Experimental Investigation

Into the Thermal Behavior

of Copper-Alloyed Dies
L. D. Clark in Pressure Die Casting
M. T. Alonso Rasgado The rate of heat extraction during the pressure die casting process is central to both the
quality and the cost of finished castings. Recent efforts to reduce the thermal resistance of
K. Davey dies by optimizing the effectiveness of the cooling channels have shown the potential for
improvement. Reducing the thermal resistance of the coolant boundary layer means that
S. Hinduja a significant proportion of the total thermal resistance becomes attributable to the die
steel. Further significant reductions in die thermal resistance can be obtained by replac-
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil ing the steel with copper. This paper investigates the feasibility of using copper dies,
Engineering, reinforced with steel inserts and coated with a thin layer of wear resistant material,
The University of Manchester, which is deposited using the thermal arc spray process. Experimental work relating to the
Sackville Street, thermal spray process has been undertaken to establish bond strengths and thermal
Manchester M60 1QD, UK conductivities for various process parameters. Moreover, experimental investigations
have been carried out using two copper coated dies, the first of which was a pseudodie
block heated by an infrared heater. The second die was tested on a die casting machine
and produced zinc alloy castings at a greatly increased production rate when compared
to its steel counterpart. The experimental results from the two dies are compared with
those predicted by an in-house thermal-cum-stress model based on the boundary element
method. Reasonable agreement between the predicted and experimental results is shown
and the feasibility of copper-alloyed dies for pressure die casting is established.
关DOI: 10.1115/1.2280586兴

1 Introduction
The pressure die casting process involves the repeated injection
of a molten metal into a reusable die 关1兴. The dies used in pressure
die casting not only contain the melt and impose the final shape of
the castings, but are also a means of extracting heat effectively.
This requires removing heat quickly so that the solidification time
of the casting is reduced, thus making the production rate eco-
nomically viable. Effectiveness is also determined by the unifor-
mity of the cavity surface temperature. Removing heat too rapidly
from one part of the casting may result in poor surface finish, cold
shuts, and other casting defects. Conversely, too high a tempera-
ture may delay solidification resulting in an unnecessarily long
cycle time or bursting of the casting due to premature ejection.
Thermal considerations are therefore crucial in the design of the
die blocks. This requires each component of the thermal resistance
path to be considered. The interfacial heat transfer coefficient of
the die/casting interface has been investigated experimentally by a
number of researchers 关2–5兴 in order to determine its magnitude
and transient behavior. Researchers have also examined the die/
coolant interface and found that it contributes significantly to the
overall thermal resistance as shown in column four of the table in
Fig. 1. The die/coolant interfacial resistance is mainly due to the
insulating effect of the thermal boundary layer composed of a thin
layer of coolant moving slowly along the cooling channel wall. It
has been shown that this resistance can be greatly reduced by
effective design of the cooling channels 关6兴. This may include
cooling channels that are designed to exploit boiling mechanisms
关7兴, which disturb the boundary layer thereby reducing the thermal
resistance where the coolant meets the die. The die cooling chan-
Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division of ASME for publication
in the JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received
September 9, 2003; final manuscript received February 3, 2006. Review conducted
by S. R. Schmid.
nels can be optimized to exploit boiling and extract heat effi-
ciently and effectively. If the cooling channels are well designed
and the die/coolant interfacial resistance reduced then the thermal
resistance due to the die material becomes significant as shown in
column six of the table in Fig. 1.
The die material is usually hardened steel which can withstand
the rigors of the pressure die casting process. The conductivity of
copper is commonly 10–15 times greater than that of steel. Using
copper instead of steel would theoretically reduce the total resis-
tance by a factor of about four as shown in column eight, Fig. 1.
However, the pressure die casting process imposes severe physical
conditions on the dies. The most onerous of these are heat check-
ing, clamping loads, and the abrasion forces on the cavity surfaces
as the melt is injected into the die. Copper alloys do not have the
strength or hardness to withstand the pressure die casting process.
The tool steel commonly used has a hardness of about 50 Rock-
well C and a tensile yield strength of 1650 MPa compared to 70
Rockwell B and 90– 600 MPa for copper alloys.
This paper investigates the feasibility of using copper die
blocks which are reinforced with steel where necessary. An ex-
perimental copper die was manufactured to run on a hot chamber
die casting machine and a copper pseudodie block was used on a
die casting simulation rig. The copper blocks of the experimental
die were strengthened to withstand the clamping forces by means
of steel inserts. These were attached to the copper die blocks using
the diffusion bonding process known as hot isostatic pressing 关8兴.
The cavity surfaces were sprayed using the thermal arc process 关9兴
to deposit a hard, wear resistant surface coating on the copper
which could better withstand the abrasive filling process. Two
copper alloys were tested to ascertain how well they bonded to the
spray coating and three types of bonding agent were also tested.
The conductivity of the postsprayed coating material was deter-
mined using 1D assumptions from results obtained using a hot/
cold plate rig.

