Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook

STEEL FORMING AND
HEAT TREATING HANDBOOK
Antonio Augusto Gorni

São Vicente, Brazil
agorni@iron.com.br
www.gorni.eng.br
DISCLAIMER:
The formulas and information compiled in this text are provided without warranty of any kind.
Use them at your own risk!
A Non-Stop Work.
First Release: 04 April 2002
This Version: 18 March 2009
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 1
- Austenite Formation Temperatures
. Grange
Ae1 = 1333 − 25 Mn + 40 Si + 42 Cr − 26 Ni
Notation:
Ae1: Equilibrium Temperature for Austenitization Start [°F]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Ae3 = 1570 − 323 C − 25 Mn + 80 Si − 3 Cr − 32 Ni
Notation:
Ae3: Equilibrium Temperature for End of Austenitization [°F]
Source: GRANGE, R.A. Metal Progress, April 1961, 73.
. Andrews
Ae1 = 723 − 16.9 Ni + 29.1 Si + 6.38 W − 10.7 Mn + 16.9 Cr + 290 As
Notation:
Ae1: Equilibrium Temperature of Austenitization Start [°C]
Ae3 = 910 − 203 C + 44.7 Si − 15.2 Ni + 31.5 Mo + 104 V + 13,1 W − 30.0 Mn + 11.0 Cr + 20.0 Cu − 700 P − 400 Al −120 As −
− 400 Ti
Notation:
Ae3: Equilibrium Temperature for Austenitization End [°C]
Notes:
- Both formulas are valid for low alloy steels with less than 0.6%C.
Source: ANDREWS, K.W. Empirical Formulae for the Calculation of Some Transformation Temperatures. Journal of the
Iron and Steel Institute, 203, Part 7, July 1965, 721-727.
. Roberts
Ae3 = 910 − 25 Mn − 11 Cr − 20 Cu + 60 Si + 700 P − 250 Al − Fn
Notation:
Ae3: Equilibrium Temperature for End of Austenitization [°C]
Fn: value defined according to the table below:
C Fn
0.05 24
0.10 48
0.15 64
0.20 80
0.25 93
0.30 106
0.35 117
0.40 128
Source: ROBERTS, W.L.: Flat Processing of Steel; Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1988.
. Eldis
Ae1 = 712 − 17,8 Mn − 19,1 Ni + 20,1 Si + 11,9 Cr + 9,8 Mo
Notation:
Ae1: Equilibrium Temperature of Austenitization Start [°C]
Ae3 = 871 − 254,4 C − 14,2 Ni + 51,7 Si
Notation:
Ac3: Equilibrium Temperature for End of Austenitization [°C]
Notes:
- Both formulas were proposed by ELDIS for low alloy steels with less than 0.6%C.
Source: BARRALIS, J. & MAEDER, G. Métallurgie Tome I: Métallurgie Physique. Collection Scientifique ENSAM, 1982,
270 p.
. Park
Ac3 = 955 − 350 C − 25 Mn + 51 Si + 106 Nb + 100 Ti + 68 Al − 11 Cr − 33 Ni − 16 Cu + 67 Mo
Notation:
Ac3: Austenitization Final Temperature in Heating [°C]
Notes:
- Formula specifically developed for TRIP steels.
Source: PARK, S.H. et al. Development of Ductile Ultra-High Strength Hot Rolled Steels. Posco Technical Report, 1996,
50-128.
. Lee & Lee
Acm = 224.4 + 992.4 C − 465.1 C 2 + 46.7 Cr + 19.0 C Cr − 6.1 Cr 2 + 7.6 Mn + 10.0 Mo − 6.8 Cr Mo − 6.9 Ni + 3.7 C Ni − 2.7 Cr Ni +
+ 0.8 Ni 2 + 16.7 Si
Notation:
Acm: Austenitization Start Temperature [°C]
Notes:
- Equation valid for the following alloy range: 0.2% ≤ C ≤ 0.7; Mn ≤ 1.5%; Si ≤ 0.3%; Ni ≤ 2.8%; Cr ≤ 1.5%; Mo ≤
0.6%.
Source: LEE, S.J. & LEE, Y.K. Thermodynamic Formula for the Acm Temperature of Low Alloy Steels. ISIJ International,
47:5, May 2007, 769-774.
. Kasatkin
Ac1 = 723 − 7.08 Mn + 37.7 Si + 18.1 Cr + 44.2 Mo + 8.95 Ni + 50.1 V + 21.7 Al + 3.18 W + 297 S − 830 N − 11.5 C Si − 14.0 Mn Si −
− 3.10 Si Cr − 57.9 C Mo − 15.5 Mn Mo − 5.28 C Ni − 6.0 Mn Ni + 6.77 Si Ni − 0.80 Cr Ni − 27.4 C V + 30.8 Mo V − 0.84 Cr 2 −
− 3.46 Mo 2 − 0.46 Ni 2 − 28 V 2
Notation:
Ac1: Austenitization Start Temperature in Heating [°C]
Notes:
- Multiple Correlation Coefficient r = 0.96
- Residual Mean-Square Deviation √do = 10.8°C
Ac3 = 912 − 370 C − 27.4 Mn + 27.3 Si − 6.35 Cr − 32.7 Ni + 95.2 V + 190 Ti + 72.0 Al + 64.5 Nb + 5.57 W + 332 S + 276 P + 485 N −
− 900 B + 16.2 C Mn + 32.3 C Si + 15.4 C Cr + 48.0 C Ni + 4.32 Si Cr − 17.3 Si Mo − 18.6 Si Ni + 4.80 Mn Ni + 40.5 Mo V +
+ 174 C 2 + 2.46 Mn 2 − 6.86 Si 2 + 0.322 Cr 2 + 9.90 Mo 2 + 1.24 Ni 2 − 60.2 V 2
Notation:
Ac3: Equilibrium Temperature of Austenitization End in Heating [°C]
Notes:
∆T = 188 − 370 C − 7.93 Mn − 26.8 Cr − 33.0 Mo − 23.5 Ni + 52.5 V + 194 Ti + 47.8 Al + 87.4 Nb + 3.82 W + 266 P + 53.0 C Si +
+ 20.7 C Cr + 6.26 Si Cr + 64.2 C Mo + 55.2 C Ni + 10.8 Mn Ni + 1.33 Cr 2 + 8.83 Mo 2 + 1.91 Ni 2 − 37.8 V 2
Notation:
∆T: Intercritical Temperature Range [°C]
Notes:
- These equations are valid within these composition limits: C ≤ 0.83%, Mn ≤ 2.0%, Si ≤ 1.0%, Cr ≤ 2.0%, Mo ≤
1.0%, Ni ≤ 3.0%, V ≤ 0.5%, W ≤ 1.0%, Ti ≤ 0.15%, Al ≤ 0.2%, Cu ≤ 1.0%, Nb ≤ 0.20%, P ≤ 0.040%, S ≤ 0.040%,
N ≤ 0.025%, B ≤ 0.010%.
Source: KASATKIN, O.G. et al. Calculation Models for Determining the Critical Points of Steel. Metal Science and Heat
Treatment, 26:1-2, January-February 1984, 27-31.
- Austenite No-Recrystallization Temperature
. Boratto et al.
Tnr = 887 + 464 C + (6445 Nb − 644 Nb ) + (732 V − 230 V ) + 890 Ti + 363 Al − 357 Si
Notation:
Tnr: Temperature of No-Recrystallization [°C]
Notes:
- Equation valid under the following alloy range: 0.04% ≤ C ≤ 0.17%; 0.41% ≤ Mn ≤ 1.90; 0.15% ≤ Si ≤ 0.50%;
0.002% ≤ Al ≤ 0.650; Nb ≤ 0.060%; V ≤ 0.120%; Ti ≤ 0.110%; Cr ≤ 0.67%; Ni ≤ 0.45.
Source: BORATTO, F. et al.: Effect of Chemical Composition on Critical Temperatures of Microalloyed Steels. In:
THERMEC ‘88. Proceedings. Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Tokyo, 1988, p. 383-390.
- Austenite Solubility Products
. General
(a M ) m (a X ) n [ M ]m [ X ]n  Q  C A
log10 k s = log10 = log10 = −  + =− +B
aM m X n [ MX ]  2.303 RT  2.303 T
Notation:
MmXn: Precipitate Considered for Calculation
Ai: Activity
M, X: Alloy Contents [weight %]
T: Temperature [K]
C: Constant
A, B: Constants of the Solubility Product, given in the table below:
Precipitate A B Source
7060 1.55 Narita
6770 1.03 Irvine
AlN 7750 1.80 Ashby
BN 13970 5.24 Fountain
Cr23C6 7375 5.36 Ashby
Mo2C 7375 5.00 Ashby
7900 3.42 Narita
NbC
7290 3.04 Meyer
NbCN 5860 1.54 Meyer
NbCN 6770 2.26 Ashby

7520 3.11 Ashby
NbC0.87
7700 3.18 Mori
8500 2.80 Narita
NbN 10230 4.04 Smith
10800 3.70 Ashby
TiC 7000 2.75 Irvine
15020 3.82 Narita
TiN
8000 0.32 Ashby
VC 9500 6.72 Narita
V4C3 8000 5.36 Ashby
8330 3.46 Irvine
VN
7070 2.27 Irvine
Notes:
- aAmBn is equal to one if the precipitate is pure.
- aAmBn ≤ 1 if there is co-precipitation with another element.
- The product [M]m[X]n (that is, ks) defines the graphical boundary of solubilization in a graph [M] x [X].
Sources:
- ASHBY, M.F. & EASTERLING, K.E. A First Report on Diagrams for Grain Growth in Welds. Acta Metallurgica,
30, 1982, 1969-1978.
- FOUNTAIN, R. & CHIPMAN, J. Solubility and Precipitation of Vanadium Nitride in Alpha and Gamma Iron.
Transactions of the AIME, Dec. 1958, 737-739
- GLADMAN, T. The Physical Metallurgy of Microalloyed Steels. The Institute of Materials, London, 1997, 363 p.
- IRVINE, K.J. et al. Grain-Refined C-Mn Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 205:2, Feb. 1967,
161-182.
- NARITA, K.et al. Physical Chemistry of Ti/Zr, V/Nb/Ta and Rare Elements in Steel. Transactions of the ISIJ,
15:5, May 1975, 145-151.
- SMITH, R.P. Transactions of the AIME, 224, 1962, 190.
- Values compiled by Rajindra Clement Ratnapuli or Fúlvio Siciliano from assorted references when not
specified above.
. Irvine
 12  6770
log[ Nb] C + N  = 2.26 −
 14  T
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Source: IRVINE, K.J. et al. Grain-Refined C-Mn Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 205:2, Feb. 1967,
161-182.
. Mori
10400
log [ Nb] [ N ]0.65 [C ]0.24 = 4.09 −
T
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Source: Equation compiled by Fúlvio Siciliano.
. Siciliano
 12  838 [ Mn]0.246 − 1730 [ Si ]0.594 − 6440

log[ Nb] C + N  = 2.26 +
 14  T
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Source: SICILIANO JR., F..: Mathematical Modeling of the Hot Strip Rolling of Nb Microalloyed Steels. Ph.D. Thesis,
McGill University, February 1999, 165 p.
. Dong
 12  1371 [ Mn] − 923 [ Si ] − 8049

