Physics72.1 Laboratory Manual

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PHYSICS 72.1,
LABORATORY MA}{TJAL
by'
Rommel C. Gutierrez Maricor N. Soriano

Rumelo Amor
Marie Ann Michelle Calix
Edmundo Casulla LizaDavtla Michelee Patricio PetetJohn Rodrigo Miguel Yambot
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Fitst Edition, June 2000 Second Edition, Jun e 2001,

Edited by: Edmundo Casulla
LizaDavtla
Christine Ison Jonathan Palero PeterJohn Roddgo Miguel Yambot
Policies and guidelines
EXPERIMENTS
1. Electric field and field potential
2. Ohm's law 7
3. Resistors in series and parallel 19 4. Ktrchoff's rules 25 5. Electromagnetic induction 33 6. Introduction to alternating current (ac) circuits 43
7. Optical disk: reflection and refraction 57
8. Image formation using thin lenses 67

References 74
1.
Grading System
Laboratory Reports Practical Exam N-ritten Final Exam Recitation, Quizzes, etc 60%
1,5%
1.50
10%
1,00%
TOTAL
Grade Equivalent
100
>x 92 >x 88 >x 84 >x 80 >x 76 >x
72 >x 68 >x 64 >x 6o >x 50 >x
> > > >
68 +2.50 64 +2.75 60 -+3.00 5o +4'oo > 0 ->5.00
Z.
Laboratory Report Guidelines

I.
Data sheets (or the manual itself) are collected by the instructor at the end of each experiment, and ate returned during specified periods for wdting the report. II. Laboratory reports are accomplished individualty and only during r.port-*riti.rg sessions. They are collected at the end of these periods. References (textbooks and journals only) are allowed during these sessions.
3.
Genetal Guidelines
If a student misses an experiment, he has to present a medical certificate (in cases where applicable) from the UP Infirmary within.seven (7) days of the absence, or within the first day he is able to come to class. Failure to do so forfeits the student's right to a make-up experiment. Only two experiments are allowed for make-up. II' In the event a student misses the final exam or practical exam, a grade of "INC" is given with the tematk "missed the final exam" or "missed the practical exam." III. A grade of "DRP" or dropped is given upon the initiation of the student, and provided he submits a copy of the dtopping slip to his instructor. The same rule applies to students who file a leave of absence pOA). fV' A grade of "4.0" impJies that the student should retake the course as there is no
I.
v.
A student who
has not submitted at least 4 experiments by the droppingdate automatically be given a failing grade of "5.0" if the student has not dropped.
will
National Instirute of Physics, Up Diliman
I}iTRODUCTION
The electrostatic force on charge qo due to
charge 4 is given by (Coulomb's law):
per charge qoin moving the charge berween rwo
points
(1
in an electric field, E is called the
F-
kq!,,
potential difference AZbetween the points:

.1)
LVu,
where
where r is the distance between the charges, i is the unit vector pointing from q to ,q, and the consrant , is 9.0 x 10e N-m2 /cz. The direction of the force on a charge may be determined :sing the law of charges. Like charges repel and ';ilike charges attr^ct.
-Vz-V, -vru =it Ot

40)
Q.4)
dl is thepath from A to B.
of
For a finite path length Ad the magnirude the electric field is given by:
The electric field is defined as the electrical

:orce per unit charge, or
lal=+
angles
(1.s)
-tr lr-_
4o
If a charge is moved ilong a path at right

(1.2)
(unit is N/C).
ot perpendicular to the field, there is no
work done M=0), since there is no force

path,
na the case
of the electric field associated with a s:agle source charge Q, the magnitude of the sectric field a distance r away from the charge q
:s
component along the path. Then along such p
LVru =Vt -Ve

Vu
=Y=g.
4o
(1.6) (1.7)
r =9r =L=\!r?= r Qo q,r'
(1.3)
=Vn'
a free charge, 4,, is released in the vicinity :i a stationary soufce charge, it would move .{ong a line of force. Since a free charge moves '- an electric field by the action of the electric iorce, work is done by the field in moving the 'd:arge from one point to another. The work IV
If
Hence, the potential is constant along paths peqpendicular to the field lines. Such paths are called equipotential lines (or equipotential surfaces in three dimensions).
oBIECTT\rE To determine the equipotential surfaces in an electrolytic ank and estimate the direction and the snitude of the electric field.
\Ea.uJ
Institute of Physics, UP Diliman
1.
Electric Field and Field Potential
MATERIALS
Fig. 1.1 The experiment set-up, Two cylindrical electrodes ate immersed in a shallow pool of watet of constant depth. The elecrodes ate Placed at (0r8)
and (0,-4).
PROCEDURE
1.
Pour water on the electtolytic tank. Put two disc electodes at coordinates (0,8) and (0,-4). Attach the connectors to the probe, pov/er supply and voltmeter as shown in Fig. 1.1.
4.
Obtain an estimate
of the electric
field
2. !7ith the probe tip on the electrolytic tank, determine 5 to 10 coordinates with a potential value of 1.0 V. Do not make a
table
on Graph 1.1 in the data sheet. The symmetry of the gtven electrode
configuration allows you to limit the plot to
of values, instead plot the coordinates
(magnitude and dkection) at the points of intersection of the equipotential Line V(*,1) = 3,0 V 'nth x = 0, 2, 4,6. Get the values of Alby measuring the perpendicular distance ftom each of these points to an adjacent equipotential line and AV from the difference in potential between *re 3.0 V line and this adiacent equipotential line. Represent the electric field vector, -E at these points by arrows using a scale of
cm
the first and fouth quadrants. It convenient to make eithet x- or
is
for
5.
uolt/cm. Show sample calculations the magnitude and draw the E vectors
:I
y-
on Graph 1.1.
coordinate an integer when locating a point in an equipotential line. Choose the points such that they span the whole area of the tank. Trace the equipotential line fot a potential of 1.0 V.
in (0, 8) with a long rod oriented peqpendicular to the yaxis. Repeat steps 2 to 4 and Plot
Replace the disc electrode coordinates on Graph 1.2.
3.
Perform step 2 fot potentials of 2.0 V, 3.0 V, 4.0 V, 5.0 V and 6.0 V.
National Institute of Physics, UP Diliman
1. Electric Field and
Fidd Potc*id
\-ame:
Partners:
Date Performed:
Date Submitted:
lrsrructor:
Section:
Gruph
l.l
Electric Field and Field Potential for Two Disc Electrodes
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Calculations
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1. Electric Field and Field Fotential
Graph L.2 Electric Field and Field Potentid for One Disc Electrode and One Rod Electode
Calculations
National Institute of Physics, UP Dilirnan
Physics 72.1
1.
Electric Field and Field Potcrtid
QUESTTONS
1.
The direction of the electdc field is indicated on field lines. \Why are there no directions indicated on equipotential lines?
Use the equipotential lines to explain why the surface charge density Lt each electrode is not uniform.
Use the equipotential lines and associated lines edge of the tank.
of force to show that there are excess charges at the
For the electrode configurations in Graphs 1.1 and1,.2, comment on the electric field (a) between the electodes, and (b) near the edges of the electrodes. In what region(s) does the electric field have the greatest intensity? How is this determined from the plot?
l5nel
lostin:te of Physics, UP Dilirnan
1,
ElectricField arld Ficld
Iflstitteof
Physics, UP Diliman
t,
INTRODUCTION Ohm's Law states the linear relationship between the voltage ar-rd current of an electrical &cuit that contains resistors only. It is stated in the following way: 'If t])e Empqdture and otbq fiiyical conditions ofa ntewllic confucnr is unclnngd,
the ratio oftbe potential dffirence to tbe current is constant."
The resistance of an ohmic conducting wire is found to be proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. Its constant of proportionality is called resistivity of the conductor, p. The SI unit of p is the ohm-meter (O-*).
This onsant is knovrn to be the resistane of the @ndrctor. Nlarhernatically, Ohm's law may expressed as:
(2.r) AV:IR where AV is the potential difference (also called voltag.) across the metal conductor measured in volts (V), I is the current through the conductor measured in amperes (4, ,nd R is the resistance of the conductor meazured in ohms (O).
*: r1
Q.2)
The resistivity, p of any metal varies almost linearly with temperature. It is usually given in tables in tenns of its value pa x 2ffC and the temperature coefficient, o. The produa pao is defined as the slope of th. p vs. T curve. The raistivity at some other temperature T fC), is:
p(T)=p,[t+o(T-20)]
Q.3)
Although the definition
resistance for nonohmic materials is the same as that for ohmic materials, the resistance R, defined for non-ohmic materials is currentdependent. Nonohmic materials will not give us a linear voltage ns. Errrent behavior.
of
Table 2.L below shows raistivity values at 200C and temperature coefficients of resistance based on the resistance of some corlmon
conductors at
OoC.
German (nickel), silver
Table 2.1Resi$ivities and temperature coefficients of common metals
IoBIECTTVE
To determine the behavior of an ohmic material
as a
function of vol
, current and resistance
!{riood
Iostitute of Physics, UP Diliman
Physics 72.1
2. Ohm's Law
MATERIALS materials we will use fot this experiment ate enumerated below and are illustrated in Figure 2.1.. The circuit diagrams in
The
Variable power supply. Its output voltage
the Procedure makes use of the symbols below.
is0Vtoabout6V. 2-m wire. This will be our resistor. The
Multimeter. This
will
serve as the
wire is
made of
German-nickel.
voltmeter, ammetef and ohmmeter.
l'lMultimeter Variable Supply Power
power supply
re s isto r
connectors
voltm eter
am m eter
2-M Resistance wire
Fig 2.1 Equipment used in the experiment. Fig2.2 Symbols used in the citcuit diagtams.
ohm m eter
PROCEDURE
Read and undetstand the general instructions experiments.
in the text box below before proceeding with
the
To avoid damage to the meters, always start rilrith the metet on its least sensitive scale. Increase the sensitilty of the meter only as needed fot accurate measurementr and temembet
to retuflr the meter to its least sensitive scale before proceeding. (tacfoss" so, voltmetets afe connected patallel to the citcuit element. Voltages afe measured Culents are measured ,,through', so ammeters are connected in series with the circuit element.
Tum off the power supply when not measuring. Before using the ohmmeter to measure the resistance of the resistance wire, always disconnect the tesistance wire ftom the powet supply and othet metefs.
A. Variation of voltage with current
1.
Measute
the following quantities: the resistance of the 2-m wire using an

