Evolution of GSM GSM is offering continuous improvement and more services. In 1995 the Phase2recommendations were frozen.

n.The GSM 900 and GSM 1800 specifications were merged and additional supplementary services were defined,the short message services was improved and improvement in radio access and SIM cards were introduced. GSM continuous evolve at full speed. The number of improvements so large that together they are called Phase2++ features.

In 1982 CEPT initiated new cellular system: For roaming frequencies are in the band of 900Mhz 1987 Memorandum of understanding (MoU). Allocation of frequencies:-890-915MHz uplink & 935-960 MHz downlink 1988- European Telecommunication Standard Institute (ETSI)was created. 1991- First official call in the world with GSM on 1st July. 1992- Worlds first GSM network launched in Finland. The first roaming agreement was made. By December there were 13 networks operating in 7 areas. Australian operators were the first non- European signatories of the GSM MoU. New frequency allocation for GSM 1800 (DCS 1800)- 1710-1785 MHz (uplink) & 1805-1880 MHz (downlink). 1993- GSM demonstrated for first time in Africa at Telkom and there was 32 GSM network operating in 18 areas. 1994 - The first GSM network in Africa was launched in South Africa.

1995 -There were 117 GSM networks. Fax, data, and SMS roaming was implemented. * The GSM phase2 standardization was completed, for GSM 1900 (PCS1900). 1996- There were 120 networks operating. * The 8K SIM was launched in addition to prepaid GSM SIM cards. 1998 - HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data) trials in Singapore. 1999 The first mobile data call using GPRS(General Packet Radio Service)in a live network was made. LBS is combined with GPS(Global Positioning System), so that subscriber can determine his geographical location extremely accurately. The 3G mobile communications system UMTS was specified which is based on the GSM standards to allow a smooth evolution from the 2nd generation to the 3rd generation.this ought to guarantee an investment protection for GSM operators.

2000- The first GPRS network is launched. 2001- The Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was standardized. GSM 700 supported; UL: 747 762 MHz and DL: 777 792 MHz. 2002 UMTS/ GSM Rel.5 standardized (IMS) was standardized for GSM/GPRS and UMTS. Smart phones are under development for GSM/GPRS and UMTS to allow a wide range of mobile service, such as mobile Internet, mobile gambling, enhanced LDAs, video messaging, agonistic services, etc. 2003- First commercial starts of UMTS network operators in Europe. 2004 More than one billion people are now using GSM mobile phones. More than 200 countries and territories has adopted GSM and it has become a truly global standard for mobile communications. SUMMARY OF GSM BAND U/L GSM 90 890-915 MHz D/L 935-960 MHz B/W 25 MHz D/D 45MHz 95MHz

GSM-1800 (DCS-1800) 1710-1785 MHz 1805-1850 MHz 75 MHz GSM-850 (Support) GSM-700 (MMS) UMTS It is based on GSM due to two reasons. 1. The GSM technology dominates the market. 824-849 MHz 747-762 MHz 869-894 MHz 777-792 MHz

25 MHz 45MHz 15 MHz 30MHz

2. Great investment made to GSM should be utilized as much as possible. Some requirements for 3G are : The system to be developed must be fully specified(like GSM).The specifications generated should be valid worldwide. The system must bring clear added value.it must be backward compatible at least with GSM and ISDN. Multimedia and all of its components must be supported throughout the system. The radio access of 3G must be generic. Radio access and the network infrastructure must not limit the services to be generated. That is the technology platform is one issue and the service using the platform another issue.