log [ Nb] C + N  = 3.14 + 0.35 [ Si ] − 0.91 [ Mn] +
 14  T
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Source: DONG, J.X. et al.: Effect of Silicon on the Kinetics of Nb(C,N) Precipitation during the Hot Working of Nb-bearing
Steels. ISIJ International, 40:6, June 2000, 613-618.
. Irvine
8330
log [V ] [ N ] = 3.46 + 0.12 Mn −
T
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Source: ASHBY, M.F. & EASTERLING, K.E. A First Report on Diagrams for Grain Growth in Welds. Acta Metallurgica,
30, 1982, 1969-1978.
- Austenite Solubilization Temperature
A
Td ( 0 C ) = − 273
B − log10 (a A ) m (a B ) n
Notation:
AmBn: Precipitate considered for calculation
Td: Solubilization temperature [°C]
ax: Alloy content [weight %]
A, B: Constants of the solubility product, given in the table at the topic Austenite Solubilization Products.
- Austenite Transformation Temperatures: Ar3 and Ar1
. Blás
Ar3 = 903 − 328 C − 102 Mn + 116 Nb − 0.909 v
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite → Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
v: Cooling Rate [°C/s]
Notes:
- This formula was determined using temperature data got from samples cooled directly from hot rolling
experiments. Thus it includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
- Useful range: 0.024-0.068% C, 0.27-0.39% Mn, 0.004-0.054% Al, 0.000-0.094% Nb, 0.0019-0.0072% N, 1.0-
35°C/s
- r = 0.934; Standard Error of Deviation = 5°C
Source: BLÁS, J.G. et al.: Influência da Composição Química e da Velocidade de Resfriamento sobre o Ponto Ar3 em Aços
de Baixo C Microligados ao Nb. In: Congresso Anual da Associação Brasileira de Metais, ABM, São Paulo,
Out. 1989, vol. 1, p 11-29.
. Choquet
Ar3 = 902 − 527 C − 62 Mn + 60 Si
Notation:
Notes:
- This formula was determined using data got from samples cooled directly from hot rolling experiments. Thus it
includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
Source: CHOQUET, P. et al.: Mathematical Model for Predictions of Austenite and Ferrite Microstructures in Hot Rolling
Processes. IRSID Report, St. Germain-en-Laye, 1985. 7 p.
. Ouchi
Ar3 = 910 − 310 C − 80 Mn − 20 Cu − 15 Cr − 55 Ni − 80 Mo + 0,35 (h − 8)
Notation:
h: Plate Thickness [mm]
Notes:
- This formula was determined using temperature data got from samples of Nb microalloyed steels cooled directly
from hot rolling experiments. Thus it includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
Source: OUCHI, C. et al. The Effect of Hot Rolling Condition and Chemical Composition on the Onset Temperature of
Gamma-Alpha Transformation After Hot Rolling. Transactions of the ISIJ, March 1982, 214-222.
. Sekine
Ar3 = 868 − 396 C − 68.1 Mn + 24.6 Si − 36.1 Ni − 24.8 Cr − 20.7 Cu

Notation:
Notes:
Source: TAMURA, I. et al.: Thermomechanical Processing of High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels. Butterworths,

London, 1988, 248 p.
. Shiga
Ar3 = 910 − 273 C − 74 Mn − 56 Ni − 16 Cr − 9 Mo − 5 Cu
Notation:
Notes:
Source: SHIGA, C. et al.: Development of Large Diameter High Strength Line Pipes for Low Temperature Use. Kawasaki
Steel Technical Report, Dec. 1981, 97-109.
. Pickering
Ar3 = 910 − 230 C − 21 Mn − 15 Ni + 32 Mo + 45 Si + 13 W + 104 V
Notation:
Notes:
- Applicable to Plain C Steels.
Source: PICKERING, F.B.: Steels: Metallurgical Principles. In: Encyclopedia of Materials Science and Engineering,
vol. 6, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1986.
. Unknown #1
Ar3 = 879.4 − 516.1 C − 65.7 Mn + 38.0 Si + 274.7 P
Notation:
. Unknown #2
Ar3 = 901 − 325 C − 92 Mn + 33 Si + 287 P + 40 Al − 20 Cr
Notation:
Notes:
- It is unknown the previous conditioning of the steel samples that supplied data for the deduction of this
formula.
Source: Unknown.
. Unknown #1
Ar1 = 706.4 − 350.4 C − 118.2 Mn
Notation:
Ar1: Final Temperature of the Transformation Austenite → Ferrite [°C]
Notes:
- It is unknown the previous conditioning of the steel samples that supplied data for the deduction of this
formula.
- Samples cooled at 20°C/s.
Source: Unknown.
- Austenite Transformation Temperatures: Bs and Bf
. Bodnar
Bs = 844 − 597 C − 63 Mn − 16 Ni − 78 Cr
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°F]
Source: ZHAO, Z. et al. A New Empirical Formula for the Bainite Upper Temperature Limit of Steel. Journal Materials
Science, 36, 2001, 5045-5056.
. Kirkaldy
Bs = 656 − 58 C − 35 Mn − 75 Si − 15 Ni − 34 Cr − 41 Mo
Notation:
Source: KIRKALDY, J.S. et al. Prediction of Microstructure and Hardenability in Low Alloy Steels. In: Phase
Transformations in Ferrous Alloys, AIME, Warrendale, 1983, 125-148.
. Lee
Bs = 984.4 − 361.9 C + 261.9 C 2 − 28.3 Mn + 43.7 Si

Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [K]
Notes:
- Formula specifically developed for TRIP steels.
Source: LEE, J.K. et al. Prediction of Tensile Deformation Behaviour of Formable Hot Rolled Steels. Posco Technical
Research Laboratories Report, Pohang, 1999.
. Suehiro
Bs = 718 − 425 C − 42.5 Mn
Notation:
Source: SUEHIRO, M. et al. Kinetic Model for Phase Transformation of Low C Steel during Continuous Cooling. Tetsu-to-
Hagané, 73, 1987, 1026-1033.
. Steven & Haynes
Bs = 830 − 270 C − 90 Mn − 37 Ni − 70 Cr − 83 Mo
B50 = Bs − 50
B100 = Bs − 120
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [% em peso]
Bx: Temperature Required for the Formation of x% of Bainite [°C]
Source: STEVEN, W. & HAYNES, A.G. The Temperature of Formation of Martensite and Bainite in Low Alloy Steels.
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 183, 1956, 349-359.
. Zhao
Bs = 720 − 585.63 C + 126.60 C 2 − 91.68 Mn + 7.82 Mn² − 0.3378 Mn³ − 66.34 Ni + 6.06 Ni ² − 0.232 Ni ³ − 31.66 Cr + 2.17 Cr ² −
− 42.37 Mo + 9.16 Co − 0.1255 Co ² + 0.000284 Co³ − 36.02 Cu − 46.15 Ru
Notes:
- 1992 Version.
Bs = 630 − 45 Mn − 40 V − 35 Si − 30 Cr − 25 Mo − 20 Ni − 15 W
Notes:
- 2002 Version.
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°C]
Source: ZHAO, Z. et al. A New Empirical Formula for the Bainite Upper Temperature Limit of Steel. Journal Materials
Science, 36, 2001, 5045-5056.
- Austenite Transformation Temperatures: MS and Mf
. Andrews
M s = 539 − 423 C − 30.4 Mn − 17.7 Ni − 12.1 Cr − 11.0 Si − 7.0 Mo
M s = 512 − 453 C − 16.9 Ni − 9.5 Mo + 217 C 2 − 71.5 C Mn + 15 Cr − 67.6 C Cr
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Notes:
- Formula valid for low alloy steels with less than 0.6%C, 4.9% Mn, 5.0% Cr, 5.0% Ni and 5.4% Mo.
Source: ANDREWS, K.W. Empirical Formulae for the Calculation of Some Transformation Temperatures. Journal of the
Iron and Steel Institute, 203, Part 7, July 1965, 721-727.
. Carapella
M s = 496 (1 − 0.62 C ) (1 − 0.092 Mn) (1 − 0.033 Si ) (1 − 0.045 Ni ) (1 − 0.07 Cr ) (1 − 0.029 Mo) (1 − 0.018 W ) (1 − 0.012 Co)
Notation:
Source: CARAPELLA, L.A. Metal Progress, 46, 1944, 108.

. Eldis
M s = 531 − 391.2 C − 43.3 Mn − 21.8 Ni − 16.2 Cr
Notation:
Notes:
- Equation valid for steels with chemical composition between the following limits: 0.1~0.8% C; 0.35~1.80% Mn;
<1.50% Si; <0.90% Mo; <1.50% Cr; <4.50% Ni .
270 p.
. Grange & Stewart
M s = 538 − 350 C − 37.7 Mn − 37.7 Cr − 18.9 Ni − 27 Mo
Notation:
Source: GRANGE, R.A. & STEWART, H.M. Transactions of the AIME, 167, 1946, 467.
. Krauss
M s = 561 − 474 C − 33 Mn − 17 Cr − 17 Ni − 21 Mo
Notation:
Source: KRAUSS, G. Principles of Heat Treatment and Processing of Steels, ASM International, 1990, p. 43-87.
. Nehrenberg
M s = 499 − 292 C − 32.4 Mn − 22 Cr − 16.2 Ni − 10.8 Si − 10.8 Mo
Notation:
Source: NEHRENBERG, A.E. Transactions of the AIME, 167, 1946, 494.
. Payson & Savage
M s = 499 − 308 C − 32.4 Mn − 27 Cr − 16.2 Ni − 10.8 Si − 10.8 Mo − 10.8 W
Notation:
Source: PAYSON, P. & SAVAGE, C.H. Transactions A.S.M., 33, 1944, 261.
. Rowland & Lyle
M s = 499 − 324 C − 32.4 Mn − 27 Cr − 16.2 Ni − 10.8 Si − 10.8 Mo − 10.8 W
Notation:
Source: ROWLAND, E.S. et al. Transactions ASM, 37, 1946, 27.
. Steven & Haynes
M s = 561 − 474 C − 33 Mn − 17 Cr − 17 Ni − 21 Mo
M 10 = Ms − 18
M 50 = Ms − 85
M 90 = Ms − 185
M 100 = Ms − 387
Notation:
Mx: Temperature Required for the Formation of x% of Martensite [°F]
Source: STEVEN, W. & HAYNES, A.G. The Temperature of Formation of Martensite and Bainite in Low Alloy Steels.
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 183, 1956, 349-359.
. Sverdlin-Ness
M s = 520 − 320 C − 50 Mn − 30 Cr − 20 ( Ni + Mo) − 5 (Cu + Si )
Notation:
Source: SVERDLIN, A.V. & NESS, A.R. The Effects of Alloying Elements on the Heat Treatment of Steel. In: Steel Heat
Treatment Handbook, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, p. 45-91.
- Critical Diameter - Austenite Hardenability
. Dearden & O’Neill
  Mn Mo Cr Si Ni  
Di = 6 × exp 7.1 ×  C + + + + + 
  5.87 3.13 6.28 18 15  
Notation:
Di: Critical Diameter [mm]
Source: DEARDEN, J & O’NEIL, H.: A Guide to the Selection and Welding of Low Alloy Structural Steels. Transactions
of the Institute of Welding, 3, Oct. 1940, 203-214.
- Density of Bulk Steel
. Austenitic Steels
1
ργ =
(1.231 Fe + 3.178 C sol + 1.307 Mn + 2.436 Si + 1.431 Cr + 1.205 Cu + 1.018 Mo + 1.137 Ni + 1.890 Ti + 1.111 Co + 2.186 N + 2.032 TiC ) . 10 − 6
Notation:
ργ: Austenite Density [kg/m³]
Alloy/TiC Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Csol is the content of this element not bound in TiC.
- Density calculated at 20°C.
Source: BOHNENKAMP, U. et al.: Evaluation of the Density of Steels. Steel Research, 71:3, March 2000, 88-93.
. Ferritic Steels
1
ρα =
(1.270 Fe + 1.380 C + 1.524 Mn + 2.381 Si + 1.384 Cr + 0.8477 Cu + 1.076 Mo + 1.370 Ni + 2.012 V + 4.046 S ) . 10 −6
Notation:
ρα: Steel Density [kg/m³]
Notes:
- C is considered insoluble in ferrite (that is, all C has gone to cementite).
- The solubilities of the other alloy elements in cementite are zero.
- Density calculated at 20°C.
Source: BOHNENKAMP, U. et al.: Evaluation of the Density of Steels. Steel Research, 71:3, March 2000, 88-93.
. Liquid Iron
 T  0.7
−1 − 
ρ Liquid Iron = 1.9946 × 0.22457 9340
Notation:
ρLiquid Iron: Liquid Iron Density [g/ml]
T: Absolute Temperature, [K]
Source: YAWS, C.L.: Liquid Density of the Elements. Chemical Engineering, November 2007, 44-46.
. Temperature Effect
ρ αT = ρ α20°C − 0.33 T
ρ γT = ρ γ20°C − 0.47 T
Notation:
ραT: Ferrite Density at Temperature T [kg/m³]
ρα20°C: Ferrite Density at 20°C [kg/m³]
ργT: Austenite Density at Temperature T [kg/m³]
ργ20°C: Austenite Density at 20°C [kg/m³]
T: Temperature[°C]
Source: FINK, K. et al.: Physikalische Eigenschaften von Stählen, insbesondere von warmfesten Stählen.
Thyssenforschung, 2:2, 1970, 65-80.
- Density of Microstructural Constituents
. Common Phases and Constituents
Phase/Constituent C Specific Volume