ohmmetet, the room temPerature duting the experiment and the diameter of the wite.
Recotd these values in Data Table 2.1. Perfotm 5 trials in measuring the room temperature and the diameter of the wire.
ta'eh'l wc a(c in am?re reXiro<' {\c'

2.
3.
ZOhmtkt
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.3.
2-m wire and the potential difference

between points A and B.
Set the output current
of the power supply to a minimum. Turn the knob of the powet

supply to vary the output current.
4.
The
Take five readings of curtent and voltage for uniformly increasing values of current
suggested increment
step
is
apptoximately 0.1 A. Measure and record in Data Table 2.2 the currenr supplied to the
Fig.2.3 Citcuit fot A.
B. Variation of Curent with Resistance
l. Use the sarne affangement as shown in

Figure 2.3.
2.
5.
Remove all the wires connected to the 2-m wire. Measure and record its resistance at different lengths using an ohmmeter.
Set the voltage from the power supply
to
minimum. Increase the voltage from the power supply until current is read in the ammeter. Record this current irData Table
2.3.
3.
Decrease the length of the wire by increments of 40 cm (Figure 2.4). At each length, measure the current. Take five different lengths.
4.
Keep the voltage constant throughout

this part of the experiment.
Fig.2.4 Citcuit fot B.
C. Variation of Potential with Resistance I. Connect the apparatus

as shown in Fig. 2.5. Make sure that the terminal A is the zero end of the 2-m resistance wire.
z
3.
Measure the voltage and recotd Table 2.4.
it in Data
Increase the length of the wire between terminals A and C by increments of 40 cm. Take the voltage at 5 diffetent lengths.
{. Keep the current constant

this part of the experiment.
[HDl
throughout
Fig. 2.5 Circuit for C.
Iostitute of Physics, tlP Diliman
Physics 72.1
National Institr-rte of Physics,
Physics 72.1
2.
Date Performed: Date Submitted:
OhEt
Law
Name: Partners:
Data Table 2.1 Theoretical values of resistivity and resistance
COMPUTED PARAMETERS
. * i:+!J
: :=:
0.4
Cross-section area:
====+tr :,".,===..1I.?#
:,'. :i:l::'.r:..;i:;i =r:.'r!:.i-f,'
Resistivity (from Eq. 2.3):

Resistance (from Eq. 2.2)z Resistance (ohmmeter):
ToerrOr:
3:.
=.*.# :::::::t:-.r,ri
.-,5
::::::::t::irri
Calculations
\^cond
Institute of Phpics, UP Diliman
Data Table 2.2Yoltage vs. Current
LINEAR REGRESSION
Resistance (ohmmeter)z
Au')
Calculations
Nationd Institute of Physics, UP Dilimao
Phpics 72.1
2.
Ohn'r
Irw
Data Table 2.3 Current vs. Resistance
LINEAR REGRESSION
Slope:
y-intercept: Constant voltage (voltmeter):

o/oettOti
l.v
Calculations
lkhoal
lnstitute of Physics, UP Diliman
Physics 72.1
2. Ohm's Lew
Data Table 2.4 Voltage vs. Resistance
TINEAR REGRESSION
Slope:
y-intercept:
Constant current (ammeter):
o/oettOfi
Calculations
Netiond Iastitute of Physics, UP pilimrn
Physics 72.1
2.
Ohmt Law
QUESTIONS
1'.
Use the data in Data Table 2.2 to plot a curve in the gridlines provided below.
Voltage (V)
Cunent (A)
Inteqpret the significance of the shape and intercept of the curve. !7hy is the slope of the curve the resistance of the 2-m wire?
Account for any discrepancies among the values of the resistance in Data Table 2.1, and Data Table
2.2.
lPiml
ln5dhrle of Physics, UP Diliman
Physics 72.1
2. Ohm's l-aw
4.
Use Data Table 2.3 to plot the variation of current with the reciprocal of the resistance.
Gurrent (A)
1/Resistance
(o'')
5.
Compare the slope with the constant V used fot this procedure. Account for orry discrepancy.
2. Ohm's
Iaw
6.
Use Data Table 2.4 to plot voltage vs. resistance alld resistance vs. length, L.
Voltage (V)
Resistance (Q)
Resistance (Ct)
Length (cm)
Compare the slope of the V vs. R plot with the constant discrepancy
used for this procedure. Account for any
hl
Institute of Physics, UP Dilirnan
2 Ohm'sLaw
8.
Calculate the tesistivity, p ftom the slope of the resistance vs. Iength graPh. (Show yout calculations belovr) Compate this result with the p inData Table2'7'
Ili
INTRODUCTION
For resistors connected in series, the current passing through each resistor is the same, but the voltage depends on the value of the resistor. The totai potential difference of resistors in series is the sum of the potential differences acfoss each resistor.
For
Run
resistors connected
ifi
series, the
(3.1)
effective resistance of the whole circuit is:
=& +& +&
+...+&
For resistors connected in patallel, the