3G system has high data rate, that will allow multimedia traffic through the wireless network. Enhanced packet switching and routing techniques are to be deployed to support video traffic. The 3G system will use Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN) to provide data services between the exiting data networks and the wireless network. The Global 3G Partnership Project (3GPP) incorporating many organization (ITU-T, ETSI, ARIB, and ANSI) is developing standards for the 3G systems. Mobile Communications: Basic Concepts From ancient to modern times, mankind has been looking for means of long distance communications. Fire, flags, horns, etc were used to transmit information faster. 19th century simplified long distance communications: Telegraphy and later on Telephony. Both technique were wire line. Marconi made economic use of electro-magnetic theory by developing devices for wireless transmission of Morse signals(about 1985). Already 6 years later, the first transatlantic wireless transmission of Morse signal took place. Voice was transmitted the first time in 1906 (R.Fess Eden),and first radio broadcast transmission 1909 in New York. Economically most successful wireless application in the first half of the 20th century was radio broadcast. There is one transmitter, the so called radio station. Information, such as news, music etc. is transmitted from the radio station to the receiver equipment, the radio device. This type of one way transmission is called simplex transmission. In this transmission takes place in one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver. The first commercial wireless car phony telephony service started in the late 1946 in St. Louise, Missouri (USA). It was a car phone service, because at that time, the mobile phone equipment was bulky and heavy. Actually, in the start up, it filled the whole back of the car. But it was real full duplex solution. In the 50ies, several vehicle radio systems were also installed in Europe. These systems are now a days called single cell system. The user data transmission takes place between the mobile phone and the base station (BS). A base station transmits and receives user data. While a mobile phone is only responsible for its users data transmission and reception, a base station is capable to handle the calls of several subscribers simultaneously. Transmission of user data from base station to the mobile phone is called downlink (DL). Transmission from mobile phone to base station is called uplink (UL). The area, where the wireless transmission between mobile phone to the base station can take place, is the base station supply area,called cell. For conversation, a technical solution is required where information flow can take place in two directions. This type of transmission is called Duplex transmission. Walky-talky was already available the early 30ies. This system already allowed a transmission of user data in two directions, but there was a limitation: the users were not allowed to transmit at the same time. In other words, you could only receive or transmit the user information. This type of transmission is often called semi- duplex transmission. For telephony services, a technical solution is required, where subscribers have the impression, that they can

speak (transmit) and hear (receive) simultaneously. This type of solution is regarded as fullduplex transmission. Single cell systems are quite limited. The more and more distant the subscriber is from the base station, the lower the quality of the radio link. If the subscriber is leaving the supply area of the cell, no communication is possible any more. In order to overcome this limitation, cellular systems were introduced. A cellular mobile communication system consists of several cells, which can overlap. By doing so a whole geographical area can be supported with the mobile communication service. But what happens, when a subscriber moves during a call from one cell to another cell? If the subscriber is leaving the cell, and in parallel is entering a new cell, then system makes new radio resources available in the neighboring cell, and the call is handed over from one cell to the next one. By doing so, service continuation is guaranteed, even when the subscriber is moving. The process is known as handover(HO). A hand over takes place during a call i.e. when a mobile in active mode. In the idle mode of mobile, the mobile is switched on, but no resources are allocated to it to allow user data transmission, and the mobile phone is still listening the information, broadcast by the base station. Why? Imagine, there is a mobile terminated call. The mobile phone is then paged in the cell. This means the phone receive information that there is a mobile terminated call. A cellular system may consist of hundreds of cell. If the mobile network does not know, in which cell the mobile phone is located, it must be paged in all of them. To reduce load on networks, paging is done in small parts of mobile an operators network. Mobile network operators group cells in administrative units called location areas (LA). A mobile phone is paged in only one direction area. But how does the cellular system know, in which location area the mobile phone is located? In every cell, system information is continuously transmitted. System information includes the location area information. In the idle mode, the mobile phone is listening to this system information. If the subscriber moves hereby from one cell to the next cell, and the new cell belongs to the same location area, the mobile stays idle. If the new cell belongs to a new location area, then the mobile phone has to become active. It starts a communication with the network informing it about it new location. This is stored in database with in the mobile network, and if there is a mobile terminated call, the network knows where to page the subscriber. The process, where the mobile phones informs the network about its new location is called Location Update Procedure (LUP). First generation mobile communication systems are: TACS U.K (Total Access Communication System) 900 MHz band NMT Scandivanian (Nordic Mobile Telephony) 450 & 900 MHz band AMPS U.S (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) C450 etc. All of them launched in the 80s of the last century. 800 MHz band

1st generation mobile communication systems often offered national wide coverage. But there was limitations: Most of them did not support roaming.

