A new method for constraining total porosity: The new total porosity-electrical resistivity upper bound

WENDY WEMPE, Schlumberger Water Services, Sacramento, California, USA GARY MAVKO, Stanford University, California, USA
lectrical resistivity is one of the most commonly collected types of geophysical well log data used in groundwater investigations. Because electrical currents respond to changes in a formations electrical properties and pore space characteristics, resistivity data are typically used together with gamma ray logs to qualitatively interpret changes in fluid properties (i.e., freshwater versus contaminated groundwater) and to locate clay-rich formations. Our interest in developing more quantitative approaches to using electrical resistivity data to constrain transport properties has resulted in development of a simple upper bound on the total porosity-electrical resistivity relationship. This new upper bound on total porosity-electrical resistivity data is based on the theoretical Hashin-Shtrikman bounds evaluated at the formations percolation threshold p and critical porosity c. It is easily computed and is much tighter than the theoretical Hashin-Shtrikman upper bound. This upper bound can be used to (1) define ranges in total porosity-resistivity data, (2) determine a range in the total porosity for a given electrical resistivity datum or vice versa, and (3) help constrain geologic and petrophysical interpretations of resistivity data. Electrical Hashin-Shtrikman bounds. The theoretical Hashin-Shtrikman (HS) bounds for electrical conductivity provide upper and lower limits for the total porosity-electrical resistivity relationship in a multiconstituent media. The HS bounds provide the tightest constraints on the total porosity-electrical resistivity relationship without specifying the geometries of each constituent in the granular system. Data, however, do not plot anywhere near the upper HS resistivity bound since the upper HS bound immediately approaches the resistivity of the mineral constituent (Figure 1). The upper HS bound is therefore of limited use in constraining total porosity given electrical resistivity data in granular materials. The HS bounds are very wide for constituents with extremely different conductivities (i.e., quartz sand-conductive fluid system) and tighter for constituents with very similar conductivities (i.e., clay-conductive fluid system). In the HS bound equations, the pore fluid is treated as one of the constituents; if the pore space is fully saturated with a single fluid, water for example, then the ff is equal to the porosity fraction and f is the conductivity of the pore fluid, where the subscript f denotes the fluid constituent. The upper HS resistivity bound (Figure 1) corresponds to isolated conductive spheres (pores) covered by a resistive shell (mineral), a likely scenario for pumice and some basalts. The lower HS resistivity bound corresponds to isolated resistive spheres (mineral) covered by a conductive shell (water and/or clay), a more likely model for most granular formations. The total porosity-formation factor relationship. Much like permeability, the formation resistivity factor F is a characteristic transport property of a material. Formation factor is a measure of the inability for an electrical current to flow through pore space and approximated as the measured for714 THE LEADING EDGE JUNE 2006

Box 1. Electrical Hashin-Shtrikman bounds.

The upper HS bound on resistivity RHS+ is equal to the -1 inverse of lower conductivity HS bound HSand is a function of the individual constituent fractions fi and conductivities i and can be easily calculated by the following equation: (1) where

and where min = 1 is the minimum conductivity (min i) and N is the total number of constituents. The lower HS bound on resistivity RHS- is equal to the -1 inverse of the upper conductivity HS bound HS+ and is simply calculated by the following equation: (2) where

Figure 1. The Hashin-Shtrikman resistivity bounds. Shown are bounds for two systems, both saturated with a fluid with Rw = 1 1 = 1 -m: 15 4 1 (1) Rm1 = 1 2 = 10 -m (upper dashed line), and (2) Rm2 = 2 = 10 -m (lower dashed line). The lower HS bound (bold solid line) is essentially the same at 0.01 for both systems. The black regions in the schematic sphere packs represent the resistive constituent and the white represents the conductive constituent.