effective resistance of the whole circuit is: = R"n & R2 & -
For resistors connected in parallel, the potential difference across each resistor is the same, while the total current of the parallel resistors is the sum of the individual currents passing through each resistor.
11111
1-...-r-
R,
(3.2)
To learn how to implemeht a circuit diagram and to be able to compute the effective resistance of resistors in series and MATERIALS
-flItrBreadboard
6V Power Supply
-{IITfF
Resistors
lrARNING
To avoid damage to the meters, always start with the meter on its least sensitive scale. fncrease the sensitivity of the meter only as needed for accurate measurement, and remember to return the meter to its least sensitive scale before proceeding. Voltages are measured ((across" (in parallel). Currents are measured ttthtough" (in ueries).
lirimat
3, Resistors
in
Series sfld
Pan[el
PROCEDURE
L.
Using the color bandsx of the resistots, tabulate the values of the rcsistances (R) in
Data Table 3.1.
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Vioiet Gray White
Table 3.3. ComPute and tecord

4.
the individual tesistances (Rr) using Ohm's law.
0123
4 5 6 789
From the values in Data Table 3.3, compute and record the effective resistance pata Table 3.4). Compare this with the value in Data Table 3.2 and get the percentage error. Remove the power supply, then measure and the effective resistance, Rqfr using an ohmmeter and record it in Data Table 3.5. Compare this with the value in Data Table 3.2 md get the percentage effor'
Table 3.1 Numerical equivalents of resistot color

bands
From the above values, comPute and record the theoretical effective resistance 6"n) "t each circuit (Data Table 3.2).
3.
Set up R,,
&, and R3 according diagram for circuit 1. Use a S-volt Power supply to drive the circuit, then measure the voltage across, and the current passing through each resistor, and tecord in Data
the ft=(10A+B) x 10c]A + D. The
to
6.
Measure the effective voltaqe and cutrent for circuit L and tecord them in Data Table 3.6. Ftom these values calculate the effective tesistance and compare with the value in Data Table 3.2. Get the percentage error.
Repeat steps 3
to 6 for circuits 2,3, and 4;
ffisofresistots,followthediag,umbelow,withthebandsasA,B,CandD.Thevalueofthe
resistance ls
Table 3.1, while
values of AB, and C ate read accotding to .an b. sitv.r iTOo/o) or.gold (570). Fot exarnple, a resistor with bands' C-ted, D-gold, has resistancs f,=(45x1@ O t snQ, o. 4'! ]9 lj%'
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Circuit
1
Circuit 2
V=5.0V Rr = 1.0 k(l

Rz
= 1'2Id) Rr = 1'5 k(l
Cirodt
2A
Circuit 4
Natiural Institute of Phpics, UP Dilirnan
Phvsics 72.1
3. Resistors
in Series and Parallel
=EI
Name:
the lw. )ute
Partners:
)ata
ein
rof.
sure
lnstructor:
lafl
3.5.
abie
Data Table 3.1. Theoretical values of resistance
Erent
lable
ctive
ein
)r.
j
f
4.
rhJ
Data Table 3.2, Theoretical values of effective resistance
I["o:tal lnstitute of Physics, UP Diliman
3. Resistors in Series and Parallel
Data Table 3.3. Experimental values of resistance from voltage and current measurement
Data Tabl e 3.4.Effective resistance from Data Table
3.3
usc'
brN^'lq
Data Table 3.5. Effective resistance from ohmmeter
Circuit
1
Experimental Effective Resistance, &n
o/oettot
2 3
Nationd Institute of Phpics, UP Dilim.n
r..lr{- g O 6
t 65 Qt zg fgq>
?
&rrl
3. Resistors in Series
aadPardlcl
DataTable 3.6. Experimental values of effective resistance from effective voltage and current
llt 7" c((or
cor{\OanJ 'ol
Tebte I ' 2-
National Institute of Physics, UP Dilimen
3. Resistors in Series and Patallel
i i
I I
h
i
INTRODUCTION
In the analysis of circuits, Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1,887) formulated two

empirical rules which can be observed to be theoretically consistent w-ith the principles of conservation of energy and charge.
The following sign convention is

recommended:
lWhen going around
The Voltage Rule (or loop rule) states that the algebraic sum of the voltage changes around a closed loop is zero.
a loop and passing through a bafre\, the voltage change is taken to be positive when the battery is
ffaversed toward the positive terminal, and negative when traversed toward the negative terminal.
IV, = 0
o
(4.1)
The Current Rule (or lunction rule) states that the sum of all currents entering a junction must equal the sum of all currents
leaving the junction.
\ff/'hen passing through a resistor, the voltage change across the resistor is taken to be
negative ("voltage
drop') if it is traversed in
the direction
positive
direction.
(4.2)
if
of the assigned
traversed
in the
current, and opposite
I l"rt oBJECTT\rE
ri.g = E It.u'irg
To be able to analvze multi-looo circuits usins Kirchhoffls Rules.
MATERIALS
Two power supplies, multimeter, resistors, breadboatd and connectors.
PROCEDURE
1. Examine the resistors. Compute the rate of
resistance from the color bands and their actual resistances using an ohmmeter. Record your
data in DztaTable 4.1.
2. Set up the fitst circuit (nvo loop network). Switch on the voltage sources (adjust each power supply as closely as possible to the values specified in the figute). Measure I,, I, and I, using an ammetef. Measure V,, V, using a
voltmeter. Record your data in Data Tzble 4.2.
for the currents I,, I, and I, passing through the resistors R,, R, and \ respectively. Show your solution cleady on your answer sheet. Indicate also the directior of the currents through each resistor. Compate these cuffents with the measured cuffents obtained in step 2 by computing the percentage error of each current. Account for these etfofs.
4. Now take each loop and measure the volage
3. Using Kirchhoffs Rules (and the measured voltages and the theoretical resistances), solve
across each element in the loop. Add these voltages (taking note of our sign convention). What value shouid you obtain?
25
Physics 72.1
4.
Kirchhoffs Rules
lyzing the nvo-loop network, add a After ^flto the original citcuit usihg a fourth third loop resistor, Ro = 3.3 kQ. Answer questions 2-4, solving fot and measudng Ir, 12, 13, In, Iu, and Iu
5.
as indicated above aod measuring the voltage across each resistor. Recotd your data in Data Tzble 4.3.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Vt=5.0v
Rt = 1.0 kO
R2 = 1.2
V2=4.5V
kC)
R3 = 1.5 kO
Three-loop netwotk R+
v2
1,,
I6
Vt=5'0V
Rt = 1.0 kO
R2 = 1.2 kO
RS
Vz=4'5V
= 1.5
kO
R+ = 3.3 kQ
National Institr:te of Physics, UP Diliman
Physics 72.1
4. Kirchhoff's Rules
Name:
I
Partners:
lnstructor:
Data Table 4.1. Resistance values
Data Table 4,2. Two-loop network
Physics 72.1
4. Kirchhoffs Rules
Calculations
4.
Kirchhofft Rules
Data Table 4.3. Three-loop network
NA NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Calculations
National Institute of Physics, UP Dilimen
Physics 72.1
4. Kirchhoffs Rules
QUESTIONS
1. Do the measured values of the resistances fall within
the range indicated by the last band ofl the resistor label? (tolerance values: gold t5%, silver *1070, no band !20tA
Refet to step (4) in the procedrre. What rule does it explicidy verift? What is the significance of this
rule?
What would be the effect of using the same voltage level for the two Power supPlies in the thteeloop network (e.g. V,=Vr=$.Q !))
T1a
30
Physics 72.1
4. Kirchhoffs Rulcs
4.
The direction one goes around a circuit loop makes no difference in the Voltage Rule equation obtained for the loop. Show this explicidy by going around the loops (in circuit diagram 1) in the
opposite directions.
Apply the loop theorem to the big outer loop (travesing Vr, &, R" and V) of circuit 1 and show that it is redundant or unnecessary if you are already using the trro inner loop equations.
National Instinrte of Physics, UP Diliman
Physics 72.1
4.
Kirchhoffs Rules
National Institute ofPhysics, UP Diliman
INTRODUCTION
Hans Oersted discovered that a magnetic field is associated with an electric current. He further established a relationship between the direction of the cuffent and the direction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field lines are found to be closed circles around the currentcarrying wire.
the number of field lines, peqpendicuiar to and through a loop is given by the rate of change of the magnetic flux, LQ I Lt = (AB I Lt)A. The result of this wotk was Faraday\ law of inductioz, which relates the induced voltage or enf rn a wire to the time rate of change of flux:
The direction of the magnetic field is given