Roaming is the ability to use another operators network infrastructure. International roaming is the ability to go even to another country and use the locals operators infrastructure. Most 1st generation mobile communication systems only support only speech transmission, but not data transmission such as fax. Supplementary services, well known from ISDN, were not available, such as number indication and call forwarding, when busy. The transmission takes place unprotected via the radio interface as a consequence evaesdropping is possible. Finally, mobile communication started to become a mass market. And the radio interface is the main bottleneck in terms of capacity. Improved solution was urgently required. This led to the inauguration of the second generation mobile communication systems, one of which is GSM. 1980 1G 1990 2G 2000 3G

multi standard analog multi standard digital unified standard digital voice only prepaid data barrier low data rate TACS,NMT, AMPS Terrestrial CXL, M/W DAMPS U.S GSM Europe CDMA - U.S IS-95,GSM, CDMA Terrestrial OFC, M/W, Cellular 800 MHz Band 900 / 1800 / 1900 MHz Band 900 MHz high speed data rate up to 2Mb/s WCDMA,UMTS, IMT-2000 Satellite/Terrestrial Cellular/Satellite

1. Concept of Cellular Communication Wireless propagation channel yields severe signal- to-interference ratio ( SIR) than guided lines Higher transmission bit error rate (BER) at the output of the receiver i.e. 10-2 to 10-3 due to multipath fading where as optical fiber 10-10

Severe SIR reduces useable spectral width. Mitigation of interferences enlarge the spectral width. Wider spectrum means more BW to support more users.

System capacity means largest number of users supported during any one use of the channel. A large population means larger geographical coverage.

1.Concept of Cellular Communication Radio Cell Parameter

If a single transmitter were used to cover a large geographical area, a very high power transmitter and very high antenna would be required. All users will share the same set of frequencies or radio CHLs. The system capacity will be reduced as radio resources not used efficiently. If the same set of frequencies were assigned to serve small geographical area, it would be possible to expand the system capacity. Same set of radio frequency should not introduce reception interference between two users in the two areas. Or if there is some interference ,it must be at an acceptable level This means that geographical area that use the same set of frequencies must be physically separated from each other so that the power level of the signal that spills out from one region to a neighboring region does not produce unacceptable interference. This way of replicating identically structured and operated geographical regions gives rise to the concept of Cellular Communication. A small area served by a single Base Station is called a CELL

Cellular Concepts The key ways in which a cellular system can meet its objectives are through: The architecture of the cellular system Frequency re-use

Providing call handover capabilities Roaming capabilities

The architecture must support control and signalling (about which more later) in an efficient and rapid manner. It must also operate to reduce both equipment and transmission costs on the ground. Different sizes of cell, large outside towns and small in city centres provide appropriate levels of capacity. Frequency re-use is the key to the capacity of a network. Call handover, passing an ongoing voice or data call from one base station to the next without a break. Roaming, allowing a user registered with a network in one country, to be able to send and receive calls when in any of over a hundred other countries without the user being involved in the process.

2.CELL FUNDAMENTALS In practice cells are of arbitrary shape (close to a circle) due to uneven propagation of radio waves. For system design all cells have same shape. Easier to mathematically analyze by assuming a uniform cell size for all cells. The cell shape can be only of three types:

i) Regular polygons ii) Equilateral triangle iii) Square or Regular Hexagon. A hexagonal cell is the closest approximation to a circle of these three and has been used traditionally for system design.

For a given radius the hexagon has the largest area. (largest distance between the hexagon center and its edge)

Use of hexagon geometry fewest number of cells can cover a geographic area. Provide a circular radiation pattern with an omnidirectional base station antenna and free space propagation. Base Station is put in the center of the cell ( i.e. center excited cells) or on the three of the six vertices (i.e. edge-excited cells. Omnidirectional Antenna: center excited cells

Sectored Directional Antennas :Edge excited cells.