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 Fig. 1 Thermal resistance path of three types of die

The die blocks were modeled using a computer program devel- cycle, as is the heat transfer coefficient, and so it is assumed that
oped specifically for the die casting process 关10,11兴. The computer Tl共x , t兲 ⬇ Tl共x兲 and h共x , t兲 ⬇ h共x兲. Thus the steady state boundary
simulation uses the boundary element method 共BEM兲 to carry out condition on the channel can be written as
thermal and stress analyses of the die blocks. Previously this
method has been used to model multiblock dies. The coating ma- q̄d共x兲 = h共x兲关Tl共x兲 − T̄d共x兲兴 共4兲
terial is represented as a separate boundary element block which
The explicit form of the boundary conditions on the component/
can cause numerical problems due to it being strongly linked ther-
die; component/air; and component/component surfaces together
mally to the copper to which it is attached. For this reason a
with the relevant assumptions are described by Davey et al. 关10兴.
fine-coarse preconditioner has been developed to deal with this
The harmonic boundary value problem constituted by 共2兲 and 共3兲
problem 关12兴.
can be expressed as a boundary integral equation 关13兴 of the form
The experimental die was instrumented with thermocouples and
data collected for several sets of operating conditions on a hot
chamber die casting machine. The pseudodie block was instru-
mented with thermocouples and strain gauges and data collected.
4␲C共x兲T̄d共x兲 + 冕 冉冊
⌫d
kd
⳵ 1
⳵n r
T̄d共x⬘兲d⌫共x⬘兲 = 冕
⌫d
q̄d共x⬘兲
r
d⌫共x⬘兲

2 Numerical Model
Numerical models have been established that simulate the be-
havior of copper-alloyed dies in the pressure die casting process.
The thermal properties of the die are assumed to be temperature
independent and isotropic. The die temperature field T共x , t兲 is thus
共5兲
where 4␲C共x兲 is the solid angle at a source point, x, x⬘ is a field
point, and r is the Euclidean distance from the source point to the
field point. The determination of coolant temperature variation
over a length L of the channel is achieved by considering an
energy balance equation of the form

冕
governed by the transient heat equation
1 ⳵T ⌬TlL = − 共ṁc兲−1 q̄dd⌫ 共6兲
ⵜ 2T = on ⍀d ⫻ ⌸t 共1兲
␣ ⳵t ⌫L

where ␣ is the thermal diffusivity of the die and ⌸t is the time where ⌫L represents the surface of the section of cooling channel
domain. whose length is L, ṁ is the mass flow rate, and c is the coolant’s
Integrating 共1兲 over the casting cycle time ␶, gives the govern- specific heat capacity. For irregularly shaped channels, L and
ing equation for the time-averaged temperature field as 兰⌫Ld⌫ can be identified using a mesh partitioning strategy 关14兴.