by a rigbt-band rule:
uire is grasped u)itb tbe rigbt band witb tbe thumb

extended in tbe direction of the conoentional canrent, the curled fingers will indicate tbe circular sense of tbe tndgneti.c fr.eld line.
If o current-carrying
l/=
AO
Lt
(s.2)
where V is r}.e a'verage value of the induced voltage over the time interval Ar. Note that
Ao
The direction of the magnetic field point is then tangential to the circle.
Lt=r44u.8144) tarJ l.ar./
(s.3)
^t
any
Faruday investigated the possible tevetse effect of a current being produced by a magnetic field in the viciniry of a wire. No effect was found with a stationary magnet or magnetic field. Howevet, it was discovered that a cuffent is induced when there is relative motion or a changlng magnetic field. Thus, elecftomagnetic induction involves a timevtryingmagnetic field.
Investigations led Faraday to the conclusion in electromagnetic induction was the time rate of change of the magnetic field B thtough a loop. The total magnetic field through a loop of wire can be characteized by what is called magnetic flwc @:
That is, a flux change can be due to a change in the magnetic field through a loop of constant area, andf ot due to a coflstant magnetic field and a change in the area of the
loop.
In either case, the number or density of field lines through the loop changes. The latter effect is commonly obtained by rotating a loop of wire
in a constant magnetic field so that the efectiue

of the loop exposed to the field, and hence the flux, changes.
area
that the important factor
The negative sign in equation (5.2) expresses
another important law of elecuomagnetic induction, Lenz's law, wlichgives the direction
of the induced current:
O=B
.A= BAcos9
(5.1)
An induced current is in sucb a direction tbat its ,ff at oppose the cbange tbat produces it.
Essentially, this means the induced cuffent gives rise to a magnetic field that opposes the change in the odginal magnetic field.
t-
where A is the cross-sectional arca of the Ioop and 0 is the angle benveen a normal to the plane of the loop and the magnetic field. Hence, the time rate of change of the rnagnetic field, or
Physics 72.1
5, Electromagretic
Induction
Still another way to produce a timevarying magnetic field, and an induced vokage in a stationary wire loop, is to vary rhe current in a current-carrying loop. If there are a number of loops N, the flux change through each loop contributes to the induced current or voltage, and F araday's law becomes
3 = ltonl
(s.s)
where z is the linear turn densiry of the coil (i.e., the number of turns per unit length N/L, where I, is the length of the coil). the permeability of free space, and indicates that the solenoid has an air core. If a material with a magnetic permeability 1t is used as a solenoid core, p.o is replaced by ll in equation (5.5).
Lt Similarly, if loops of wire are wound in a tight helix so as to form a coil (solenoid), the magnitude of the magnetic field would be increased, and near and along the axis of the
solenoid, it is given by
Y=-NA@
The constant Uo is called
(5.4)
oBJECTT\rE
To studv electromagnetic induction in a simple circuit usins Faradav's law and knz's law.
MATERIALS
Pair of insulated cylindrical coils (many turns on secondary relative to pdmary)
Iron and brass or aluminum-cote rods

Two bar magnets of different pole strengths
Low-voltage dc powet supply or dry cell Magnetic compass
Iftife
switch
Galvanometer
Metdc ruler or meterstick
Conne.
wires
Physics 72.1
5. Electromagnetic
Induction
PROCEDURE
g;./ctmiqe poletr'fo a( gdvqwr{rc,lrr 1.. In this experiment, is important to know the direction of the induced current in the circuit. This is related to the positive and negative deflections of the galvanometer. To establish the direction of the galvanometer deflection to a known current direction, connect one terminal of the dry ceil (or dc pov/er supply at 1.5-3.59 to one terminal of the galvanometer and the other source terminal tbrougb a large resistance to the other galvanometer terminal. rg"re 5.1a). Use yourself as the large resistance.
4.
Set up the primary coil circuit as shown in
Figure 5.1c with the switch S open. ( A secondary coil circuit is not needed in procedures 4 and 5). Close the switch and with the compass, investigate the magnetic field atound the coil. Make a sketch of the
field pattern.
5.
Open the switch and insert the stronger bat magnet into the pimary coil almost the fuil Iength of the magnet. Close the switch and
2. From the known polarity of the source, relate the galvanometer deflection to the
direction of current flow. For conventional curtent, this flows from the positive source terminal. Galvanometer deflections to the dght are usually labeled as positive and deflections to the left as negative. It is convenient to have a conventional current entering the positive galvanometer terminal to give a positive direction.
slowly remove the magnet from the coil. Note, record, and explain afly observed
effects.
6.
Open the switch and insert the pdmary coil
into the secondary coil, which is connected

to the galvanometer @igure 5.1c). Close and open the switch, noting and recording the
magnitude and direction of galvanometer deflection in each