Frequency reuse concept Frequency reuse is the core concept of the cellular mobile system. Users in different geographic areas (different cells) may simultaneously use the same frequency. Every cellular Base Station is assigned a group of radio channels which are used within a small geographic area called cell. In adjacent cells, BSs are assigned different RF CHLs from neighboring cells. Cells of the same group RF CHLs are separated large enough to keep the interference level within the acceptable limit andare known as Co-channels. Assigning RF CHLs groups for all the cellular BSs within the system is called RF Planning or frequency re-use concept, Frequency re-use is shown in fig

4.Concept Of Cell Cluster A group of cells that use a different set of frequencies ( RF CHLs)in each cell is called a Cluster. In mobile communication , the channels used in the forward and reverse (Up/Link and Down/Link) direction are separated in time i.e. TDD or frequency i.e. FDD to provide duplexing. The total number channels available in cellular system is finite. System capacity depends on total number of RF CHLs available and how the available channels are deployed. If the available RF CHLs are reused for transmission it is possible to increase the system capacity or to support more users. Two or more different cells use the same set of RF CHLs if the nearest cells are separated such that the interference between cells at any given Rf CHL is at acceptable level. The cells which use the same set of RF CHLs are referred as co-channel cells. Interference between co-channel cells is referred as co- channel interference.

Adjacent co-channel cells are filled wth other cells that use different RF CHLs to provide isolation. Let N be the cluster size i.e. number of cells in a cluster. In fig. N= 7 K=No. RF CHLs available without frequency reuse. N cell in cluster would then utilize all K available RF CHLs. It means each cell in a cluster use K/N number of RF CHLs. N is referred as the FREQUENCY REUSE FACTOR Capacity Increase by Frequency Reuse concept: Let j (j K) RF CHLs be allocated to each cell. j= K/N Or K = jN ------- (1) N cells in a cluster use the complete set of available RF CHLs. Decrease in cluster size N increases the number of RF CHLs allocated per cell. Hence by decreasing the cluster size, it is possible to increase the capacity per cell. The cluster can be

replicated many times to form the entire cellular system. Let M - be the number of times the cluster is replicated. C- be the total number of RF CHLs is used in entire cellular system with frequency reuse. C is then system capacity and is given by: C = MJN ---- (2) If N is decreased and J is proportionally increased so that Eqn(1) satisfied. Replicate Smaller cluster more times in order to cover same geographic area. The value of M has to be increased. Since JN=K remains constant. Capacity C increased when N is Minimized but Co-channel interference will increase Cellular Layout for frequency Reuse: Cellular communication is based on a two-dimensional chaining of 2hexagonal cells. Now, let us discuss the rule to find the nearest co-channel neighbour of a particular cell. Rule to determine the nearest co-channel Neighbours: Step 1: Move I cells along any chain of hexagons. Step 2: Turn 60 degree counter clockwise and move j cells. Fig.(4.1)in the next slide shows the method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular system using the preceding rule for i=3 and j=2 where the co-channels are shaded cells Fig.(4.2) illustrate the cluster concept and frequency reuse in cellular network the parameters i and j measure the number of the nearest neighbours between co-channels, the cluster size, N is related to I and j by the expression: N = i2 +ij +j2

Geometry of Hexagonal Cells: Fig. I) shows the geometry of an array of hexagonal cells. R - radius of a hexagonal cell ( from centre to vertex)

Hexagonal -6 equidistant neighbors. Line joining the centre of any cell and each of its neighbors are separated by multiple of 60 60angle is bounded by the vertical line and 30line both of which joins centre of hexagonal cells. The distance between the nearest co-channel cells in hexagonal area can be calculated from the geometry shown in fig.1). Cell under consideration candidate cell Distance between centre of two adjacent hexagonal cells-3 R The normalized distance between two adjacent cells is unity. Either i=1 and j=0 or i=0 and j=1 Let D be the actual distance between the centers two adjacent co-channel cells. D is the function of Dnorm and R. Now from geometry shown in fig. 1) we have D2norm = j2 cos230 + ( i +j sin 30 )2 = i2 + j2 + ij (1)

We know that cluster size N is related to i and j N = i2 + j2 + ij From Eqn. (1) & (2) we have Dnorm = N (2)

With actual distance 3 R between the centers of two adjacent hexagonal cells, the actual distance between the center of the candidate cell and other of a nearest cells D = Dnorm 3 R =3N R or =3 (i2 + j2 + ij) R (3)