冉冕 冊 冕 ␶0+␶ ␶0+␶ Traditionally, cooling channels have consisted of drilled holes

1 1 1 ⳵T 1
ⵜ2T̄ = ⵜ2 Tdt = dt = 关T兩␶0+␶ − T兩␶0兴 which can be represented by linear pipe elements which lie on the
␶ ␶0
␶ ␶0
␣ ⳵t ␶␣ axis of the channel. The distance along the channel axis is thus
found by summing the lengths of the pipe elements. For such
=0 on ⍀d 共2兲 channels, the surface area of a length of channel is evaluated by
where ␶0 is an arbitrary time. The boundary conditions for the die summing the areas of the associated surface elements.
are of the Robin type and satisfy The thermal stress model is based on the well known 关15兴 ther-

冕
moelastic boundary integral formulation given as
␶0+␶

冕
1
q̄共x兲 = q⬙共x,t兲dt
␶ ␶0 4␲Clk共x兲uk共x兲 + p̃lk共x,x⬘兲uk共x⬘兲d⌫共x⬘兲

冕 冕
␶0+␶ ␶0+␶

冕
1 1
= h共x,t兲Td共x,t兲dt − h共x,t兲Tl共x,t兲dt on ⌫d
␶ ␶0
␶ ␶0
= ũlk共x,x⬘兲pk共x⬘兲d⌫共x⬘兲

冕冋 册
共3兲
⳵ r,l ⳵T
where ⌫d is the boundary for ⍀d. +␥ T共x⬘兲 − r,l 共x⬘兲 d⌫共x⬘兲
On the cooling channel surfaces the transient temperature varia- ⳵n ⳵n
tion is small, so the die temperature Td共x , t兲 ⬇ T̄d共x兲. Also the bulk where ␥ = ␣共1 + ␯兲 / 关8␲共1 − ␯兲兴, ␯ being Poisons ratio, and ␣ is the
water temperature Tl is approximately constant over a casting coefficient of thermal expansion. Also plk and ulk are traction and