[weight %] [cm³/g] at 20°C
Austenite 0.00 ~ 2.00 0.1212+0.0033 C
Martensite 0.00 ~ 2.00 0.1271+0.0025 C
Ferrite 0.00 ~ 0.02 0.1271
Cementite (Fe3C) 6.7 ± 0.2 0.130 ± 0.001
ε Carbide 8.5 ± 0.7 0.140 ± 0.002
Graphite 100 0.451
Ferrite + Cementite 0.00 ~ 2.00 0.1271 + 0.0005 C
Low C Martensite + ε Carbide 0.25 ~ 2.00 0.1277 + 0.0015 (C – 0.25)
Ferrite + ε Carbide 0.00 ~ 2.00 0.1271 + 0.0015 C
Notation:
C: Carbon Content [weight %]
Source: THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
. Density and Molar Volume of Microalloy Carbides and Nitrides
Compound Structure Molecular Lattice Molecules per Density Molar Volume

Mass Parameter Unit Cell [g/cm³] [cm³/mol]
[nm]
NbC FCC 105 0.4462 4 7.84 13.39
NbN FCC 107 0.4387 4 8.41 12.72
VC FCC 63 0.4154 4 5.83 10.81
VN FCC 65 0.4118 4 6.18 10.52

TiC FCC 60 0.4313 4 4.89 12.27
TiN FCC 62 0.4233 4 5.42 11.44
c = 0.4965
AlN CPH 41 6 3.27 12.54
a = 0.311
γ-Fe FCC 56 0.357 4 8.15 6.85
α-Fe BCC 56 0.286 2 7.85 7.11
Notes:
- Data based on room temperature lattice parameters.
Source:
. Density and Molar Volume of Precipitates and Metals
Compound Density Molar Volume

[kg/m³] [cm³/mol]
NbCN 9291 12,80
ZrC 6,572 -
ZrN 7,30 -
Mn 7470 7,35
Si 2330 12,06
Cr 7140 7,23
Cu 8920 7,11
C 2267 5,29
N - 13,54
Steel 7850 7,00
Notes:
- Data based on room temperature lattice parameters.
Sources:
- SAN MARTIN, D. et al. Estudio y Modelización de la Influencia de las Partículas de Segunda Fase sobre el
Crecimiento de Grano Austenítico en um Acero Microaleado com Niobio. Revista de Metalurgia – Madrid, 42:2,
Marzo-Abril 2006, 128-137.
- Web Elements (www.webelements.com)
- NISHIZAWA, T. Thermodynamics of Microstructure Control by Particle Dispersion. ISIJ International, 40:12,

December 2000, 1269-1274.
- ADRIAN, H. Thermodynamical Model for Precipitation of Carbonitrides in HSLA Steels Containing Up to Three
Microalloying Elements with or without Additions of Aluminum. Materials Science and Tecnology, 8:5, May
1992, 406-420.
. Molar Volume of Austenite as Function of Temperature
(
VMγ = 6.688726 × 10 −6 exp 7.3097 × 10 −5 T )
Notation:
VMγ: Molar Volume of Austenite, [m³/mol]
T: Temperature [K]
Source:
- FERNÁNDEZ, D.M.S.M. Modelización de la Cinética de Austenización y Crecimiento de Grano Austenítico en
Aceros Ferrítico-Perlíticos. Tesis Doctoral, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Metalúrgicas, Madrid, Julio
2003, 258 p.
- Dimensional Changes during Austenite Transformation
. During Cooling
∆Lγ →α
= 1.232 × 10 − 2 − 1.347 × 10 −5 T − 6.544 × 10 −3 C γ − 5.829 × 10 −3 C γ2 + 9.766 × 10 −6 C γ T + 2.379 × 10 −9 T 2
L
C 0 (1 − X A ) C tr
Cγ =
XA
Notation:
∆Lγ→α: Specimen Length Change During Austenite Transformation [µm];
L: Specimen Original Length [µm]
T: Temperature [°C]
Cγ: Carbon Content in Austenite [wt %]
C0: Initial Carbon Content [wt %]
Ctr: Carbon Content of Transformed Phases [wt %]
XA: Untransformed Austenite Volume Fraction
Source:
- PARK, S.H. Microstructural Evolution of Hot Rolled TRIP Steels During Cooling Control. In: 40th Mechanical
Working and Steel Processing Conference, ISS/AIME, Pittsburgh, October 1998, 283-291.
. After General Heat Treating
Transformation ∆V ∆l
[%] [mm/mm]
Spheroidized Pearlite → Austenite -4.64 + 2.21 C -0.0155 + 0.0074 C

Austenite → Martensite 4.64 – 0.53 C 0.0155 – 0.0018 C
Spheroidized Pearlite → Martensite 1.68 C 0.0056 C
Austenite → Lower Bainite 4.64 – 1.43 C 0.0155 – 0.0048 C
Spheroidized Pearlite → Lower Bainite 0.78 C 0.0026 C
Austenite → Upper Bainite 4.14 – 2.21 C 0.0155 – 0.0074 C
Spheroidized Pearlite → Upper Bainite 0 (Zero) 0
Notation:
- C: Carbon Content [weight %].
Sources:
- THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
- KRAUSS, G. Steel: Processing, Structure and Performance. ASM International, Metals Park, 2005, 420 p.
. After Quenching
∆V  100 − VC − V A  V
=  1.68 C M + A (−4.64 + 2.21 C A )
V  100  100
Notation:
- ∆V/V: Volumetric Change after Quenching [%]
- VC: Non-solubilized Cementite Volumetric Fraction [%]
- VA: Austenite Volumetric Fraction [%]
- 100 – VC – VA: Martensite Volumetric Fraction [%]
- CM: Carbon Content Solubilized in Martensite [weight %]
- CA: Carbon Content Solubilized in Austenite [weight %]
Source: THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
- Equivalent Carbon – H.A.Z. Hardenability
Mn Mo Cr +V Cu Ni P
C EQ _ Dearden = C + + + + + +
6 4 5 13 15 2
Notation:
CEQ_Dearden: Equivalent Carbon (Dearden) [%]
Source: DEARDEN, J & O’NEIL, H.: A Guide to the Selection and Welding of Low Alloy Structural Steels. Transactions
of the Institute of Welding, 3, Oct. 1940, 203-214.
. IIW - International Institute of Welding
Mn Cr + Mo+V Cu + Ni
C EQ _ IIW = C + + +
6 5 15
Notation:
CEQ_IIW: Equivalent Carbon (IIW) [%]
Source: HEISTERKAMP, F. et al.: Metallurgical Concept And Full-Scale Testing of High Toughness, H2S Resistant 0.03%C
- 0.10%Nb Steel. C.B.M.M. Report, São Paulo, February 1993.
. Bastien
Mn Mo Cr Ni
C EQ _ Bastien = C + + + +
4,4 7,7 15,4 10,3
ln(CRm ) = 13,9 − 10,6 C EQ _ Bastien
Notation:
CEQ_Bastien: Equivalent Carbon (Bastien) [%]
CRm: Critical Cooling Rate at 700°C [°C/s], that is, minimum cooling rate that produces a fully martensitic
structure)
Source: BASTIEN, P.G.: Met. Constr. British Weld. J., 49, 1970, 9.
. Yurioka et al.
Mn Mo Cr Ni Si Cu
C EQ _ Yurioka = C + + + + + +
6 4 8 12 24 15
log(t m ) = 10,6 C EQ _ Yurioka − 4,8
Notation:
CEQ_Yurioka: Equivalent Carbon (Yurioka) [%]
tm: Critical Cooling Time from 800 to 500°C [s] (that is, maximum cooling time that produces a fully martensitic
structure)
Source: YURIOKA, N. et al.: Met. Constr., 19, 1987, 217R.