Porosity domain 1: Total porosity is less than the materials percolation threshold (0 < < p), and all of the pore space is isolated so that no pore space is available for the flow of electrical currents and fluids. Porosity domain 2: Total porosity values fall between the materials percolation threshold and critical porosity (c < < p), and grains are in contact with each other and pores are connected; the ability for electrical currents to flow through the pore space depends on the constituent electrical properties and the pore space characteristics (i.e., sorting, compaction, dispersed clay volume, and cementation). Porosity domain 3: Total porosity is greater than the materials critical porosity (c < < 1), and the grains are in suspension so that all of the pore space is available for the flow of electrical currents, and the suspension itself is a fluid. Rarely in natural granular materials do we encounter total porosities that fall within domains 1 or 3; however, the limits of these domains (p and c) set limits on the total porosity range of domain 2, the domain of most natural granular materials. Results: Defining the formation factor-porosity relationship in each total porosity domain. The slope of - R/Rw data on a log-log plot is to some degree an indication of pore space and bulk characteristics such as shape, sorting, packing, pore configuration and size, tortuosity, type of pore system (intergranular, intercrystalline, vuggy, fractured), compaction, and clay content. It is well accepted that R/Rw data in cemented granular materials have higher slopes than do data from unconsolidated materials on a log-log plot. However, regardless of the pore space characteristics, R/Rw data in sands and sphere packs appear to converge near

Figure 2. - R/Rw lab and borehole data. Data converges near the HS lower bound within the range of the critical porosity values for respective formation types. Shown are loose clean sands, loose glass spheres, loose glass cubes, limestones and dolomites, sandstone, clay-rich sandstone, and artificially cemented glass spheres. The lower HS bound (solid line) is plotted for reference. Data converges near the HS lower bound at approximately 0.30 0.4. See suggested reading for data references.

mation electrical resistivity F normalized by the saturating fluid resistivity Rw, (F R/Rw). Archie derived the empirical relationship F = -m, which was later generalized as F = aH/-m. The internal geometry parameter aH and cementation exponent m are computed as the y-intercept and negative slope, respectively, of the least-squares fit to - F data on a log-log plot. aH and m are thought to provide information about the formations pore space characteristics. It has been suggested that by subtracting percolation threshold p from the total porosity, Archies equation could be modified to account for the lack of the flow of electrical currents through isolated pore space. (3) Porosity domain theory. Porosity domain theory explains how the full possible range in total porosity values (0 < < 1) in a granular material can be divided into three physically, electrically, elastically, and hydraulically distinct domains. These porosity domains are characterized by (1) isolated pores, (2) contacting grains and connected pores, and (3) suspended grains. The three total porosity domains are separated by the granular materials characteristic porous percolation threshold p and critical porosity c.
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Box 2. New upper resistivity-porosity upper bound in porosity domain 2.

The empirical upper bound is linear on a log-log plot like the modified Archies equation, and it connects the points (p, * R* HS+ /Rw) and (c, RHS- /Rw). The first point corresponds to the upper HS bound evaluated at the percolation threshold p; the second point corresponds to the lower HS bound evaluated at the critical porosity c. (4) where

Figure 3. Formation factor in each total porosity domain. The - R/Rw relationship is defined by (1) the upper HS bound HS+ (equation 1) in porosity domain 1, where < p, (2) the modified Archies equation (equation 3) in porosity domain 2, where p c, and (3) the lower HS bound HS- (equation 2) in porosity domain 3, where > c.

mineral resistivity; the formation factor in domain 1 may be approximated by the upper HS bound (equation 1) normalized by the fluid resistivity Rw. Porosity domain 2: Grains are in contact and pores are connected (p c) and the ability for electrical currents to flow through the pore space is influenced by the pore space characteristics; in domain 2 formation factor and porosity are linearly related on a log-log plot by the modified Archies equation (equation 3). Porosity domain 3: The grains are in suspension (c > > 0) so that all of the pore space is available for the flow of electrical currents, and the formations resistivity approaches the

Figure 4. Example bounds for - R/Rw data glass sphere packs. R/Rw lab data for loose glass spheres (circles) and artificially cemented glass spheres (stars) from Wyllie and Gregory (1953). Also shown are the HS bounds (solid and dashed lines) and the new upper bound (dotted line), where c = 0.40, p = 0.035, Rm = 1014 W - m and Rw = 1 - m. The data are also plotted in Figure 3.