For hexagonal cells, there are six nearest co-channel neighbors to each cell. Co-channel cells are located in tiers. In general ,a candidate cell is surrounded by 6k cells in tier k. For cells with the same size , the co-channel cells in each tier lie on the boundary of the hexagon that chains all the co-channel cells in each tier. As D is the radius between two nearest co-channel cells. The radius of the hexagon chaining the co-channel cells in the kth tier is given by k D. For the frequency reuse pattern with I = 2 and j =1 so that N = 7. Radius of the first tier = D and second tier = 2D. Example: Verify that the cell cluster size is N=i2 + ij + j2 wher2e I and j are the integer parameters determining the co-channel cells as illustrated in fig.3 Solution: A candidate cell has 6 nearest co-channel cells. By joining the centers of the 6 nearest neighboring co-channel cells we form a large hexagon, as shown in fig. 3 this large hexagon has radius equal to D, which is also the co-channel cell separation. With cell radius R, we have D = Dnorm 3 R =3N R or =3 (i2 + j2 + ij) R

In general, the area of a hexagon is proportional to the square of its radius. Let be the proportional constant. Then, the area of the large hexagon with radius D is A large = D2 = {3(i2 + j2 + ij) R2} And the area of a cell ( the small hexagon) with radius R will be Asmall = R2 The number of cells in the large hexagon is then = A large/Asmal =3 (i2 + j2 + ij) (1)

It can be seen that in general the large Hexagon encloses the centre cluster of N cells plus 1/3 the number of the cells associated with six other peripheral large hexagons. Therefore, total number of cells enclosed by large hexagon is given by N + 6 ( 1/3 N ) = 3 N From eqn. (i) and (ii) , we get N = i2 + ij + j2 Hence Proved (ii)

2.Frequency Reuse Ratio: The frequency reuse ratio is represented by q.It is expressed as q= D/R or 3N R/R or 3N Fig .(4)

Since frequency reuse leads to co-channel cell operation, q is also referred as the co-channel reuse ratio. Frequency reuse ratio q is related to the cluster size ( or frequency reuse factor). Since q increases with N, and since smaller value of N has the effect of increasing capacity of the cellular system and at the same time increasing co-channel interference. Choice of q or N has to be made such that the Signal to co-channel interference ratio is acceptable level. Several frequency reuse patterns, together with the corresponding cluster sizes and frequency reuse ratio have been shown in Table-1 . Table: Frequency Reuse Ratio ( Co-channel Reuse Ratio) and Cluster Size Frequency Reuse Pattern (I, j) (1,1) (2,0) (2,1) (3,0) (2,2) (3,1) (3,2) (4,1) (3,3) (4,2) (4,3) Cluster Size (N) 3 4 7 9 12 13 19 21 27 28 37 Frequency Reuse Ratio (q) 3.00 3.46 4.58 5.20 6.00 6.24 7.55 7.94 9.00 9.17 10.54

CO - Chl Interference

Intra-cell Interference and Inter-cell Interference: Let us consider the performance of the candidate cell in cellular array. A given base station provides the capacity to handle the services of many mobile users. The signal received from a target user at cell-site (base station) receiver is subject to interference from transmissions of other mobiles in the same cell, back ground noise, and interference from transmissions by mobiles in neighboring cells. Under the assumption of a proper separation between uplink transmissions and downlink transmissions either time domain (TDD) or in frequency domain (FDD), interference from transmissions in other link can be neglected. Interference from other mobiles at thecell-site receiver in the same cell is intracell interference. Interference from other cells is called as intercell interference. Co-channel Interference: S- power of the desired at the output of receiver demodulator. I Co-channel interference at the out put of receiver demodulator. Ni - No. of co-channel interfering cells. and- Ii -- Interference power caused by ith co-channel cell base station. The signal to co-channel interference ratio (S/I) at the desired mobile receiver is given by Let Di be the distance between the ith interfering co-channel cell and mobile. Ii - at a given mobile due to ith interfering co-channel cell is proportional to (Di)-k where k is path loss exponent range 2< or=k <or=5 k