7.
the
case.
Repeat using each of the two metal cores.
3.
Connect the galvanometer to the terminals
Measure and record the lengh of the pdmary coil. -$7ith the switch open, insert
core completely into the secondary coil. Make a series of observations of the magnitudes of the deflections as the switch is opened and closed, withdrawing the primary coil 1 cm between the observations. Record the length of the primary coil still inside the secondary coil in each case. Find the a-verage magnitude of the plus and minus deflections for each observation, and plot a graph of the average deflection magnitude (ordinate) versus the length of the pimary coil inside the secondary coil (abscissa). Intelpret the results of the data.
of the secondary coil (the larger coil with the greater number of turns) as shown in
Figure 5.1b. Use the compass to determine the relative strengths of the bar magnets. Then, using the stfonger magnet, move the magflet in and out of the coil, noting and recording the effects (relative magnitude and direction of the galvanometer deflection with (a) the speed at which the magnet is moved; and (b) the change of the magnet's polariry). Record your results. Repeat using the other magnet and record the results.
the primary coil with the iron
35
physics
72.1
5. Electromagnetic
Induction
masnet
primary coil
secondarY coil
c)
Figute 5.1 Electomagnetic induction setups and citcuits.
National Instin:te of Physics, UP Diliman
Physics
72.1
5. Electromagnetic Induction
Name: Partners:
Date Performed:
Date Submitted:
Instructor:
Section:
Data Table 5.1 Galvanometer deflections from motion of magnet.
Motion touard coil

v1
vz ) vr
Cfaskr raka( ,han1l-)
Motion auaryfrom coil

v1
vz )vt
Motion tozoard coil

v1
vz )vr
Motion aroay from coil
v1
vz )vr
ANALYSIS
lau' [n ktms o1 {o'tadagts \ el ( lar Xcr ) sl'o n cr ma4rt
1
lenz la'u
cu'rcof-'cJ'(luhon "
Physics 72.1
5. Electrornagnetic
Induction
Sketch of Magnetic Field (from Procedute 4)
Observed effects (ftom Ptocedure 5)
Physics72.l
5. Electromagnetic
Induction
Data Table 5.2 Galvanometer deflections for different primary coil core materials.
ANALYSIS
Physics 72.1
5. Electromrgnetic Induction
Data Table 5.3 Galvanometer deflections for different primary coil lengths in secondary.
:11
H*Y'ffi.,,t.'
NDARY
.. :.: !:=
flot
^;:*^Y-ANALYSIS
|,"
Physics
72.1
5. Electromagnetic Indgcrion
QUESTIONS 1'. Suppose that a bar magnet is dropped through
a hoizontal loop of wire
connected
to
galvanometer. Explain what would be observed on the galvanometer as the magnet enters, as the middle, and as it leaves the loop, and why.
it is in
2.
Describe the change of flux through and the induced current in a loop of wire rotated in a uniform magnetic field (rotational axis of loop peqpendicular to field.).
Physics'72.1
5. Electrornagnetic Inductio,n
INTRODUCTION
A.
Resistor in an AC circuit
The instantaneous potential difference vo, is thetefore:

a
An AC source is a device that supplies
v^ (r) = /R cos(ar
t)
(6.7)
sinusoidally varying voltage or current. The voltage a and current i at any ldme t are:
,Q)=v cos(at)
iG)= t cos(ar t)
(6.1) (6.2)
,^ (r)= v* cos(ar t)
across the resistor is
(6.8)
Therefore, the maximum voltage amplitude
V=V*=IR.
whete V is the maximum voltage amplitude, I is the maximum current amplitude and o is the angular frequency of the AC source.
B. Inductor in an AC citcuit
The inductor is basically a piece of wire wound closely together to form a helix. There
exists a potential difference across the inductor
A convenient way of describing these types of quantities is the root-mean-square (r*0

value. Most multimeters provide readings for tms values of AC voltage (V-) and current
(I*J,
because the alternating current source produces a self-induced electromotive force. For an inductor, the potential is given by:
vL
rz - V mr Jz
(6.3)
,"Q)=
L*,O
(6.e)
,mt
f_
I
Jz
(6.4)
Hence, the potential at any instant i'; proportional to the time rate of change ol' cuffent. Using 8q.6.2, the potential is expressed
as:
,
Figure 6.1.
rQ)= -IaLcos(at + 90')
(6.10)
From the previous equation, the voltage and cufrent are "out of phase" by a quartet cycle (90') and the potential is given a "head start" of 90" relative to the current. The maximum voltage of the inductor is give as:
Consider Figure 1. Using Ohm's Law, the instantaneous potential vo across the resistor is:
Vr = IaL
The inductive teactance is defined
as:
(6.11)
,^Q)=
to be:
iQ)R
(6.s)
Since the instantaneous curfent is assumed

Hence,
Xr=@L
V, = IX,
(6.1,2)
iQ)= t cos(ar t)
(6.6)
(6.13)
National Instjtute of Physics, UP Diliman
))hysics 72.1
6. Introduction to Altemating Current
(AQ Circuits
C. Capacitors in an AC circuit
The potential across a capacitor in an AC circuit may be written as:
/\ I v.(/)= ^cos(@t-90")
OL
(6.14)
is
use the phasor diagram to remind us that the total instantaneous voltage is equal to the sum :. of the proiections of the phasors Vo,Vr, and V.. Also, note that the total instantaneous voltage is the same as the source voltage. Therefore,
The maximum voltage

therefore written
as: VC
V = tlV o' + (V L -Vc)z
ampJitude
I
@C
as:
=w
R'+(x,
(6.1.9a)
(6.1eb) (6.19c)
(5.15)
The capacitive reactance is defined

,LC v
1
Impedance, Z is given by:

(6.16)
CN,
.-V I
R' +(X,
- Xc)'
$.20)
such that
Equations 6.1,8,6.19 and 6,20 are valid oniy
V,
D.
= IX,
(6.1,7)
for an LRC series circuit. Equations fot different circuit configurations would be
derived differently.
Resonance in AC circuits
For an inductor, capacitor and resistor connected in series to an AC soufce, the sum of the instantaneous potential across each device is equal to the potential of the source at the same time t, or
v(t) =
u^ (r) +
vr(t) +v"(t)
(6.18)
As the angalar ftequency {o is varied, the combination of minimum impedance Z and maximum current I may be obtained. The phenomena of current at the pinnacle at a certain frequency is called resonance angular frequency ot . At this frequency the inductive and the capacitive reactance are equal.
Therefore:
frl
" Jtc
=-
(6.21)
oBJECTT\rE
Determine the response of different electrical devices such as inductors, capacitors and resistots to sinusoidally varying voltage and current signals.
MATERIAI,S
AC circuit apparatus, multimeter and wires.
PROCEDURE
WARNING The following experiment is ditectly connected to the 110 V, 60Hz mains supply. To prevent electrical shock, please be sure that the main switch 5L is set to OFF when conirecting the setup. Do not touch the open terminals wtren operating. Show your setuP
to your instructor before collecting data.
National Institute of Phpics, UP Diliman
Physics
72.1
6. Introduction to Altemating Cutrent
(Aq
Circuils
A.
1.
Resistor in an AC circuit
Close Switch 54 and leave opefl.
a1l
D.
other switches
Resonance in an AC circuit
2.
-1.
Connect the ammeter across "I,*0". Be sure the ammeter is set to AC mode. Connect the variable resistor such that the solenoid is omitted as shown below. Set to any value from 50 to 100Q by turninq the knobs.
Resonance in an LRC Series Circuit fwo parallel capacitors are connected in series with the inductor and the lamp) 1.. Close 52, 53 and 55. Leave 51, 54 and 56
oPen.
2.
Connect the ammetef across