. Kihara et al.
Mn Mo Cr V Ni Si
C EQ _ Kihara = C + + + + + +
6 4 5 14 40 24
Notation:
CEQ_Kihara: Equivalent Carbon (Kihara) [%]
Source: KIHARA, H. et al. Technical Report of JRIM, 1, 1959, 93.
. Shinozaki et al.
Mn Si Cr V (50 C − 1) Mo (1 − 6 C )
C EQ _ FBW = C + + + + 7 Nb (1 − 10C ) + + 1.3 Ti (1 − 5 C ) + + 29 B (11 C − 1)
5 15 9 3 2
Notation:
CEQ_FBW: Equivalent Carbon Designed Specifically for Flash Butt Welding [%]
Source: SHINOZAKI, M. et al.: Effects of Chemical Composition and Structure of Hot Rolled High Strength Steel Sheets on
the Formability of Flash Butt Welded Joints. Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, 6, Sept. 1982, 21-30.
. Stout et al.
 Mn Cr + Mo Ni Cu 
C EQ _ Stout = 1000 C  + + + 
 6 10 20 40 
Notation:
CEQ_Stout: Equivalent Carbon (Kihara) [%]
Source: STOUT, R.D. et al. Welding Journal Research Supplement, 55, 1976, 89s-94s.
- Equivalent Carbon – Hydrogen Assisted Cold Cracking
. DNV
Mn Si Ni + Cu Cr V Mo
C EQ _ DNV = C + + + + + +
10 24 40 5 10 4
Notation:
CEQ_DNV: Equivalent Carbon (DNV) [%]
Source: HANNERZ, N.E.: The Influence of Si on the Weldability of Mild and High Tensile Structural Steels. IIW
Document IX-1169-80, 1980.
. Uwer & Hohne
Mn Cu Ni Cr Mo
C EQ _ Uwer = C + + + + +
10 20 40 20 10
Notation:
CEQ_Uwer: Equivalent Carbon (Uwer & Hohne) [%]
Source: UWER, D. & HOHNE, H.: Determination of Suitable Minimum Preheating Temperature for the Cold-Crack-Free
Welding of Steels. IIW Document IX-1631-91, 1991.
. Mannesmann
Si Mn+Cu Cr Ni Mo V
C EQ _ PLS = C + + + + + +
25 16 20 60 40 15
Notation:
CEQ_PLS: Equivalent Carbon for Pipeline Steels [%]
Notes:
- Formula deduced for pipeline steels
- A version of this formula divides V by 10
Sources:
- DUREN, C. & NIEDEROFF, K.: In: Proc. on Welding and Performance of Pipeline, TWI, London, 1986.
- HEISTERKAMP, F. et al.: Metallurgical Concept And Full-Scale Testing of High Toughness, H2S Resistant
0.03%C - 0.10%Nb Steel. C.B.M.M. Report, São Paulo, February 1993.
. Graville
Mn Ni Cr Mo Nb V
C EQ _ HSLA = C + − + + + +
16 50 23 7 5 9
Notation:
CEQ_HSLA: Equivalent Carbon (Uwer & Graville) [%]
Notes:
Source: GRAVILLE, B.A.: In: Proc. Conf. on Welding of HSLA Structural Steels, ASM, Materials Park, 1976.
. Bersch & Koch (Hoesch)
Mn + Si + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni
C EQ _ Bersch = C +
20
Notation:
CEQ_Bersch: Equivalent Carbon for Pipeline Steels [%]
Notes:
Source:
- BERSCH, B. et al. Weldability of Pipe Steels for Low Operating Temperatures. 3R International, 1, 1977.
- PATCHETT, B.M. et al.: Casti Metals Blue Book: Welding Filler Metals. Casti Publishing Corp., Edmonton,
February 1993, 608 p. (CD Edition).
. Ito & Bessyo (I)
Si Mn + Cu + Cr Ni Mo V
Pcm = C + + + + + +5B
30 20 60 15 10
Notation:
Pcm: Cracking Parameter [%]
Notes:
- Formula deduced for pipeline steels with C < 0.15%
- This is the most popular formula for this kind of material.
- Equation valid under the following conditions: 0.07% ≤ C ≤ 0.22%; 0.40% ≤ Mn ≤ 1.40%; Si ≤ 0.60%; V ≤
0.12%; Cr ≤ 1.20%; Ni ≤ 1.20%; Cu ≤ 0.50%, Mo ≤ 0.7%, B ≤ 0,005%.
Source:
- ITO, Y. et al.: Journal of the Japan Welding Society., 37, 1968, 983.
- ITO, Y. & BESSYO, K. Weldability Formula of High Strength Steels Related to Heat-Affected-Zone Cracking. The
Sumitomo Search, 1, 1969, 59-70.
. Ito & Bessyo (II)
Si Mn + Cu + Cr Mo V d H
Pc = C + + + + + +
30 20 15 10 600 60
Notation:
Pc: Cracking Parameter [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %], except
H: Hydrogen amount in the weld metal, [cm³/100 g]
d: Plate Thickness, [mm]
Source: ITO, Y. & BESSYO, K.: Weldability Formula of High Strength Steels. I.I.W. Document IX-576-68.
. Yurioka
 Mn Si Cr + Mo + V Cu Ni Nb 
C EQ _ Yurioka = C + A(C )  + + + + + + 5 B
 6 24 5 15 20 5 
A(C ) = 0.75 + 0.25 tanh [20 (C − 0.12)]
Notation:
CEQ_Yurioka: Equivalent Carbon for Pipeline Steels [%]
Notes:
- Formula for C-Mn and microalloyed pipeline steels
- This formula combines Carbon Equivalent equations from IIW and Pcm
Sources:
- YURIOKA, N.: Physical Metallurgy of Steel Weldability. ISIJ International, 41:6, June 2001, 566-570.
- PATCHETT, B.M. et al.: Casti Metals Blue Book: Welding Filler Metals. Casti Publishing Corp., Edmonton,
February 1993, 608 p. (CD Edition).
- Fe-C Diagram
Source: ASM’s Heat Treating One-Minute Mentor,

http://www.asminternational.org/pdf/HTSRefCharts/Vol4p4Fig1.pdf.
- Ferrite Solubility Products
. General
(a A ) m (a B ) n A
log10 =− +B
a Am Bn T
Notation:
AmBn: Precipitate Considered for Calculation
ax: Alloy Content [weight %]
T: Temperature [K]
Precipitate A B Source
AlN 9595 2.65 Kunze & Reichert
BN 13560 4.53 Fountain & Chipman
MnS 8400 2.77 Ivanov
NbC 10990 4.62 Kunze
NbN 10650 3.87 Kunze
TiN 17640 6.17 Kunze
VC 12265 8.05 Taylor
VN 7830 2.45 Froberg
VN 8120 2.48 Roberts & Sandbert
ZrN 18160 5.24 Kunze
Notes:
Sources:
- TAYLOR, K.A. et al. Scripta Metallurgica, 32, 1995, 7.
- FROBERG, M.G. & GRAF, H. Stahl und Eisen, 80, 1960, 539.
- KUNZE, J. Nitrogen and Carbon in Iron and Steels – Thermodynamics. Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 1991, p.
192.
- FOUNTAIN, R.W. & CHIPMAN, J. In: Transactions of the Metallurgical Society of AIME, 224, 1964, 599.
- KUNZE, J. & REICHERT, J. Neue Hütte, 26, 1981, 23.
- ROBERTS, W. & SANDBERG, A. Report IM 1489. Institute for Metallurgical Research, Stockholm, 1990.
- IVANOV, B.S. et al. Stahl, 8, 1996, 52.

- Hardness After Cooling
. Lorenz et al.
  Si Mn Cu Cr Ni Mo V 
HV = 2019  C (1 − 0.5 log t 8 / 5 ) + 0.3  + + + + + +  + 66 (1 − 0.8 log t 8 / 5 )
  11 8 9 5 17 6 3 
Source: LORENZ, K. et al.: Evaluation of Large Diameter Pipe Steel Weldability by Means of the Carbon Equivalent. In:
International Conference on Steels for Linepipe and Fittings, Metals Society, London, Oct. 1981, 322-332.
Notation:
HV: Maximum Hardness for a Martensitic-Bainitic HAZ Microstructure [Vickers, 10 kg Load]
t8/5: Cooling Time Between 800°C and 500°C [s]
- Hardness After Tempering
. Spies
HB = 2.84 HRC + 75 C − 0.78 Si + 14.24 Mn + 14.77 Cr + 128.22 Mo − 54.0 V − 0.55 T + 435.66
Notation:
HB: Brinell Hardness After Hardening and Tempering
HRC: Rockwell Hardness (C Scale) After Hardening
T: Tempering Temperature [°C]
Notes:
- This equation is valid within the following ranges: HRC: 20~65; C: 0.20~0.54%; Mn: 0.50~1,90%; Si:
0.17~1.40%; Cr: 0.03~1.20%; T: 500~650°C.
Source: SPIES, H.J. et al.: Möglichkeiten der Optimierung der Auswahl vergütbarer Baustähle durch
Berechnung der Härt-und-vergütbarkeit. Neue Hütte, 8:22, 1977, 443-445.
- Hardness After Welding
HVmax = 1200 C EQ _ Dearden − 200
Mn Mo Cr +V Cu Ni P
C EQ _ Dearden = C + + + + + +
6 4 5 13 15 2
Notation:
CEQ_Dearden: Equivalent Carbon (Dearden) [%]
HVmax = Maximum Hardness [Vickers]
Notes:
- This equation calculates maximum hardness after welding.
Source: DEARDEN, J & O’NEIL, H.: Trans. Int. Weld., 3, 1940, 203.
. Shinozaki et al.
HV = 78 + 331 C EQ _ FBW
Mn Si Cr V (50 C − 1) Mo (1 − 6 C )
C EQ _ FBW = C + + + + 7 Nb (1 − 10C ) + + 1.3 Ti (1 − 5 C ) + + 29 B (11 C − 1)
5 15 9 3 2
Notation:
CEQ_FBW: Equivalent Carbon Designed Specifically for Flash Butt Welding [%]
HV: Hardness at the Welding Interface [Vickers]
Source: SHINOZAKI, M. et al.: Effects of Chemical Composition and Structure of Hot Rolled High Strength Steel Sheets on
the Formability of Flash Butt Welded Joints. Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, 6, Sept. 1982, 21-30.
- Hardness-Tensile Properties Equivalence

Source: ASM Handbook – Mechanical Testing and Evaluation. ASM International, vol. 8, Metals Park, 2000, 275.
- Hot Strength of Steel
. Tselikov
E = 308250 + 42924 C − 144000 C 2 + 20525 Si − 5289 Mn − 12000 P + 174000 S − 225,6 T + 0,01379 T 2
Notation:
E: Young Modulus [kgf/cm²]
C: C content [weight %]
Mn: Mn content [weight %]
Si: Si content [weight %]
P: P content [weight %]
S: S content [weight %]
Note:
- Valid for carbon, alloy and stainless steels between 20 and 900°C.
Source: ROYZMAN, S.E. Thermal Stresses in Slab Solidification. Asia Steel, 1996, 158-162.
. Misaka

σ = exp 0.126 − 1.75 C + 0.594 C +
( )
2851 + 2968 C − 1120 C 2  0, 21  dε 
0 ,13
ε
2
 
 T   dt 
Notation:
σ: Steel Hot Strength [kgf/mm²]
T: Absolute Temperature [K]

ε: True Strain
t: Time [s]
Source: MISAKA, Y. et al. Formulatization of Mean Resistance to Deformation of Plain C Steels at Elevated Temperature.
Journal of the Japan Society for the Technology of Plasticity, 8, 79, 1967-1968, 414-422.
. Shida
Calculation algorithm expressed in Visual Basic:
Function Shida(C, T, Def, VelDef)
Dim nShida, Td, g, Tx, mShida, SigF As Single
nShida = 0.41 – 0.07 * C

Td = 0.95 * (C + 0.41) / (C + 0.32)
T = (T + 273) / 1000
If T >= Td Then
g=1
Tx = T
mShida = (-0.019 * C + 0.126) * T + (0.075 * C – 0.05)
Else
g = 30 * (C + 0.9) * (T – 0.95 * (C + 0.49) / (C + 0.42)) ^ 2 + (C + 0.06) / (C + 0.09)
Tx = Td
mShida = (0.081 * C – 0.154) * T + (-0.019 * C + 0.207) + 0.027 / (C + 0.32)
End If
SigF = 0.28 * g * Exp(5 / Tx – 0.01 / (C + 0.05))
Shida = 2 / Sqr(3) * SigF * (1.3 * (Def / 0.2) ^ nShida – 0.3 * (Def / 0.2)) * _
(VelDef / 10) ^ mShida
End Function
Notation:
σ: Steel Hot Strength [kgf/mm²]
Def: True Strain
VelDef: Strain Rate [s-1]
Source: SHIDA, S. Empirical Formula of Flow Stress of C Steels - Resistance to Deformation of C Steels at Elevated
Temperature. Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 10:103, 1969, 610-7.
- Lattice Parameters
. Ferrite
aα = 2.8863 [1 + 17.5 × 10 −6 (T − 800)]
Notation:
aα: Ferrite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
T: Temperature [K]
Notes:
- 800 K < T < 1200 K
. Austenite
aγ 0 = 3.573 + 0.033 C + 0.00095 Mn − 0.0002 Ni + 0.0006 Cr + 0.0031 Mo + 0.0018 V
Notation:
aγ: Austenite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
T: Temperature [K]
ξ: C [Atomic Fraction]
Notes:
- 1000 K < T < 1250 K
- 0.0005 < ξ < 0.0365
aγ = (3.6306 + 0.78 ξ ) [1 + (24.9 − 50 ξ ) × 10 −6 (T − 1000)]