In addition to co-channel interference there is always inherent back ground noise, we may neglect this. S desired received signal power is proportional to r-k, where r is the distance between the mobile and serving base station. When the transmit power from all the base stations are equal and the path loss exponent is the same through out the geographical coverage area, the co-channel interference from ith cochannel cell Ii for all i, depends on Di and k only. The S/I at a typical mobile receiver can be approximated by Ni S/I = r-k /Di--k i=1 The degree of co-channel interference is function of location of the mobile within the cell of the serving base station. When the mobile located at the cell boundary i.e. r =R , the worst case cochannel interference occurs as the power of the desired signal is minimum. With a hexagonal shaped cellular systems, there are always 6 co-channel interfering cells in the first tier. If we neglect co-channel interference from first , second and other higher tiers, this means that Ni = 6 In case that r = R and using Di =D for i =1,2,.Ni we have S/I = (D/R) k/Ni = qk/Ni = (3N)k/Ni (ii) (i)

Thus the frequency reuse ratio can be expressed as q = ( Ni S/I)1/k = ( 6 S/I)1/k Adjacent-Channel Interference : Adjacent channel interference occurs when transmission from adjacent channels (channels next to another in the frequency domain) interfere with each other. Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect filter in receivers that allow nearby frequencies to enter the receiver. Adjacent channel interference is most prevalent when adjacent channel is transmitting very close to a mobile units receiver at the same time the mobile unit is trying to receive transmissions from the base station on adjacent frequency. This is called the near-far effect and is most prevalent when a mobile unit is receiving a weak signal from the base station. (iii)

Adjacent-channel interference is shown in the figure (next side) Mobile unit 1 is receiving frequency f1 from base station A. At the same time, base A is transmitting frequency f2 to the mobile unit 2. Because mobile unit2 is much farther from the base station than the mobile unit1. F2 is transmitted at a much higher power level than f1. Mobile unit 1 located very close to the base station, and f2 is located next to f1 in the frequency spectrum( i.e. the adjacent channel); therefore mobile unit 1 is receiving f2 at much higher power level than f1. Because of the high power level, the filters in mobile unit 1 cannot block all the power from f2, and the signal intended for mobile unit2 interferes with mobile unit 1s reception of f1. Also f1 does not interfere with mobile unit 2s reception because f1 is received at much lower power lvel than f2. Using precise filtering and making careful ns channel assignments can minimize adjacent channel interference in receivers. Maintaining a reasonable separation between channels in a given cell can also reduce adjacent-channel interference. However, if the reuse factor is small, the separation between adjacent channels may not be sufficient to maintain an adequate adjacentchannel interference level. Various methods for Capacity Increase Of Cellular System: Capacity of cellular system can be enlarged through frequency reuse. The capacity can also be improved based on cellular lay out and antenna design. Basically, there three popular mechanisms to increase the capacity of a cellular system: (i) Cell splitting, Cell Splitting: One way to perform cell splitting, as shown in fig 1 is to subdivide a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in height and transmit power. With more cells, there will be more clusters in the same coverage area. This is equivalent to replicating a cell cluster more times i.e. replication factor M is increased. Hence the cell splitting increase the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of times that channels are reused. The original large cell with radius R in centre is split into the medium cells with radius R/2 and the medium cell in the centre is further split into the small cells with radius R/4. The cell splitting reduces the call blocking probability in the area, and increases the frequency with which mobiles hand off from cell to cell. (ii) Antenna sectoring (iii) Microcell zone concept

Let d be the distance between the transmitter and the receiver,d0 be the distance from the transmitter to a close in reference point. P0 be the power received at the close-in reference point. We know that the average received power, Pr is proportional to Po, and given by Pr = P0 (d/d0)k (i)