a iumper across
"Iro1".or6tt. Place
3. Move the iron-core to the

position.
"I,,*".
outemost
4.
Variable feslstor
D
PIug the appararus

mains.
to
110 VAC, 60 Hz
5. 6.
h
i
h
ic
4. Plug the apparatus to

mains.
110VAC, 60 Hz
5. 6.
t
d
E
,a
7.
Close switch 51. Draw the pertinent circuit dtagnm Record the current and measure,the voltage across the resistor and the lr-p.l Increase the resistance. : Observe what
Close switch 51. Draw the pertinent circuit diagram Move the iron-core at constant intervals and record the current and the voltage drop across each device. Record the current and voltage of each element when the lamp intensity is at the maximum.
Resonance in an LC Parallel Circuit
happens.
E E
B. Inductot in an AC circuit
parallel capacitors are connected in with the inductor and this combination in series with the lamp) 1,. Close 52, 53, 54 and 56 with 51 and 55
G*o
parullel
open.
2,
leave other switches open. ttl".,"..,.", Place Connect the ammetef acfoss .il iumpers across "f ,u-ott. 3. Move the iton-core to its outermost position. 4. Connect apparatus to 110VAC, 60 Hz mains.
5.
1,. Close 54 and
2.
3. Move the iron-core to its 4. 5. 6.
Connect the ammeter acfoss a jumper across 'I,u-'".
"Iro,"no,ut'. Plac'e
outermost
Close 51. Draw

diagram.
the pertinent
circuit
6. Move the iton-core position ^t regular intervals and record the currents and the
voltages of the solenoid and the lamp.
position. Plug apparatus to 1 10VAC, 60 Hz mains. Close switch 51. Draw the pertinent circuit diagram Move the iron-core at constant intervals and record the current and the voltage drop across each device. Record the current and voltage of each circuit element when the lamp intensity is at the minimum.
C. Capacitors in an AC circuit
1.. Close 52, 53 and 56 and open 51, 54 and 55.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Place ammetef across "I,^-0". Plug apparatus to 110VAC, 60 Hz. mains. Close 51. Draw the pertinent circuit diagram
Record the current and voltage

effective capacitor and lamp.
of
the
National Institute of Physics; UP Diliman
6. Introduction to Altemating Curent
(Aq
Circuits
APPARATUS
PI
solennoid
I
[}
110 Vac
Ir
(t
Physics
72.1
6.
Introduction to Alternating Current (AC) Circuits
Name: Partners:
Instructor:
A.
Resistor in an AC Circuit and resistor
Data Table 6.1 Current and vol
Observations
in
Physics72.l
6.
lntroduction to Alternating* Current (AC) Circuir
B. Inductor in an AC Circuit
Data Table 6.2 Dat* for solenoid and lam
Calculations
Physics 72.1
6.
Introduction to Ahernating Current (AC) Circuits
C. Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Data Table 6.3 Data for
ir::.ij:
r';l:r:iai::i'::',:ii:iar:::,,:rri':.r::ll;ll: ,::!rr:::rjl?t:,!j:,,:t r,ir:rl

i:it ,:::l .li
i:'r:,riti:ir:i:tr!::i :::i
,rirr:l;l'l.i*l::l{iril:l
l::i r,ir:::rr i|i:r:,,iil:i..::a:":ri:::.lar:i'a
Calculations
Physics
72.1
6.
Introduaion to Alternating Current (AC) Circuits
D. Resonance in an AC Circuit
Data Table 6.4 Resonance in an LRC series circuit
Calculations
Data Table 6.5 Resonance in an LC
Calculations
Physics 72.1
6.
Inugduction to Altemating Curre"t
(49 t{94t
QUESTIONS
Answer questions 1 to 3 using your data in Table 6.1 1. Compute fot the following: (a) V and I, O) T and
I
cD.
Draw the voltage and cuffent as a function of time for the resistor and lamp combined. Label yout plots completely.
Voltage (V)
Cunent (A)
Time (s)
Dtaw the phasot diagram for the combined resistor and lamp. What are the proiection of the
voltage and current phasors called?
National Institr.rte of Physics, UP Diliman
Physics 72.1
6. Introduction to Altemeting Current
(Aq
Circuits
Answer questions 4 to 6 using your data in Tab\e 6.2. 4. tU7hat is inductive reacance? From your data, compute forftr. Show sample calculations.
5. Compute for the impedance of the circuit
at each core position. Show sample calculations.
6.
What happens to the interrsity of the lamp as he core goes in? Draw the phasor diagram at this
position.
Answer questions 7 oad 8 using your data in Table 6.3 7. What is capacitive reactance? From your data, compute foryr. Show sample calculations.
Physics 72.1
(AQ Cirarits
8. Compute fot Xc using Eqs.
6.16 and 6.17. Compare the results.
Answer questions 9 to 12 using your data from table 6.4 9. At what core posirion is the intensity of the lamp maximum in the sedes LRC citcuit?
10. Compute for the impedance at each core position. Show sample calculations.
11. why does the lamp intensity increase? what brings about this condition?
Z. Vrnat
t ,t. irrdr.tance at maximum lamp intensity?
Answer questions 13 to 16 using your data from Table 6.5 13. At what core position is the intensity of the lamp at a minimum?
14. Derive an expression fot the total impedance in the circuit.
Physics 72.1
(Aq
Circuits
15. Compute
for the impedance at elch core position. Show sample calculations.
IN
Ai
solt
r$
16. What happens
to the lamp intensity
as the
iron core is moved in? Explain.
ori
rlcd
aq
PCq
atd tcE
firri
lEq 7:t:
su .rl
rl
rd
efi,
*{ icl
r!i
*d
Pr$
fiq
ffi rf,i
nct
B.'llx
ri
rPd
INTRODUCTION
A.
Reflection
\When light strikes the surface of a material, some light is usually reflected. The reflection of light rays from a plane surface like a glass plate
or a plane mirror is described by the law of

reflection:
Normal------,-
0r
The angle of incidence is equal to the

angle of reflection
.\i,,
0,=0,
(7.1)
)@,
Obiect
These angles are measured from a line perpendicular or normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence. Also, the incident and reflected rays lie in the same plane with the
normal.
The rays from an object reflected by a smooth plane surface appear to come from an image behind the surface, as shown in the Figure 7.1. From equal triangles it can be seen that the
image distance d, fuom the reflecting surface is the same as the object distance do . Such reflection is called regulat or specular
Figute 7.1 Law of Reflection. The aagle between the incident tay and a notrrral to the surface O is equal to the aagle between the teflected tay and the normal 0, , i,e., & = 0r.
notmal to the surface, it is "bent" or undergoes a change in direction. This is due to the different velocities of light in the rwo media. In the case of refraction, the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are denoted by 4
and 0r, respectively.
reflection.
The law of reflection applies to any reflecting surface. If the surface is relatively rough, like the paper of this page, the reflection wili become diffused or mixed, so that no image of the source
sinO,
_
u. I
_^
sinl,
relative index
u,
t'12
(7.2)
or object wiil be produced. This type of reflection is called irregular or diffuse

reflection.
where the ratio tt,, of the nvo velocities (a, in medium 1 and a, in medium 2) is called the
of tefraction and the above
equation is known as Snell's law.
B. Refraction
\Mhen light passes from one medium into an optically different rnedium at an angle other than
ur(u,, the tays are bent toward the normal in the second medium. And if ur)a,, the rays ate bent away from the normal.
If
For light traveling initially in vacuum (medium 1), the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum and its speed in medium 2 is called the index of refraction of medium 2 denotedby n,
Physics 72.1
7. Optical Disk: Reflection and Refraction
Ptt
Snell's law can then be written as:
ltr= L
a
Q.3)
sinO,=r,_c/h t)2 c/nz