Notation:
aγ: Austenite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
Alloy Content: [Weight Percent]
Notes:
- Formula valid for ambient temperature.
. Cementite
aθ = 4.5234 [1 + (5.311 × 10 −6 − 1.942 × 10 −9 T + 9.655 × 10 −12 T 2 ) (T − 293)]
bθ = 5.0883 [1 + (5.311 × 10 −6 − 1.942 × 10 −9 T + 9.655 × 10 −12 T 2 ) (T − 293)]
cθ = 6.7426 [1 + (5.311 × 10 −6 − 1.942 × 10 −9 T + 9.655 × 10 −12 T 2 ) (T − 293)]
Notation:
aθ, bθ, cθ: Cementite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
T: Temperature [K]
Notes:
- 300 K < T < 1000 K
Source: CABALLERO, F.G. et al. Modelling of Kinetics and Dilatometric Behaviour of Austenite Formation in a Low-carbon
Steel with a Ferrite Plus Pearlite Inicial Microstructure. Journal of Materials Science, 37, 2002, 3533-3540.
- Liquid Steel Solubility Products
. General
( a A ) m (a B ) n A
log =− +B
a Am Bn T
Notation:
AmBn: Precipitate Considered for Calculation
ax: Alloy Content [weight %]
T: Temperature [K]
Precipitate A B
MnS 8236 5.03
TiN 16586 5.90
TiS 8000 4.00
ZrN 17000 6.38
Notes:
Sources:
- Values compiled by Rajindra Clement Ratnapuli from assorted references.
- Liquidus Temperature of Steels
TLiq = 1536 − [78 C + 7,6 Si + 4,9 Mn + 34 P + 30 S + 5 Cu + 3,1 Ni + 1,3 Cr + 3,6 Al + 2 Mo + 2 V + 18 Ti ]
Notation:
TLíq: Steel Melting Temperature [°C]
Source: GUTHMANN, K. Günstige Giesstemperatur im Vergleich zum Erstarrungspunkt von Eisen- und Stahlschmelzen.
Stahl und Eisen, 71(1951), 8, 399-402.
- Poisson Ratio
E = 2 G (1 + υ )
Notation:
E: Young Modulus
G: Shear Modulus
υ: Poisson Ratio
. Elastic Range: 0.3
. Plastic Range: 0.5
Sources:
- WILSON, A.D. Guidelines for Fabricating and Processing Plate Steel. Bethlehem-Lukens Plate Report, Burns
Harbor, 2000, 97 p.
- Precipitate Isothermal Solubilization Kinetics
r02
t=
2cD
Notation:
AmBn: Spheric precipitate considered for calculation
t: Time for solubilization of the precipitate [s]
r0: Radius of the precipitate [m], [cm] or [mm]
C i − C m Ci
c= ≅
C p − Ci C p
Cm: Solute concentration in the bulk metal [%]

Ci: Solute concentration in the precipitate/matrix interface [%]
 −A 
 + B
 T 
10
Ci =
aB
T: Temperature [K]
A, B: Constants of the Solubility Product, given in the table at the topic Austenite Solubilization Products.
aB: Alloy content [weight percent]
Cp: Solute content in the precipitate [%]
m MA
Cp =
m MA + n MB
Mx : Atomic mass of the element [g]

Cm: Solute content in a position far away from the precipitate [%]
D: Solute Diffusion Coefficient [m²/s, cm²/s or mm²/s], calculated according to the general equation below:
−Q
D = D0 exp 
 RT 
D0: Constant
Q: Activation Energy for Diffusion [J] or [cal]
R: Universal Gas Constant, 8.314 J/mol.K (R’) or 1.981 cal/mol.K (R)
Element Phase Equation Source
Ferrite D [m2/s] = 0.30 * 10-2 * Exp(-234500/R’ T) Pickering
Al Austenite D [m2/s] = 0.49 * 10-4 * Exp(-284100/R’ T)
Austenite D [m2/s] = 2.10 * 10-3 * Exp(-286000/R’ T) Borggren
B Austenite D [m2/s] = 2 * 10-4 * Exp(-87864/R’ T)
Ferrite D [cm2/s] = 0.02 * Exp(-20100/RT)
C Ferrite D [m2/s] = 0.62 * 10-6 * Exp(-80400/R’ T) Pickering
Austenite D [m2/s] = 0.10 *10-4 * Exp(-135700/R’ T)

Cr
Austenite D [cm2/s] = 10.80 * Exp(-69700/RT)
Fe Austenite D [m2/s] = 0.49 * 10-4 * Exp(-284100/R’ T) Pickering
Austenite D [mm2/s] = 140 * Exp(-286000/R’ T)
Mn Austenite D [cm2/s] = 0.65 * Exp(-276000/R’ T)
Ferrite D [cm2/s] = 6.6 * 10-3 * Exp(-18600/RT)
N Ferrite D [m2/s] = 0.50 * 10-6 * Exp(-77000/R’ T) Pickering
Austenite D [m2/s] = 0.91 * 10-4 * Exp(-168600/R’ T) Pickering
Austenite D [mm2/s] = 5.90 * 10-4 * Exp(-343000/R’ T) Andersen
Nb Austenite D [m2/s] = 5.30 * 10-2 * Exp(-344600/R’ T) Pickering
Austenite D [mm2/s] = 51 * Exp(-230120/R’ T)

P
Si Austenite D [m2/s] = 7.00 * 10-4 * Exp(-286000/R’ T) Borggren

Ti Austenite D [m2/s] =1.50 * 10-5 * Exp(-251000/R’ T) Borggren

V
Austenite D [m2/s] = 0.25 * 10-4 * Exp(-264200/R’ T) Pickering
Sources:
- ANDERSEN, I. & GRONG, O. Analytical Modelling of Grain Growth in Metals and Alloys in the Presence of
Growing and Dissolving Precipitates – I. Normal Grain Growth. Acta Metallurgica and Materialia, 43:7, 1995,
2673-2688.
- BORGGREN, U. e al. A Model for Particle Dissolution and Precipitation in HSLA Steels. Advanced Materials
Research, 15-17, 2007, 714-719.
- Information compiled by Rajindra Clement Ratnapuli from assorted references.

- Solidus Temperature of Steels
TSol = 1536 − [415,5 C + 12,3 Si + 6,8 Mn + 124,5 P + 183,9 S + 4,3 Ni + 1,4 Cr + 4,1 Al ]
Notation:
TSol: Steel Solidus Temperature [°C]
Source: TAKEUCHI, E. & BRIMACOMBE, J.K. Effect of Oscillation-Mark Formation on the Surface Quality of
Continuously Cast Steel Slabs. Metallurgical Transactions B, 16B, 9, 1985, 605-25.
- Relationships Between Chemical Composition x Process x Microstructure x Properties
. C-Mn Mild Steels
17.4
YS = 53.9 + 32.3 Mn + 83.2 Si + 354.2 N sol +
d
7.7
TS = 294.1 + 27.7 Mn + 83.2 Si + 2.85 Pearl +
d
dσ 15.4
= 370 + 120 C + 23.1 Mn + 116 Si + 554 P + 143 Sn + 1509 N sol +
dε d
ε unif = 0.28 − 0.20 C − 0.25 Mn − 0.044 Si − 0.039 Sn − 1.2 N sol
0.017
ε tot = 1.40 − 2.90 C + 0.20 Mn + 0.16 Si − 2.2 S − 3.9 P + 0.25 Sn +
d
11.5
50% ITT = − 19 + 44 Si + 700 N sol + 2.2 Pearl −
d
∆Y = 12.32 − 19250 N sol + 162 Mn + 462 O
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
σ/dεε: Strain Hardening Coefficient at 0.2% Real Strain [1/MPa]
dσ
εunif: Uniform Elongation, Expressed as Real (Logarithmic) Strain
εtot: Total Elongation, Expressed as Real (Logarithmic) Strain

Pearl: Pearlite Fraction in Microstructure [%]
50% ITT: Impact Transition Temperature for 50% Tough Fracture [°C]
∆Y: Strain Ageing After 10 Days at Room Temperature [MPa]
d: Grain Size [mm]
Source: PICKERING, F.B.: Physical Metallurgy and the Design of Steels. Allied Science Publishers, London, 1978,
275 p.
. C-Mn Steels Processed at a Hot Strip Mill
d = 11.5 − 2.2 (6 C + Mn + 30 P + 35 S + 23 Al + 0.01 (723 − Tcoil ) + 0.01 etot − 0.002 T fin − 100 N sol )
C eq − 0.06
Pearl = α 100
0.78
0 .1
S0 =
723 − Tcoil
0.016 Pearl 12.6

YS = 99.08 (38.2 + + 5.5 Mn + 43 Si + 114 P − 45 S + 31 N sol + − 0.02 T fin )
S0 d
0.004 Pearl 11.5

TS = 130.47 (19.8 + + 8.03 Mn + 41.4 Si + 57.7 P − 69 S + 262 N sol + )
S0 d
0.12
ε = 100 (0.000096 Pearl S 0 − 0.05 Mn − 4.23 P − 4.36 S + 2.37 Sn − 1.16 N sol + + 0.0006 T fin )
d
Notation:
ε: Total Elongation [%]
d: Ferrite Grain Size [µm]
Tcoil: Coiling Temperature [°C]
etot: Total Hot Rolling Conventional Strain [%]
Tfin: Finishing Temperature [°C]
Nsol: Solubilized (Free) Nitrogen [%]
Pearl: Pearlite Fraction Present in Microstructure [%]
S0: Pearlite Lamelar Spacing [mm]
Mn Si
C eq = C + + −S
6 24
T fin − Tcoil
α =
T fin
Notes:
- These equations are valid under the following conditions: Slab Reheating Temperature: 1250°C; Tfin:
850~880°C; Tcoil: 615~650°C; Final Thickness: 1.8~4.0 mm; C: 0.08~0.18%; Mn: 0.40~1.00%; P < 0.020%; S
< 0.020%; Si < 0.030%; Al: 0.020~0.050%; N: 0.0030~0.0090%.
Source: ARTIGAS, A. et al.: Prediction de Propiedades Mecánicas y Microestructurales em Aceros Laminados em Caliente.
Revista Metalurgica CENIM, 38, 2002, 339-347.
. Hot/Cold Rolled and Annealed Mild Steel
d CR = 0.013 + 0.28 d HR (after 60% cold rolling and annealing )
d CR = 0.011 + 0.29 d HR (after 70% cold rolling and annealing )
2.72
YS = 3.37 + YS = 28.16 − 154 d HR
d CR
ε yield = 6.27 − 78.5 d CR
0.01
n = 0.33 −
d CR
Notation:
dCR: Grain Size of Cold Rolled Strip [mm]
dHR: Grain Size of Hot Rolled Strip [mm]
εyield: Yield Elongation [%]
n: Strain Hardening Coefficient Measured during Tension Test
Notes:
- These equations are valid under the following conditions: C: 0.005~0,10%; Mn: 0.40%; P < 0.016%; S <
0.026%; Si < 0.010%; Al: < 0.040%; N: 0.0020~0.0040%.
- Cold rolled steel was box annealed at 700°C; the time of treatment, including heating of the samples, was
equal to 32 hours, being followed by furnace cooling.
Source: LANGENSCHEID, G. et al.: Untersuchungen über den Einfluβ der Korngröβe des Warmbandes auf die
Kaltbandeigenschaften. Hoesch Berichte aus Forschung und Entwicklung unserer Werke, 2, 1971, 64-70.
. Mild Steel, Full Annealed
5
n=
1
10 +
d
Notation:
n: Strain Hardening Coefficient Measured during Tension Test
d: Grain Size [mm]
Source: MORRISON, W.: The Effect of Grain Size on the Stress-Strain-Relationship in Low-Carbon Steel. Transactions of
the ASM, 59, 1966, 824-845.
. C-Mn Steels with Ferrite-Pearlite Structure (including HSLA Steels)
14.9
YS = 246 + 4.15 Pearl + 44.6 Mn + 138 Si + 923 P + 169 Sn + 3754 N sol +
d
44.6
TS = 492 − 3.38 Pearl + 246 Mn + 277 Si − 2616 S + 723 P + 246 Cr + 6616 N sol +
d
dσ 15.4
= 385 + 1.39 Pearl + 111 Si + 462 P + 152 Sn + 1369 N sol +
dε d
ε unif = 0.27 − 0.016 Pearl − 0.015 Mn − 0.040 Si − 0.043 Sn − 1.0 N sol
0.015
ε tot = 1,30 − 0.020 Pearl + 0.30 Mn + 0.20 Si − 3.4 S − 4.4 P + 0.29 Sn +
d
6.2
Ttrans = 43 + 1.5 Pearl − 37 Mn −
d
Notation:
dσσ/dεε: Strain Hardening Coefficient at 0.2% Real Strain [1/MPa]
εunif: Uniform Elongation, Expressed as Real (Logarithmic) Strain
εtot: Total Elongation, Expressed as Real (Logarithmic) Strain
Pearl: Pearlite Fraction in Microstructure [%]
Ttrans: Fracture Appearance Transition Temperature [°C]
d: Grain Size [mm]
Source: PICKERING, F.B.: The Effect of Composition and Microstructure on Ductility and Toughness; in: Towards
Improved Ductility and Toughness, Climax Molybdenum Company, Tokyo, 1971, p. 9-32
. Microalloyed Steels (Pickering)
15.1
YS = σ 0 + 37 Mn + 83 Si + 2918 N sol + + ∆σ ppt
d
Notation:

σ0: Friction Stress [MPa]
d: Grain Size [mm]
∆σppt: Precipitation Strengthening [MPa], for steels with Nb, Ti and/or V, defined by the formula below [MPa].
Notes:
- The Friction Stress σ0 value depends on the previous treatment of the material and can be found in the table
below:
Condition σ0
[MPa]
Mean 70
Air Cooled 88
Overaged 62
- The effect of solid solution strengthening from another alloy elements solubilized in ferrite can be included in
this equation, using the following linear coefficients:
Element MPa/weight %
Ni 33
Cr -30
P 680
Cu 38
Mo 11
Sn 120
C 5000
N 5000
- The precipitation strengthening contribution is calculated according to the Ashby-Orowan model.
5.9 f  x 
∆σ ppt = ln  
−4 
x  2.5 × 10 
Notation:
∆σppt: Precipitation Strengthening According to the Ashby-Orowan Model [MPa]
f: Volume Fraction of the Precipitate
x: Mean Planar Intercept Diameter of the Precipitate [µm]
Notes:
- Relationship adequate for the calculation of the precipitation strengthening of quench-aged carbides and
precipitate carbonitrides in Nb, V and Ti steels.
- ∆σppt can be calculated using a more simplified approach, multiplying the total content of the precipitating
alloy by the factor B shown in the table below:
Alloy and Bmax Bmin Alloy Range

Precipitate [MPa/weight %] [MPa/weight %] [weight %]
V as V4C3 1000 500 0,00 ~ 0,15
V as VN 3000 1500 0,00 ~ 0,06
Nb as Nb(CN) 3000 1500 0,00 ~ 0,05
Ti as TiC 3000 1500 0,03 ~ 0,18
Source: PICKERING, F.B. Some Aspects of the Relationships between the Mechanical Properties of Steels and their
Microstructures. TISCO. Silver Jubilee Volume, Jan-Oct 1980, 105-132.
. Microalloyed Steels (Hodgson)

19.7
YS = 62.6 + 26.1 Mn + 60.2 Si + 759.0 P + 212.9 Cu + 3286.0 N sol + + ∆σ ppt
d
11.0
TS = 164.9 + 634.7 C + 53.6 Mn + 99.7 Si + 651.9 P + 472.6 Ni + 3339.4 N sol + + ∆σ ppt
d
∆σ ppt = 57 log CR + 700 V + 7800 N sol + 19
Notation:
d: Grain Size [mm]
∆σppt: Precipitation Strengthening [MPa], only for steels with V [MPa]
CR: Cooling Rate [°C/s]
Source: HODGSON, P.D. & GIBBS, R.K. A Mathematical Model to Predict the Mechanical Properties of Hot Rolled C-Mn
and Microalloyed Steels. ISIJ International, 32:12, December 1992, 1329-1338.
. V-Ti-N Steels Processed by Recrystallization Controlled Rolling
419.5
YS = 41,4 + 575.20 C eq + (27401 N ef − 2) V +
hf
181.5
TS = 74.1 + 985.1 C eq + (31125 N ef − 39) V +
hf
Notation:
hf: Plate Thickness [mm]
Mn Cr + Mo Ni + Cu
Ceq = C + + +
6 5 15
Ti
N ef = N tot −
3.42
Notes:
- Formula Derived for Steels with Al Content over 0.010% and Si Content between 0.25 and 0.35%.
- Precision of the Formulas: ± 40 MPa.
Source: MITCHELL, P.S. et al.: Effect of Vanadium on Mechanical Properties and Weldability of Structural Steels. In: Low
Carbon Steels for the 90’s. Proceedings. American Society for Metals/The Metallurgical Society, Pittsburgh,
Oct. 1993.
. Dual Phase Steels
1
YS = 203 + 855
Lαα
1 fβ
TS = 266 + 548 + 1741
Lαα dβ
dσ 1 fβ
= 266 + 548 + 1741
dε Lαα dβ
1
ε unif = 32 − 64
Lαα
Notation:
LE: Yield Strength [MPa]
LR: Tensile Strength [MPa]
σ/dεε: Strain Hardening Coefficient at Uniform Elongation [1/MPa]
dσ
aunif: Uniform Elongation [%]
Lαα: Mean Ferritic Free Path [µm]
dβ : Mean Diameter of Martensite Islands [µm]
Sources:
- GORNI, A.A. & BRANCHINI, O.L.G. Análise da Evolução do Encruamento de um Aço Bifásico. In: 4° Simpósio
de Conformação Mecânica, EPUSP/UNICAMP/ABAL, São Paulo, Nov. 1990, 23-42.
- GORNI, A.A. & BRANCHINI, O.L.G. Relações Microestrutura-Propriedades Mecânicas em um Aço Bifásico
Laminado a Quente. In: 1º Seminário sobre Chapas Metálicas para a Indústria Automobilística, ABM/AEA,
São Paulo, Set. 1992, 127-145.
. Acicular Ferrite/Low Carbon Bainite Steels
15.1
YS = 88 + 37 Mn + 83 Si + 2900 N sol + + σ disc + σ ppt
dL
TS = 246 + 1900 C + 230 ( Mn + Cr ) + 185 Mo + 90 W + 125 Ni + 65 Cu + 385 (V + Ti )
11.5
ITT = − 19 + 44 Si + 700 N sol + 0.26 (σ disc + σ ppt ) −
d
Notation:
ITT: Impact Transition Temperature for 50% Tough Fracture [°C]
dL: BainiteFerrite Lath Size [mm]
σdisc: Strength Due to Dislocations [MPa]
σppt: Precipitation Strengthening According to the Ashby-Orowan Model [MPa]
d: Mean Spacing between High Angle Boundaries (“Packet” or Prior Austenite Grain Boundaries)
∆σ disc = α µ b ρ = 1.2 × 10 −3 ρ ( PICKERING ) or 8 × 10 −4 ρ ( KEH )
5.9 f  x 
∆σ ppt = ln  
−4 
x  2.5 × 10 
Notation:
α: Empirical Constant
µ: Shear Modulus [MPa]
b: Burger’s Vector [cm]
ρ: Dislocation Density [lines/cm²]
f: Volume Fraction of the Precipitate

x: Mean Planar Intercept Diameter of the Precipitate [µm]
Sources:
- PICKERING, F.B. Some Aspects of the Relationships between the Mechanical Properties of Steels and their
- KEH, A.S., Work Hardening and Deformation Sub-Structure in Iron Single Crystals in Tension at 298K,
Philosophical Magazine, 12:115, 1965, 9-30.
. Medium C Steels
 

YS = 3 f α  35 + 58 Mn +
17.4 
 + 1 − ( 3 )
f α 178 +

3.8  + 63 Si + 42 N sol

 d   S0 
 

TS = 3 f α  246 + 1140 N sol +
18.2 
 + 1 − ( 3 )
f α  720 +

3.5  + 97 Si

 d   S0 
 11.5   5.6 13.3 

ITT = f α  − 46 −  + (1 − f α ) − 335 + − + 3.48 × 10 6 t  + 48.7 Si + 762 N sol
 d   S0 p 
Notation:
ITT: Impact Transition Temperature for 50% Tough Fracture [°C]
f: Volume Fraction of Ferrite
d: Ferrite Grain Size [mm]

S0: Pearlite Lamelar Spacing [mm]
p: Pearlite Colony Size [mm]
t: Pearlitic Carbide Lamellar Thickness [mm]
Sources:
- GLADMAN, T. e outros. Some Aspects of the Structure-Property Relationships in High Carbon Ferrite-Pearlite
Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 210, Dec. 1972, 916-930.
- PICKERING, F.B. Some Aspects of the Relationships between the Mechanical Properties of Steels and their
. Si Non-Oriented Electrical Steels
22.0
YS = 34.3 + + 258 P + 34.2 Mn + 52.8 Si
d
11.2
TS = 183 + + 506 P + 48.7 Mn + 109 Si + 48.8 Al + 2450 B
d
0.0412
YR = 0.424 + − 0.078 Si − 0.170 Al
d
Notation:
YS: Lower Yield Strength [MPa]
YR: Yield Ratio
d: Ferrite Grain Size [mm]

Notes:
- These equations are valid under the following conditions: ULC Steel; Mn: 0.075~0.578%; P < 0.109%; S:
0.003~0.004%; Si < 0.34%; Al: < 0.432%; N: 0.0014~0.0020%; B < 0.0030%.
- Cold rolled steel was box annealed at 700°C; the time of treatment, including heating of the samples, was
equal to 32 hours, being followed by furnace cooling.
Source: PINOY, L et al. Influence of Composition and Hot Rolling Parameters on the Magnetic and Mechanical Properties
of Fully Processed Non-Oriented Low-Si Electrical Steels. J. Phys. IV France, 8, 1998, Pr2-487/Pr2-490.
PT = 0.658 − 0.474 Si − 2.311 Al − 25.99 O + 12.51 C + 123.7 S init + 130.2 ∆S − 137.5 N + 5.266 h
Notation:
PT: Core Loss [W/kg]
h: Thickness [mm]
Notes:
- This equation ise valid under the following conditions: C: 0.002~0.040%; S: 0.004~0.015%; N:
0.003~0.007%.
- Negative effects of O and N are in direct contradiction with specific experimental results.
- Adjusted Squared Multiple Correlation: 0.823; Residual Mean Square: 0.082 W²/kg²
h2
PT = 4.29 + 66.4 C + 0.0282 GBI + 16.2
ρr
Notation:
PT: Total Core Loss at 15 KG [W/kg]
GBI: Number of Grain Boundary Intercepts per mm
h: Thickness [mm]
ρ: Density [g/mm³]
r: Resistivity [µΩ.mm]
Source: LYUDKOVSKY, G. et al. Non-Oriented Electrical Steels. Journal of Metals, January 1986, 18-26.
- Schaeffler Diagram
Source: Air Products Web Site