Where d d0 and k is the path loss exponent. Taking the logarithm, equation (i) can be expressed as Pr(dBW) = P0(dBW) 10k log10 (d/d0) , d d0 Let Pt1 and Pt2 be the transmit poer of the large cell base station and the medium cell base station, respectively, The received power, Pr at the large (old) cell boundary is proportional to Pt1R-k And Pr at the medium (new) cell boundary is proportional to P2 (R/2)-k On the basis equal received power, we have Pt1R-k = P2 (R/2)-k Pt1/Pt2 = 2k Taking the logarithm, the above expression can be expressed as under 10 log10 (Pt1/Pt2) =10klog10 2 = 3k dB Approx. For k=4 , Pt1/Pt2 = 12db. Thus , with cell splitting, where the radius of new cell is one half of that of the old cell, we can achieve a 12dB reduction in the transmit power. (ii) Sectoring (Directional Antennas): In the basic form, antennas are omni directional. The directional antenna can increase the system capacity relative to that of omnidirectional antennas. If S denotes the power of the desired signal and I be the power of the co-channel interference at the out put of the receiver demodulator, Let Ni be the number of the co-channel interfering cells. Ii be the interference power caused by transmissions from the ith interferin co-channel cell base station, then

Where the value of Ni depends on the form antenna used In the Omnidirectional case Ni =6. For the first of co-channel cells. Assuming Di =D, i=1,2,..,Ni

(S/I) omni =1/6 qk where q =D/R In terms of capacity increase through sectorization, the omnidirectional case can be used as the bench mark. With hexagonal cells as illustrated in fig. sectorization can be done in multiples of 60. Assuming a 7-cell reuse, for the 3-sector case (120 in each sector) the number of interferes in the first tier is reduced from 6 to 2. With Di = D we have, (S/I) omni = 1/6 q k And (S/) 120 = 1/2 q k

The increase in the signal to interference ratio is then (S/I) 120 / (S/I)omni = 3 This means that theoretically, the capacity increase from the Omnidirectional antenna case is given by the number of sectors in each cell resulting from the use of directional antennas. It may be noted that within each cell, mobile may need to hand off from sector to sector. However hand off process can be easily managed by the base station. If the total number of channels available to each cell needs to be partitioned for the sectors, the trunking efficiency for each cell is reduced from that without sectoring. A worst case scenario in a 120 sectorization is shown in the fig .2, where the mobile is located at the corner of the cell. R is the cell radius, and D is distance between the adjacent co-channel cells. In the 3- sector case, the mobile experiences interference from one sector of each of the two interfering cells. With distance approximation shown and path loss exponent of k= 4, we have

Concept of a Microcell Zone: The increased number of handoffs required when sectoring is employed. It results in an increase load on the switching and control link elements of the mobile systems. A solution to this problem was presented by Lee. This proposal is based on a microcell concept for seven cell reuse, as

shown in the fig. In this scheme, each of the three or possible more zone sites i. e. Microcells represented as TX/RX are connected to a single base station and share the same radio equipment. The zones are connected by coaxial cable, fiber optic cable or microwave link. Multiple zones and a single base station make up a cell. A mobile travels within a cell, it is served by the zone with the strongest signal. This approach is superior to sectoring since antennas are placed at the outer edge of the cell, and any base station channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station. As mobile travels from one zone to another within the cell, it retains the sane channel. Thus unlike the sectoring, handoff is not required at the MSC when the mobile travels between zones within cell. The base station simply switches the channel to a different zone site. In this way, a given channel is active only in the particular zone in which the mobile is travelling and hence the base station radiation is localized and interference is reduced.

The cannels are distributed in time and space by all three zones and are also reused in co-channel cells in the normal fashion. This technique is particularly useful along the highways or along urban traffic corridors. The advantage of the zone cell technique is that while the cell maintains a particular coverage radius, the co-channel interference in the cellular system is reduced since a large central base station is replaced by several lower powered transceivers on the edge of the cell. Decreased co-channel interference improves the signal quality and also leads to increase the capacity without degradation in trunking efficiency caused by sectoring. Channel Assignment Strategies: There are two channel assignment approaches as : (i). Fixed channel assignment Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA): In FCA, each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels. In any cell attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in that particular cell. To improve utilization, a borrowing option ma be considered. With the borrowing option, a cell is allowed to borrow (ii) Dynamic channel assignment