of
sinO,
_L
fll
Q.4)
where r is the speed of light in vacuum and z the speed of light in medium 2. Hence, the index of refraction for vacuum is t = cf c = 1, and for ur, u
n,sin9, = nrsin9,
(7.s)
ac,sona1.
where n, and nrate the indices of the refraction of the medium 1 and medium2, respectively.
D.
OBJECTIVE To study by means of MATERIALS
an optical disk the fundamental principles of reflection and refraction of light.
Optical disk and accessories,light source.
E.
PROCEDURE
Place the optical disk @ig. 7,2) so that the
beam of parallel rays from the illuminator strikes the edge of the disk. Turn the screen so that it is beween the illuminator and the disk. Adlust the illuminator until the beam covers most of the opening in the screen and traces its path across the face of the disk. Adjust the disk and screen until a single beam of light coincides with the 0'-0' axis of the disk.
2. Set the ny at diffetent angle of

incidence by slowly rotating the disk between 0o and 90o about c as the axis and record the angles of teflection and refraction in Data Table B-1. Choose incident angles that result to noticeable reflection and refraction of light. Compute for the coresponding values of the index of refraction.
A.
Reflection by a plane mirtot
3.
Fasten the plane mirrot to the disk so that the face coincides with a segment on the 90'-90' axis. Tum the screen qntil the ray strikes the mirror exactly at the center of the disk. Leave the screen stationary and turn the disk to sevetal
From Fig. 7.3e, rotate the disk exacdy 180' about c axis (obtaining Fig. 7.3f. Using the angle of refraction from 2 as the angle of incidence, record the angles obtained in Data Table B-2.
different positions, increasing the angle of incidence as shown in Fig. 7.3a. Record the
angles of incidence and the corresponding angle
C. Total intemal reflection

1.. Place the semi citcular glass plate in the path of the light ray so that the ray
enters the curved face and travels along
of reflection in Data Table A.
B.
Reflection and refraction by glass
1.
Place the semicircular glass plate in the path of the light ray so that the ray hits the center of the flatfice, Fig.7.3e.
the radius to the center point c in Fig. 7.3f. Slowly rotate the disk until it is 90' about the c axis. Record your observations about the uansmitted intensity.
National Institute of Physics, UP Dilirnan
l.Ir
Physics 72.1
7. Optical
Disk Reflection and Refraction
2. 3.
Record the critical angle ec in Data Table C and compute for the index of refraction of glass.
Draw the complete ray traces for the two rays indicated in Figs. 7.3g, 7.3h, and 7.3i. In each figure, one line is dravrn as a broken line to differentiate
two incident rays. a parutleL/
point of the emergent rays. This point Qetrveen the light source and lens) gives the focus of the concave lens.
2,
D. Refraction through
trapezoidal plate
1.
in Fig. 7.3i. Note the relative direction of the

Place the ruy as shown incident and emergent beams. Repeat for several angles of incidence and comment on the results.
Attach the convex lens in place of the concave. Send a single ray along 0"-0' axis passing through the center of the Iens. Rotate the disk through a small angle on either side of the initial position (such that the ray still passes through the center of the lens) and
observe the incident and emergent rays.
3.
Return the disk to its initial position with a single incident ray along the optical axis of the convex lens (0"-0'
axis). Slowly rotate the disk by large

angles (<90") and note that the reftacted
E.
Refraction thtough lenses
1,. Open the other slits to increase the number of incident parallel rays of light. Construct traces for parallel rays through the center section of the diverging or concave lens,
Fig.7.3m.Trace backwards the intersection
rays intersect about one point in space. Note this location on the disk when at
initial position as a tentative
(or
approximate) focus of the convex lens. Veri$r or correct this focal point with the intersection of parallel rays, Fig. 7.3n, used in 1.
59
Phvsics 72.1
7.
Opticd Disk Reflection and Refraction
Figure
7.2. Optical disk
and
optical elements
faJ
==4 <1 ftt
{al
_{__+>_n
---\r -/
{d)
-\ AJ
a
:-
{i)
-t
f*j
-5 -----*{'7
ftn)
-----+l --:-{ b)
--.=T/\
(ol
=:=t.r_
Figute 7.3. Expetimqrt coafigurations of optical elemeats
Netional Institute of Physics, UP Diliman
ics 72.1
Disk: Reflection and Refraction
Name: Partners:
Instructor:
Section:
Data Table7.1. Reflection by a plane mirror
Data Table7.2. Reflection and refraction by glass
B-1. Normal Orientation
Calculations
National Institutc of Physics, UP Diliman
61
t
B-2. Semi-circular plate rotated 180'
Nationd Institute of Physics, LIP Diliman
Physics 72.1
7. Optical
Data Table 7.3. Internal reflection
Critical angle, 0p
Index oftefttcaon,n:
Calculations
Data Table 7.4. Reftaction through lenses

Focal leirgth
Focd
length/-
(convex)
-(concave)
Physics 72.1
7. Optical Dislc Reflection and Rcftaction
QUESTIONS
1.
Do your results in Part A obey the law of reflection?
2. What happens to the ray transmitted by the glass in Part B?
3.
Comment on the index of teftaction obtained in B-1 andB-2.
.4.
Is the $y t^ce reproduced itt-B? Does the ditettion of the
ny affectthe path?
Physics
721
7. Optical
Disk Reflectjon and Refractiqr
5.
In part c, eirplain why the ray is not transmitted beyond a definite angle?
6.
Does the intemally reflected ray obey the law of reflection?
7. Draw the complete my traces for the two rays indicated in Figures 7.3g,7.3h and 7.3i.
National Institute of Physics, UP Dilimrn
Physics 72.1
7. Optical
8.
Comment on the results of Part Dtof the experiment.
9, When a single ray passes through the optical center of the lens, how does it emerge? Construct a ray
trace for the concave and convex lenses with seneral incident rays parallel to the opticd axis.
INTRODUCTION
simple optical instrument that produces a change in the direction of a light beam that passes through it. If an object is placed in front of a lens, the position and size of the image can be determined by graphical and
algebraic means.
lens
is a
s : object distance Just like the mirrors, ray-tracing method could very well define the images formed by
thin lenses. One needs only two rays to locate an image: The ray from the tip of the object,
parallel to the optical axis, which after refraction passes through the far focal point of a convex lens or seems to come from the near focal point of a concave lens. A ray, from the tip of the
The image position, s', is related

object position, s, by the equation
to
the
111 srsf
(8. 1)
object, passes through the center

unchanged.
of the lens
where/is the focal length of the lens. The above equation, sometimes called the lens-maker's equation, was derived on the assumption that the lenses are very thin, and that the rays are close to the optical axis.
The magnification of the object is given by the equation:
The
quantities above obey
the
sign
conventions in Table 8.1.
The thinJens equation is used to calculate the focal length of a lens from the known object and irnage distances from the lens.
M
where b'
=+=-'' bs
two thin
(8.2)
: height of the image D : height ofthe object s' : image distance

Focal length Convex lens
Real object Real image
Furthermore, the equivalent focal length of lenses (in contact) combined may be obtained by treating it as a single lens. So, if the individual focal lengths, /, fz, are known, th,: equivalent focal length,f,* y be calculatedusing the following equation:
111
f,f,
(8.3)
Concave lens
Object distance
Image distance
Vinual object
Virtual image
Inverted object/image
Inverted image
Object/image height
Erect object /image Erect image
Magnification
Table 8.1 Sign convention in lensmaker's equation
OBJECTIVE
I ll
To be able to determine the focal len$hs of a convex and a concave lens.