(http://www.airproducts.com/maxx/software/UK/WeldingFaultFinder/wff22413.html).
- Shear Modulus of Steel and its Phases
. Ferrite
 (T − 300) 
µ = 64000 1 − (-273°C < T < 300°C)
 2235 
 (T − 300) 
µ = 64000 1 −  − 0.032 (T − 573) 2 (300°C ≤ T < 700°C)
 2235 
 (T − 300) 
µ = 64000 1 −  − 0.032 (T − 573) 2 − 0.024 (T − 923) 2 (700°C ≤ T < 770°C)
 2235 
 (T − 300) 
µ = 69200 1 − (770°C ≤ T < 911°C)
 1382 
. Austenite
 (T − 300) 
µ = 81000 1 − (911°C ≤ T < 1392°C)
 1989 
. Delta Ferrite
 (T − 300) 
µ = 39000 1 − (1392°C ≤ T < 1537°C)
 2514 
Notation:
µ: Shear Modulus [MPa]
T: Temperature [K]
Source: FROST, H.J. & ASHBY, M.F.: Pure Iron and Ferrous Alloys. In: Deformation-Mechanism Maps, The Plasticity
and Creep of Metals and Ceramics. Pergamon Press, Cambridge, 1982.
- Sheet and Plate Cutting Force and Work
. Mesquita
K c = 0.88 TS
Fc = t P K c
Notation:
Kc: Cutting Specific Pressure or Shear Stress [MPa]
Fc: Cutting Force [N]
t: Thickness [mm]
P: Cutting Perimeter [mm]
Source:
- MESQUITA, E.L.A. Conformação dos Aços Inoxidáveis. Manual da Acesita. Dezembro 1997, 39 p.
. Tschaetsch
F =W tτB
aFt
W =
1000
Fv
P=
η
Notation:
F: Cutting Force [N]
W: Width [mm]
t: Thickness [mm]
W: Cutting Work [N.mm]
a: Mean Force/Maximum Force Ratio (≈ 0.6 for shearing)
P: Cutting Power [W]
v: Shear Speed [m/s]
η: Machine Efficiency (≈ 0.7)
τB: Shear Stress [MPa], as defined by the table or formulas below:
Notes:
- The value of τB can be calculated from the following equations, where C is the carbon weight content of steel:
. Hot rolled or annealed steel (soft):
τ B = 223 + 550 C
. Cold rolled steel (hard):
τ B = 249 + 786 C
- These equations were fitted using the τB data available below, expressed in N/mm²:
Steel C Mn Si Soft Hard

St 12 0.10 max 0.50 max - 240 300
St 13 0.10 max 0.50 max - 240 300
St 14 0.08 max 0.40 max - 250 320
St 37 0.20 max 1.25 max 0.25 max 310 -
St 42 0.25 max 1.25 max 0.25 max 400 -
C10 0.08-0.13 0.30-0.60 0.30 max 280 340

C20 0.18-0.23 0.30-0.70 0.30 max 320 380
C30 0.27-0.34 0.50-0.80 0.10-0.40 400 500
C60 0.57-0.65 0.60-0.90 0.15-0.35 550 720
Source:
- TSCHAETSCH, H. Shearing. Metal Forming Practice - Processes, Machines, Tools; Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
2006, 218-40.
- Thermal Properties of Steel
. Seredynski
k = − 58.6 × 10 −3 T + 72.5 (T < 810°C)
k = 10.75 × 10 −3 T + 16.8 (T > 810°C)
Notation:
k: Conductivity [J/m.°C.s]
D = 0.15 × 10 −7 T − 0.07825 × 10 −4 (700°C < T < 875°C)
D = 0.02667 × 10 −7 T − 0.02966 × 10 −4 (T > 875°C)
Notation:
D: Diffusivity [m²/s]
T  T 
ε=  0.12491 − 0.38012  + 1.0948
1000  1000 
Notation:
ε: Emissivity
Note:
- Formulas specific for BS En 3 or SAE 1021 steel: 0.17-0.23% C; 0.60-0.90% Mn
Source: SEREDYNSKI, F.: Performance Analysis and Optimization of the Plate-Rolling Process. In: Mathematical
Process Models in Iron and Steelmaking. Proceedings. Iron and Steel Institute, Amsterdam, 1973.
. Touloukian
0,85
ε =
[1 + exp(42.68 − 0,02682 Tsup ) 0, 0115 ]
Notation:
ε: Emissivity
Tsup: Superficial Temperature [K]
Source: HARDIN, R.A. et al.: A Transient Simulation and Dynamic Spray Cooling Control Model for Continuous Steel
Casting. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 34B:6, June 2003, 297-306.
- Thermomechanical Processing of Steel

Source: Requirements Concerning Materials and Welding. IACS – International Association of Classification
Societies Requirement 1975, Revision 2, 2004, 228 p.
- Time-Temperature Equivalency Parameters for Heat Treating
. Anisothermal Austenitizing
In this case the Austenitization Time-Temperature Equivalence Parameter in Terms of Grain Size, Pa, is the period of
heating/cooling time between Tmax and Tmin, where
Tmax: Maximum Temperature during the Austenitizing Treatment [°C];
Tmin: Temperature Calculated According to the Following Equation [°C]:
2
R Tmax
Tmin = Tmax −
∆H a
Notation:
R: Molar Gas Constant, 8.314 JK-1mol-1
∆Ha: Activation Energy of Austenitic Grain Coarsening, 460 kJmol-1 for low alloy steels
270 p.
. Isothermal Austenitizing
1
Pa =
 1 2,3 R 
 − log t a 
 Ta ∆H a 
Notation:
Pa: Austenitization Time-Temperature Equivalence Parameter in Terms of Grain Size [K]

Ta: Austenitization Temperature [K]
ta: Soaking time under Ta
∆Ha: Activation Energy of Austenitic Grain Coarsening, 460 kJmol-1 for low alloy steels
270 p.
. Microstructural Banding Homogeneization
0.3 l 2
t 0.05 = −Q
RT
D0 e
Notation:
t0.05: Treatment Time Necessary to Achieve 5% Microstructure Banding [min]
l: Mean Spacing between Bands [mm]
Do: Diffusion Constant for the Alloy Element being Considered [cm²/s]:
- P: 0.01 cm²/s
- Mn: 0.16 cm²/s
Q: Activation Energy for the Alloy Element Being Considered [cal/mol]:
- P: 43700 cal/mol
- Mn: 62500 cal/mol
T: Austenitization Temperature [K]
Source: YIMING, X. et al.: A Metallographic Investigation of Banding and Diffusion of Phosphorus in Steels.
Microstructural Science, 20, 1993, 457-470.
. Tempering (Hollomon-Jaffe)
P = T (c + log t )
c = 21.53 − 5.8 C
Notation:
P: Hollomon-Jaffe Parameter [K]
T: Tempering Temperature [K]
c: Constant Characteristic of the Steel Being Tempered
t: Soaking time under T [h]
C: Carbon Content [wt%]
Notes:
- Other values for the constant c were proposed by several authors for carbon, microalloyed and low alloy
steels:
. 18 (Grange & Baughman)
. 20 (Larson & Miller, Irvine et al., Thelning)
- This expression was also deduced by Larson & Miller, which applied it to the study of metal creep. In that case
c is equal to 20 and P is divided by 1000. Such relationship was also used for the study of hydrogen
resistance and HAZ hardness of steels.
Sources:
- HOLLOMON, J.H. & JAFFE, L.D. Time-Temperature Relations in Tempering Steel. Transactions of the AIME,
162, 1945, 223-249.
- LARSON, F.R. & MILLER, J. A Time-Temperature Relationship for Rupture and Creep Stresses. Transactions of
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 74, 1952, 765-775.
- GRANGE, R.A. & BAUGHMAN, R.W. Hardness of Tempered Martensite in Carbon and Low Alloy Steels.
Transactions of the American Society for Metals, 68, 1956, 165-197.
- THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
- IRVINE, K.J. et al. Grain-Refined C-Mn Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Feb. 1967, 161-182.
- Welding Effects
. Weld Interface Cracking Susceptibility during Flash Butt Welding
 2  Mn  2  3 Cr  
2
Feq = (C − 0.03)  Si +   + (4 Al ) + 
2
 
  10   2  
Notation:
Feq: Weld Interface Cracking Susceptibility during Flash Butt Welding (No Crack = Zero)
Source: MIZUI, M. et al.: Application of High-Strength Steel Sheets to Automotive Wheels. Nippon Steel Technical
Report, 23, June 1984, 19-30.
. Tensile Strength after Flash Butt Welding
 Mn Si Cr V 
TS eq = 52  C + + + +  + 30
 5 7 9 2
Notation:
TSeq: Tensile Strength After Flash Butt Welding [kgf/mm²]
Source: MIZUI, M. et al.: Application of High-Strength Steel Sheets to Automotive Wheels. Nippon Steel Technical
Report, 23, June 1984, 19-30.
APENDIXES
USEFUL DATA AND CONSTANTS
Fuels and Combustion Gases:
- Density (Gas)
. Natural Gas: 0.81 kg/Nm³
. Butane: 2.44 kg/Nm³
. Propane: 1.85 kg/Nm³
. Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): 2.29 kg/Nm³
. Air: 1.27 kg/Nm³
- Density (Liquid)
. Butane: 0.58 kg/l
. Propane: 0.51 kg/l
. Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): 0.54 kg/Nm³
. Water: 1.00 kg/Nm³
- Heat Capacity in Function of Temperature

. Heat Capacity [kcal/°C m³] = a + bT [°C]. Values of a and b for some gases are seen below:
Gas a b
C2H6 0.600 0.000540
C3H8 0.871 0.001226
CH4 0.380 0.000210
CO 0.302 0.000022
CO2 0.406 0.000090
H2 0.301 0.000200
N2 0.302 0.000022
O2 0.320 0.000059
- Net Heating Value

. Acetylene (C2H2): 13412 Kcal/Nm³
. Basic Oxygen Steelmaking Off-Gas (OG Gas): 770 kcal/Nm³
. Blast Furnace Gas: 770 Kcal/Nm³
. Benzene (C6H6): 33,823 Kcal/Nm³
. Butane (C4H10): 29,560 Kcal/Nm³
. Butene/Buthylene (C4H8): 27,900 Kcal/Nm³
. Charcoal: 6,800 kcal/kg
. Carbon Monoxide (CO): 3,019 Kcal/Nm³
. Coke Oven Gas: 4,400 Kcal/Nm³
. Diesel Oil: 10.200 kcal/kg
. Electricity: 860 kcal/kW
. Ethane (C2H6): 15,236 Kcal/Nm³
. Ethene/Ethylene (C2H4): 14,116 Kcal/Nm³
. Fuel Oil: 8,640~9,000 kcal/l or 9,600 ~ 10,000 kcal/kg
. Hexane (C6H14): 41,132 Kcal/Nm³
. Hydrogen (H): 2,582 Kcal/Nm³
. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S): 5,527 Kcal/Nm³
. i-Butane (C4H10): 28,317 Kcal/Nm³
. i-Pentane (C5H12): 34,794 Kcal/Nm³
. Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): 25,300 ~ 27,300 kcal/Nm³
. Methane (CH4): 8,557 Kcal/Nm³
. Natural Gas: 9,000 ~ 9,400 Kcal/Nm³
. Pentane (C5H12): 34,943 Kcal/Nm³
. Propane (C3H8): 21,809 Kcal/Nm³
. Propene/Propylene (C3H6): 20,550 Kcal/Nm³
. Toluene (C7H8): 40,182 Kcal/Nm³

. Xylene (C8H10): 46,733 Kcal/Nm³
. Wood: 2,500 kcal/kg
- Typical Chemical Compositions
[% vol] N2 H2 CH4 C2H6 C3H8 CO CO2 O2