channels from neighboring cell if all of its own are already occupied and the neighboring cell has spare channels. Borrowing is supervised by the MSC. Since handoff is to be performed by the MSC, the MSC has full knowledge of the capacity usage of the cluster of cells within its jurisdiction. Hence, the MSC is to decide function such as Channel borrowing. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA): In DCA voice channels are not allocated to different cells on permanent basis. Each time call request is made Serving base station requests a channel from the MSC. MSC determines (dynamically) the availability of channel and executes its allocation procedure accordingly. MSC allocates a given frequency (Radio channel) if that frequency is not presently in use in the cell or in any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference. DCA reduces the likelihood of call blocking, which increases the trunking capacity of the system, since all available channels under the control of the MSC are accessible to all of the cell. DCA requires the MSC to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution ,and radio signal quality of all channels on a continuous basis. In any case MSC needs to do this data collection in order to manage handoff. Roaming and Handoff (or Handover) : Roaming: Roaming is when a mobile unit moves from one cell to another cell-possibly from companys service area into another companys service area (requiring roaming agreements). Intra-network Roaming Mobile Unit moves in its own network area. National Roaming When mobile unit moves in its own country from one companys service area to another companys service area( under roaming agreements). International Roaming when mobile unit moves from its own country to another country. It is only possible on roaming agreements between the two countries. Handoff or Handover: As mobile unit (Car or pedestrian) moves away from the base station transceiver and it is in communication with another mobile unit, The signal strength begins to decrease. The output power of the mobile unit is controlled by the base station through the transmission of up/down commands, which depends on the signal strength the base station is currently receiving from the mobile unit. When the signal level drops below a predetermined level, MSC locates the cell in the honeycomb pattern that is receiving the strongest signal from the particular mobile unit and then transfer the mobile unit in the new cell. When a mobile unit moves during a call from one Base Station (Cell) to another Base Station (Cell). It would be vey annoying if the call is dropped .

If the mobile unit is living a cell and in parallel is entering a new cell ,then the system makes new radio resources (RF Channel) in the neighboring cell. And the call is transferred or handed over from one cell to the next cell. By doing so, service continuation is guaranteed even the mobile unit is moving. The process is called handover (HO) Handover should be performed as infrequently as possible and completely transparent (seamless) to the subscriber (i.e. the subscriber cannot perceive that their facility has been switched). Handoff or handover consist of four stages: 1. Initiation Either the mobile or network determines the need for a handoff and initiates the necessary network procedures. 2. Resource reservation Appropriate network procedures reserve the resources needed to support the handoff ( i.e. a voice and control channel ) 3. Execution The actual transfer of control from one base station to another base station takes place. 4. Completion Unnecessary network resources are relinquished and made available to other mobile units. Type Handoffs: (i) Hard Handoff and (ii) Soft Handoff

(i) Hard Handoff : A connection momentarily broken during the cell to cell transfer is called a hard handoff. A hard handoff is break-before make process .With hard handoff,the mobile unit breaks its connection with one base station before establishing voice communication with new base station. Hard handoff generally occur when mobile unit is passed between disjoint system with different frequency assignments, air interface characteristics, or technologies. There is a hard handoff in GSM technology.

(ii) Soft Handoff : A flawless handoff ( i.e. no perceivable interruption service ) is called soft handoff. With a soft handoff, a mobile unit establishes contact with a new base station before giving up its current radio channel by transmitting coded speech signal to two base stations simultaneously. Both base stations send their received signals to MSC, which estimate the quality of the two signals and determines when the transfer should occur. A complementary process occurs in the opposite direction. A soft handoff requires that the two base stations operate synchronously with each other.

Advantage of cellular Systems : (i) (ii) The use of low power transmitter, and An allowance for frequency reuse

Frequency reuse increases the spectral efficiency as a result wider spectrum in turn ,means more Bandwidth to support more users. A wider spectrum will allow for greater sharing of the spectral width to support more users and the system capacity will also increase. Frequency reuse needs to be structured so that co-channel interference is kept Minimum. As the distance between co-channel cells increases co-channel interference will decrease. If the cell size is fixed , the average signal to co-channel interference will be independent of the transmitted poer of each cell.