the lower HS bound in some porosity range near the critical porosity values of sands and sandstones (Figure 2). We suggest that a formations critical porosity and percolation threshold divide the range of total porosity values into three domains within which the - R/Rw relationship may be defined (Table 1). Porosity domain 1: Pore space is no longer connected (0< < p) and the formations resistivity is close to the bulk
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bulk fluid resistivity; the formation factor in domain 3 may be approximated by the lower HS bound (equation 2) normalized by Rw. Results: New upper resistivity-porosity upper bound in porosity domain 2. The upper HS bound immediately approaches the bulk mineral constituent resistivity at the onset of adding resistive minerals to the system (Figure 1). This result is not observed in data from granular systems. This discrepancy likely exists because the upper HS bound corresponds to isolated conductive spheres (pores) covered by a resistive shell (mineral), an unlikely scenario in granular systems. The upper HS bound therefore is of limited use in constraining total porosity or formation factor data in sediments and most rocks. We develop an empirical upper resistivity bound in porosity domain 2 that is tighter than the upper HS bound. The empirical upper bound on - R/Rw data is based on four key observations and theories: - R/Rw data plots along a straight line on a log-log plot (Archies modified equation) for a given formation when porosity is between the percolation threshold p and critical porosity c regardless of the formation pore space characteristics, R/Rw data in granular systems converge toward the lower HS bound at the formations characteristic c (Figure 2) at total porosities greater than a formations c, - R/Rw data plot along the lower HS bound (Figure 2) at total porosities less than the formations p (percolation theory), the formations electrical resistivity can be approximated by the upper HS bound (Figure 3) - R/Rw data in unconsolidated glass sphere packs fall just above the lower HS bound for < c and on the lower HS bound for > c (Figure 4). Data from artificially cemented glass spheres plot just below the empirical upper - R/Rw bound. The empirical upper bound is easily computed and much tighter than the theoretical HS bound. Conclusions. The lower Hashin-Shtrikman bound is independent of the mineral resistivities and volume fractions if Rm/Rw is greater than approximately 103, which is consistent with most hydrogeologic systems. - R/Rw data from unconsolidated glass sphere packs fall just above the lower HS bound in porosity domain 2 ( < p) and on the lower HS bound in porosity domain 3 ( > c). The - R/Rw data from clean and clay-rich sands and in glass sphere packs tend to converge near the lower HS bound at porosities between approximately 0.30 and 0.40, which correspond to the range in accepted critical porosities of sands and spheres. The F relationship can be defined in each porosity domain: (1) domain 1 (0 p), FRHS+/Rw, (2) domain 2 (p < < c), F = a/(-p)m, and (3) domain 3 (c 0), FRHS-/Rw. An empirical upper bound on the R/Rw relationship can be defined by the line F+ = a+/(-p)m+, where a+ and m+ are the y-intercept and negative slope of a line that connects the points (p,/Rw) and (c,/Rw) on a log-log plot.
Suggested reading. The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir characteristics by Archie (AIME Transactions, 1942). A variational approach to the theory of effective magnetic permeability of multiphase materials by Hashin and Shtrikman (Journal of Applied Physics, 1962). Three distinct porosity domains defined physically, hydraulically, electrically,

and elastically by Wempe and Mavko (TLE, 2000). A self-similar model for sedimentary rocks with application to the dielectric constant of fused glass beads by Sen et al. (GEOPHYSICS, 1981). Data references: Formation factors of unconsolidated porous media: Influence of particle shape and effect of cementation by Wyllie and Gregory (AIME Transactions, 1953). Analogy between diffusion and electrical conductivity in porous rocks by Klinkenberg (GSA Bulletin, 1951); Conductivilite dun electrolyte contentant des spheres dielectriques by Slawinski (Journal de Chimie Physique, 1926). Estudio experimental del factor de resistivitidad y la porosidad en medios no consolidados de muy alta porosidad by Balderas-Joers (Tesis profesional, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1975). New relationship between formation resistivity factor and primary and secondary porosities by Mendoza-Romero and Perez-Rosales (SPWLA, 26th Annual Logging Symposium, 1985). Resistivity of brine-saturated sands in relation to pore geometry by Winsauer et al. (AAPG Bulletin, 1952). Application of electrical resistivity measurements to problem of fluid flow in porous media by Wyllie and Spangler (AAPG Bulletin, 1952). The effect of temperature on electrical resistivity of porous media by Sanyal et al. (The Log Analyst, 1973). Some theoretical considerations related to the quantitative evaluation of the physical characteristics of reservoir rock from electrical log data by Wyllie and Rose (AIME Transactions, 1950). Formation factor-porosity relation derived from well log data by Porter and Carothers (The Log Analyst, 1971). TLE
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Stanford Rock Physics and Borehole Geophysics (SRB) consortium for their support during Wempes graduate research. Corresponding author: wwempe@slb.com

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