67
l)hysics 72.1
8. Image formation using thin lenses
APPARATUS
r:fr:,1,,li SLAr}I
,ryIIH d{}-$$f$'rE+
l-fi.ffi
,,Ltt.,{,SfE
Arr*
Hr,q^#EF
e*#fR
PROCEDURE
1. Look fot a
combination that will produce an image if they are in contact. Label the convex lens as
convex-concave
lens
4.
Arrange convexl in such a way that only
virtual image of the obiect would be formed. This virtual image will become the
real object of convex2. Place convex2 in front of convexl (the t'wo lenses should not be in contact) and obtain a final real image (from convex2) with a magnification of thtee. Draw and ptoperly label the ray diagram using a convenient scale in Figure 8.2. Recotd measurements in Data Table
8.3.
5.
convexl. Put both convexl and concave lenses in contact. Obtain a sha{p image and record the observations in Data Table 8.1. !(/hat is the equivalent focal length of the combined lenses? After obtaining the focal length of convexl from step 3 below, calculate the focal length of the concave
lens using Eq. 8.3.
2. 3.
Obtain another convex lens and label

convex2.
it
as
Determine the focal lengths of the two convex lenses (convexl and convex2) by
using the lensmaker's equation (Eq 8.1). Use
each lens individually to form a shaqp image.
To detetmine the focal length of a concave lens, use convexL lens to fotm a reduced image of the object on the screen. Next,
place a coflcave lens before this image. This image will become the virtual object of the
Draw and properly label z ey diagram, using a convenient scale, for one lens in Figure 8.1. Record your measurements in
Data Table 8.2a and8.2b.
concave lens. Move the screen to get a sharp final image. Draw and propedy label the ray diagram using a convenient scale in Figure 8.3. Compare the calculated focal length of the concave lens to that obtained fromData Table 8.1. Record measurements in Data Table 8.4.
National Institute of Physics, UP Difiman
t t
[.,,
I
Physics 72.1
8. Image
Formation Usiag Thia
Las
Name: Partners:
Instructor:
Data Table 8.1. Concave-convex lens combination (in Distance of screen from the lenses
, '::, ,t,.::,: :
tlr:: lu:r:- !:t-t:u:l:rr.:::i].:f::.i:,l.:t,rrithU,i::,,iit:tt..r,,.'r'at.:t
:
contact) l"* L
rcq,s)
Equivalent focal lolgth:
rt
hc
bE
({r^' ,-,
Focal length of the concave lens:
Calculations
tl *l.lr
ln
ft
EF
of
!r
llc
&
I
hE Ed
I
Iq
[s
he
i.
e,
b.l
in
cel Ed
I
Lts
I
i
I
F
i I
Physics 72.1
8. Imrge formation usiae
thir LoG
Data Tabl e 8.2-a.Convrx lens #1
(f -')
Average focal length of convexl: Data Table 8.2-b. Convex lens #2
0r'-)
Average focal length of convex2:

Physics 72.1
8. Image Formation Using
Thin Lenses
Data Table 8.3. Two convex lens combination
Calculations
*t- ,*s?*rq-e<Jq{
Data Table 8.4. Convexl-concave lens combination (not in contact)
Calculations
National Institute of Physics, UP Dilimea
Physics 72.1
8. Image formation using thin lenses
QUESTIONS 1,. Draw the ray diagrams for the experiment procedures 3,4
and 5.
Figure 8.1 Ray diagtam of convex- lens
Figure 8.2 Ray diagtam of conv-ex1-convex2 lins combination

physics
72.1
8. Irnage Forrnation Using
Thin Ia|ses
Figure 8.3 Ray diagtam of convexl-concave lens combination
2.
Compare the results for the focal length of the concave lens obtained from experiment procedures and 5.
National Instin:te of Physics, UP Dilirnan
Navarro, P. ed., Compilation of Elementary Physics Experiments (unpublished).
Tipler, P., Physics for Scientists and Engineersr
4tr
Ed., W.H. Fteeman & Co. USA (f999).
White, M. and Manning, K., Experimental College Physics 3d Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co.
usA
(1e7e).
\Urilson, J. Physics Labotatory Expedments, 3d Ed. DC Heath and Co. USA (1990).
Young, H., Univetsity Physics 8n Ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. USA (1992),

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li

Rommel C. Gutierrez Maricor N. Soriano

Edmundo Casulla LizaDavtla Michelee Patricio PetetJohn Rodrigo Miguel Yambot

Cooer design b1: Codeon

-- E6"&? ^;U 1L^2I"7

Fitst Edition, June 2000 Second Edition, Jun e 2001,

Policies and guidelines

1. Electric field and field potential

8. Image formation using thin lenses 67

>x 92 >x 88 >x 84 >x 80 >x 76 >x

72 >x 68 >x 64 >x 6o >x 50 >x

> > > >

68 +2.50 64 +2.75 60 -+3.00 5o +4'oo > 0 ->5.00

Laboratory Report Guidelines

National Instirute of Physics, Up Diliman

per charge qoin moving the charge berween rwo

in an electric field, E is called the

potential difference AZbetween the points:

-Vz-V, -vru =it Ot

The electric field is defined as the electrical

If a charge is moved ilong a path at right

ot perpendicular to the field, there is no

work done M=0), since there is no force

component along the path. Then along such p

LVru =Vt -Ve

r =9r =L=\!r?= r Qo q,r'

Institute of Physics, UP Diliman

Electric Field and Field Potential

of values, instead plot the coordinates

the first and fouth quadrants. It convenient to make eithet x- or

National Institute of Physics, UP Diliman

1. Electric Field and

Electric Field and Field Potential for Two Disc Electrodes

Institute of Physics, UP Diliman

1. Electric Field and Field Fotential

National Institute of Physics, UP Dilirnan

Electric Field and Field Potcrtid

of force to show that there are excess charges at the

lostin:te of Physics, UP Dilirnan

ElectricField arld Ficld

Although the definition

German (nickel), silver

Table 2.1Resi$ivities and temperature coefficients of common metals

To determine the behavior of an ohmic material

, current and resistance

Iostitute of Physics, UP Diliman

Variable power supply. Its output voltage

the Procedure makes use of the symbols below.

is0Vtoabout6V. 2-m wire. This will be our resistor. The

voltmeter, ammetef and ohmmeter.

l'lMultimeter Variable Supply Power

in the text box below before proceeding with

the following quantities: the resistance of the 2-m wire using an

National Institute of Physics, UP Diliman

ta'eh'l wc a(c in am?re reXiro<' {\c'

Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.3.

2-m wire and the potential difference

Set the output current

of the power supply to a minimum. Turn the knob of the powet

B. Variation of Curent with Resistance

l. Use the sarne affangement as shown in

Set the voltage from the power supply

Keep the voltage constant throughout

Fig.2.4 Citcuit fot B.