Abnormal Behaviors There are two categories of treating mental and behavior disorders; psychological and medical treatment. Psychological treatment is known as psychotherapy which is a treatment of individuals with emotional problems, behavioral problems, or mental illness primarily through verbal communication. In individual therapy

A patient or client meets regularly with a therapist; typically over a period of weeks or months. In group therapy A small group of people meet regularly to discuss individual issues and help each other with problems with the guidance of a trained therapist Psychodrama is one group therapy where individuals in the group will act out various life situations. In family therapy or couples therapy. 1. Art therapy or creative therapy Which uses creative process to help people who might difficulty expressing thoughts and feelings. 2. Behavior therapy Refers also to behavior modification, sets up rewards and punishments to change thinking patterns and shapes behavior. 3. Cognitive therapy Is also a therapy designed to help a person identify and change distorted thought patterns that can lead to feelings and behaviors that are troublesome self-defeating or self-destructive. 4. Cognitive-behavior therapy Known as CBT helps a person to recognize his negative thought patterns and behaviors and to replace them with positive ones. 5. Dialectical behavior therapy DBT is a type of cognitive-behavior therapy in which the primary objective is to teach behavioral skills to help a person tolerate stress, regulate emotions, improve relationship with others. 6. Existential therapy Is a therapy that deals with the important life themes, includes living and dying, freedom, responsibility to self and others meaning in life, and dealing with a sense of meaninglessness. 7. Exposure therapy It is a form of therapy that deliberately exposes a person to the thing or situation that he finds upsetting or disturbing. 8. Gestalt This therapy is based on the here and now of living . The other idea is that we are caught in a web of relationship with all things. It is only possible to truly know ourselves as we exist in relation to other things. A well-known Gestalt technique is an empty- chair technique,- in which an empty chair represents another person or another part of the clients self. 9. Interpersonal therapy IPT

It is a short term therapy often used to treat depression. This treatment focuses on an individuals social relationships and how to improve social support. 10. Person-Centered therapy This is originally called client-centered therapy which emphasizes understanding and caring rather than diagnosis, advice, and persuasion. A genuine therapist true interest in the client and is open and honest. An accepting therapist cares for the client unconditionally, even if the therapist does not always agree with him. 11. Phototherapy or light therapy Is used to treat people who suffer from seasonal affective disorder (SAD) a form of depression brought by change of season within the geographic location. 12. Play therapy Is geared manly for young children at specific developmental levels. It makes use of variety techniques, including playing with dolls or toys, painting or other activities. 13. Psychoanalysis In this therapy a person has to examine memories, events, and feelings from the past to understand current feelings and behavior. It is based on the theory that childhood events and biological urges create an unconscious mind that drives a person to think, feel, and behave .In the course of the therapy, the patient may develop transference, in which the patient may identify the therapist with other person who has been the center of his emotional conflict. 14. Psychodynamic psychotherapy This therapy focuses on increasing a persons awareness of his consciousness thoughts and behaviors, developing new insights, and resolving conflicts to live a happier life. It is less intense and less frequent as compared with psychoanalysis, usually a year or less. 15. Rational- Emotive Behavior therapy This therapy works on the theory of Albert Ellis who believes that most of the emotional disturbances are brought by the persons perception of an event or situation in an irrational way. 16. Reality therapy This is a therapy developed by William Glasser in the 1960s, who believes that all human behavior is motivated by fundamental needs and specific wants. 17. Transactional Analysis This therapy is developed by Eric Berne who view that when people interact with each other, they function either as a parent, adult, or child. For example, he would characterize social interactions between the two people as parent-adult, parent-child, adult- child, adult-adult, and so forth depending on the situation.

18. Electic therapy This is a combination of therapies used by the therapist to suit the needs of the client. Medical Treatment or Biological Therapy Pharmacotherapy Is a therapy which uses drugs such as tranquilizers and energizers for threating emotionally disturbed and mentally ill persons. There are three categories of drugs which are found to relieve major symptoms;

Anti-psychotic drugs Known as a major tranquilizer were found to have a calming effect on mental patients. The first of these wa the reserpine but have a negative effect such as low blood pressure and to some patients, may cause severe depression. Other psychotic drugs that are found to be effective in relieving major symptoms and most widely used is the chlorpromazine (thorazine) and followed by other anti-psychotic drugs. Antidepressant drugs There are two basic types namely; monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO inhibitors) and the trycyclics. Both may reduce depression as it may increase the concentration of certain neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepineprine in the synaptic gap. The negative side effects of these antidepressant drugs include irregular heartbeat, blurred vision, and constipation. Anti anxiety drugs Examples of these drugs are barbiturates and benzodiazepines such as dia zepam(valium) chlodiazepoxide (Librium), and alprazolam (Xanax). While benzodiazepines are highly effective in countering anxiety, the people who take it for a long period of time may become psychologically dependent on them, thus he may find it difficult to sleep without the drug. Lithium Lithium carbonate is helpful in treating manic-depressive or bipolar mood disorder but intake of excessive doses may prove to be fatal. Electroconvulsive shock therapy Is a treatment for depression in which patients receive powerful electric shocks to the head. It involves placing electrodes on the patients temples and delivering shock of more than 100 volts for brief intervals-less than one second at a time. These are continued until the patient has a seizure lasting at least thirty seconds (Baron,1992), Insulin shock is the administration of insulin which produces a prolonged coma-like state in the patient (Bustos,et al..1999)

Psychosurgery Moniz (1935), a Portuguese psychiatrist attempted to reduce aggressive behavior in psychotic patients by severing neural connections between the prefrontal lobes and the remaining brain.this is known as lobotomy.