Coke Oven Gas 3.09 61.55 24.54 0.42 0.06 8.04 0.00 0.26
Natural Gas 1.83 ---- 87.91 7.08 1.91 ---- 0.59 0.00
Mathematical Constants
- e: 2.718281828
- Pi: 3.141592654
Physical Constants
- Acceleration of gravity: g = 9.805 m/s²

- Avogrado constant: NA = 6.022 x 1023 /mol
- Boltzmann constant: k = 1.381 x 10-23 J/K
- Gas constant R:
. 1.98717 cal K-1 mol-1
. 82.056 cm³ atm K mol-1
. 0.082056 atm K-1 mol-1
. 8.31433 x 107 erg K-1 mol-1
. 8.31433 J K-1 mol-1
Physical Properties of Scale (Iron Oxide)

- Density: 4.86 g/cm³ (Source: Combustol)

- Hardness:
. Hematite (Fe2O3): 1000 HV
. Magnetite (Fe3O4): 320 ~ 500 HV
. Wustite (FeO): 270 ~ 350 HV
- Iron Content in Scale: 74.6% (Stoichiometric)
- Linear Coefficient of Thermal Contraction:
. Fe: 19 x 10-6 m/°C
. Wustite: 14 x 10-6 m/°C
- Melting Point:
. Fayalite (2FeO.SiO2): 1177°C
Physical Properties of Steel and its Microstructural Constituents
- Densities:
. Bulk Steel: 7850 kg/m³
. Ferrite (Fe α): 7687 kg/m³
. Cementite (Fe3C): 7882 kg/m³
. NbC: 7790 kg/m³
. VC: 5700 kg/m³
- Electrical Resistivity at 15.6°C: 17 x 10-8 ohm.m
- Emissivity of Polished Metal Surface:
. 0.07 @ 38°C
. 0.10 @ 260°C
. 0.14 @ 540°C
- Emissivity of Oxidized Steel Plate at 15.6°C: 0.80
- Lattice Parameters (Ambient Temperature):
. Ferrite (pure Fe): 2.866 Ǻ
. Cementite: a = 4.5246 Ǻ, b = 5.0885 Ǻ, c = 6.7423 Ǻ

- Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:
. Bulk: 11.7 x 10-6 1/°C
. Ferrite: 1.244 x 10-5 1/°C
. Austenite: 2.065 x 10-5 l/°C
- Melting Point: 1300 ~ 1450°C
- Modulus:
. Bulk: 159,000 MPa
. Shear: 83,000 MPa
. Young: 207,000 MPa
- Poisson’s Ratio:
. Elastic Range: 0.3
. Plastic Range: 0.5
- Specific Heat: 0.12 cal/g.°C
- Speed of Sound through Steel: 5490 m/s
- Thermal Conductivity at 15.6°C: 58.9 W/m.K
- Volumetric Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: 35.1 x 10-6 1/°C
Sources:
- ANON.: Practical Data for Metallurgists. The Timken Company, Canton, September 2006, 130 p.
- CABALLERO, F.G. et al. Modelling of Kinetics and Dilatometric Behaviour of Austenite Formation in a Low-carbon
Steel with a Ferrite Plus Pearlite Inicial Microstructure. Journal of Materials Science, 37, 2002, 3533-3540.
- HEIDEMANN, M. Fours Pits - Établissement de Bilans Thermiques Globaux et Étages dans les Temps. Rapport
IRSID 77-02, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Juillet 1976, 15 p.
- METNUS, G.E. et al. Comparing CO2 Emissions and Energy Demands for Alternative Ironmaking Routes.
Steel Times International, March 2006, 32-36.
- WILSON, A.D. Guidelines for Fabricating and Processing Plate Steel. Bethlehem-Lukens Plate Report, Burns
Harbor, 2000, 97 p.
UNIT CONVERSIONS
From Multiply by To From Multiply by To
A 10-10 m kgf 9.80665 N
bar 1.019716 kg/cm² kgf.m 9.80665 J
BTU 1058.201058 J kgf/mm² 9.80665 MPa
cal 4.184 J kN 224.8 lbf
F 5/9 (°F-32) °C kN/mm 5.71 x 103 lbf/ft
ft 12 inch ksi 6.894757 MPa
ft 0.30485126 m ksi 1000 psi
ft.lb 1.356 J ou N.m Ksi.√in 1.098901099 MPa.√m
ft.lb 0.324 cal kW 1.341022 HP
ft.lb 1.355748373 J lb 0.4535924 kg
ft.lb/s 1.355380862 W lb.in 0.1129815 J ou N.m
ft.lbf 1.355818 J ou N.m lb/ft³ 0.016020506 g/cm³
ft.lbf 0.1382 kg lb/in³ 27.67783006 g/cm³
ft² 92.90 x 10-3 m² lbf 4.448222 N
ft³ 0.02831685 m³ lbf/in² 1 psi
Gallon 3.78541178 liters long ton 1016.047 kg
HP 0.7456999 kW M 1010 A
HP 745,7121551 W m 3.281 ft
in 25.4 mm m² 10.76 ft²
in² 645.2 mm² mm 0.0394 in
in³ 16387.064 mm³ mm² 1.550 x 10³ in²
inch 25.4 mm MPa 1 N/mm²
J 9.45 x 10-4 BTU MPa 0.145 ksi
J 0.2390 cal MPa 145 lbf/in²
J 0.7376 ft.lb MPa √m 910.06 Psi √in
kg 2.205 lb MPa√m 0,920 ksi√in
From Multiply by To From Multiply by To

N.m 1 J psi 0.001 Ksi
nm 10-9 m psi 0.0068947573 MPa
oz 0.028352707 kg psi 0.0007030697 kgf/mm²
Pa 1 N/m² Psi √in 0.001098829 MPa √m
Pa 1,449 x 10-4 Psi Rad 57.2958 °
Pa 1,020 x 10-7 Kg/mm² Short Ton 907.1847 Kg
pct (%) 10000 ppm W 1 J/s
ppm 0.0001 % W 0.001341 HP
GENERAL STATISTICAL FORMULAS
- Correlation Coefficient
_
Σ (Yest − Y ) 2
r=± _
Σ (Y − Y ) 2
Notation:
r: Correlation Coefficient
Y: Raw Data
Yest: Estimated Data Calculated by the Fitted Equation
_
Y : Mean of the Raw Data
Source: SPIEGEL, M.R. Estatística, Editora McGraw-Hill do Brasil Ltda., São Paulo, 1976, 580 p.
- Standard Error of Estimation
_
Σ (Yest − Y ) 2
σ=
n
Notation:
σ: Standard Error of Estimation
Yest: Estimated Data Calculated by the Fitted Equation
_
Y : Mean of the Raw Data
n: Number of Points of Data
Source: SPIEGEL, M.R. Estatística, Editora McGraw-Hill do Brasil Ltda., São Paulo, 1976, 580 p.

Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook

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Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook

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STEEL FORMING AND

HEAT TREATING HANDBOOK

Antonio Augusto Gorni

- Austenite Formation Temperatures

Ae3 = 1570 − 323 C − 25 Mn + 80 Si − 3 Cr − 32 Ni

Source: GRANGE, R.A. Metal Progress, April 1961, 73.

Ae1 = 723 − 16.9 Ni + 29.1 Si + 6.38 W − 10.7 Mn + 16.9 Cr + 290 As

Ae3 = 910 − 25 Mn − 11 Cr − 20 Cu + 60 Si + 700 P − 250 Al − Fn

Ae1 = 712 − 17,8 Mn − 19,1 Ni + 20,1 Si + 11,9 Cr + 9,8 Mo

Ae3 = 871 − 254,4 C − 14,2 Ni + 51,7 Si

Ac3 = 955 − 350 C − 25 Mn + 51 Si + 106 Nb + 100 Ti + 68 Al − 11 Cr − 33 Ni − 16 Cu + 67 Mo

. Lee & Lee

- Austenite No-Recrystallization Temperature

- Austenite Solubility Products

NbCN 6770 2.26 Ashby

- SMITH, R.P. Transactions of the AIME, 224, 1962, 190.

Source: Equation compiled by Fúlvio Siciliano.

 12  838 [ Mn]0.246 − 1730 [ Si ]0.594 − 6440

 12  1371 [ Mn] − 923 [ Si ] − 8049

- Austenite Solubilization Temperature

- Austenite Transformation Temperatures: Ar3 and Ar1

Ar3 = 903 − 328 C − 102 Mn + 116 Nb − 0.909 v

Ar3 = 902 − 527 C − 62 Mn + 60 Si

Ar3 = 910 − 310 C − 80 Mn − 20 Cu − 15 Cr − 55 Ni − 80 Mo + 0,35 (h − 8)

Ar3 = 868 − 396 C − 68.1 Mn + 24.6 Si − 36.1 Ni − 24.8 Cr − 20.7 Cu

Source: TAMURA, I. et al.: Thermomechanical Processing of High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels. Butterworths,

Ar3 = 910 − 273 C − 74 Mn − 56 Ni − 16 Cr − 9 Mo − 5 Cu

Ar3 = 910 − 230 C − 21 Mn − 15 Ni + 32 Mo + 45 Si + 13 W + 104 V

Ar3 = 879.4 − 516.1 C − 65.7 Mn + 38.0 Si + 274.7 P

Ar3 = 901 − 325 C − 92 Mn + 33 Si + 287 P + 40 Al − 20 Cr

Ar1 = 706.4 − 350.4 C − 118.2 Mn

- Austenite Transformation Temperatures: Bs and Bf

Bs = 984.4 − 361.9 C + 261.9 C 2 − 28.3 Mn + 43.7 Si

Bs = 718 − 425 C − 42.5 Mn

. Steven & Haynes

- Austenite Transformation Temperatures: MS and Mf

M s = 539 − 423 C − 30.4 Mn − 17.7 Ni − 12.1 Cr − 11.0 Si − 7.0 Mo

M s = 512 − 453 C − 16.9 Ni − 9.5 Mo + 217 C 2 − 71.5 C Mn + 15 Cr − 67.6 C Cr

Source: CARAPELLA, L.A. Metal Progress, 46, 1944, 108.

M s = 531 − 391.2 C − 43.3 Mn − 21.8 Ni − 16.2 Cr

. Grange & Stewart

M s = 538 − 350 C − 37.7 Mn − 37.7 Cr − 18.9 Ni − 27 Mo

M s = 499 − 292 C − 32.4 Mn − 22 Cr − 16.2 Ni − 10.8 Si − 10.8 Mo

Source: NEHRENBERG, A.E. Transactions of the AIME, 167, 1946, 494.

. Payson & Savage

M s = 499 − 308 C − 32.4 Mn − 27 Cr − 16.2 Ni − 10.8 Si − 10.8 Mo − 10.8 W

. Rowland & Lyle

M s = 499 − 324 C − 32.4 Mn − 27 Cr − 16.2 Ni − 10.8 Si − 10.8 Mo − 10.8 W

Source: ROWLAND, E.S. et al. Transactions ASM, 37, 1946, 27.

. Steven & Haynes

M s = 520 − 320 C − 50 Mn − 30 Cr − 20 ( Ni + Mo) − 5 (Cu + Si )

- Critical Diameter - Austenite Hardenability

. Dearden & O’Neill

- Density of Bulk Steel

- Density calculated at 20°C.

- Density of Microstructural Constituents

. Common Phases and Constituents

Phase/Constituent C Specific Volume

. Density and Molar Volume of Microalloy Carbides and Nitrides

Compound Structure Molecular Lattice Molecules per Density Molar Volume

VN FCC 65 0.4118 4 6.18 10.52

. Density and Molar Volume of Precipitates and Metals

Compound Density Molar Volume

- Web Elements (www.webelements.com)

Austenite D [m2/s] = 0.10 10-4 Exp(-135700/R’ T)