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 Table 1 Material properties
Copper die
C18200 Ampcolloy
Chemical 0.6-1.2Cr, 2.5 Ni, 0.7 Si,
composition 99.1Cu, 0.1Fe, 0.4 Cr, 96.4 Cu
0.5 other,
0.05Pb, 0.1 Si
Thermal 171 259
conductivity at
y100° C 共W m−1 K−1兲
Microhardness 68 Rockwell B 94 Rockwell B
Liquidus 共°C兲 1075 1116
Tensile yield 295 517
strength 共MPa兲
Coefficient of 17.6 17.5
thermal expansion
at 200° C 共␮m m−1 ° C−1兲
displacement, respectively, with k summed from 1 to 3 and l
= 1 , 2, or 3. In addition p̃lk, ũlk are the fundamental solutions for
traction and displacement. The necessary surface integrations are
carried out using analytical and numerical methods where each is
appropriate 关16兴.
Previously developed boundary element software has been ex-
tended to cater for the inclusion of sprayed and copper-alloyed
domains. One of the features of the in-house software is the uti-
lization of iterative methods for efficient computation. The inclu-
sion of copper-alloyed and sprayed domains resulted in conver-
gence problems, which were overcome with the development and
employment of a coarse preconditioner 关12兴. Another important
feature is the use of meshless die domains, which facilitates cool-
ing channel repositioning. The need to perform cyclic stress
analysis meant that domain integrals required evaluation and
raised the possible need for domain meshing. This problem was
solved by meshing the sprayed layer only, as transient variations
in the copper-alloy domains proved to be small. This preserved a
mesh free environment for the cooling channels.
Existing software for shape optimization suffered from conver-
gence difficulties arising from the need to converge on nonlinear
boiling heat transfer coefficients for each cooling channel shape
configuration. This problem has been overcome by including heat
transfer coefficient determination as part of the optimization pro-
cess. This means that the boiling heat transfer coefficients are
determined on the final configuration only resulting in a very ef-
ficient and stable approach 关17兴. It was not necessary to optimize
the thickness of the sprayed layer as it was found that the induced
thermal stresses arising from the thermal spray process limited the
thickness of the layer to around 1 mm.
The inclusion of the alloyed steel layer in the steady-state ther-
mal model resulted in convergence problems with the multido-
main generalized minimal residual 共GMRES兲 iterative solver. This
solver, which involves parameter matrix accelerated GMRES in
combination with a multiplicative Schwartz method for nonover-
lapping domains, works well for weakly connected systems 共high
thermal resistance between domains兲.
However, the introduction of the extra domains 共alloyed-steel
layers兲 to the original model results in a more strongly connected
system with low thermal resistance between domains. In order to
overcome this problem a new form of coarse preconditioning has
been developed. The coarse preconditioner is obtained from a
crude representation of the global system of equations. The new
scheme 关18兴 has been shown to enhance the convergence of mul-
tidomain systems. Problems with more strongly connected sys-
tems are overcome by increasing the number of interfacial equa-
tions used by the coarse preconditioner.
The transient thermal consists of the BEM being used for the
die block and the finite element method for the casting. This hy-
846 / Vol. 128, NOVEMBER 2006
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95MXC coating
H13 Steel die and inserts Wire form Sprayed form
0.4C, 5.25Cr, 90.6Fe, 1.6%Si, 29%Cr, –
0.4Mn, 1.35Mo, 1.65%Mn,
0.001S, 1Si, 1V 3.75%Bo, 64%Fe
28.6 26.4 14–15
54 Rockwell C – 53 Rockwell C
1250 1204 –
1410 – –
11.3 – –
brid model has been enhanced to make the modeling of the al-
loyed steel layer possible. The model now is capable of predicting
transient temperatures for the dies, alloyed steel layer, and casting
throughout the casting cycle, enabling energy transfers and the
state of the casting at ejection to be investigated with the aim of
optimizing the production rate.
3 Experimental Work
Experimental tests have been carried out on copper dies
sprayed with a layer of steel using an existing lab-scale rig which
simulates the pressure die casting and a proprietary hot chamber
die casting machine under industrial conditions. In order to deter-
mine suitable operating parameters, investigations were first car-
ried out to determine the influence of the different process param-
eters and the thickness of the sprayed layer on the bond strength
共the maximum averaged normal stress兲 of the sprayed coating.
3.1 Experimental Equipment and Materials. An 8850MHU
thermal arc spray system supplied by Praxair was used; this sys-
tem incorporates an ArcJet feature that creates a more concen-
trated spray stream, with a reduced cone angle of approximately
15 deg and delivering particles in the spray stream with a much
higher particle velocity. A purpose built booth and extractor sys-
tem were used to control noise and emissions. The spray coating
chosen was 95MXC. Three bonding agents were used: 75B nickel
and 10T and 11T aluminum bronze all supplied by Praxair. Two
copper alloys were used: chromium copper C18200 and ampcol-
loy 940. Brown alumina grade 46 was used for shot blasting.
Table 1 lists some of the salient material properties.
3.2 Bond Tests. Test specimens were prepared by first shot
blasting a cylindrical copper alloy bar of 25 mm diameter and
then spraying with a thin deposit 共⬇0.1 mm兲 of bonding agent.
The specimens were then spray coated with a layer of chrome
steel 共95MXC兲 to the required thickness. Several specimens were
prepared and tested and the results are summarized in Table 2.
Apart from tests 1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 12, and 13, the tensile adhesion
tests were carried out using 25 mm diameter test specimens in
accordance with the ASTM C633-79 standard, as shown in Fig. 2,
on a tensile testing machine. The main variables in these tests
were coating material and thickness of the sprayed layer. Alu-
minium oxide was used for grit blasting for all the tests except for
the first three when glass bead was used. Instead of creating a
sufficiently keyed surface, glass was found to polish the surface. A
couple of the spray samples were also machined before being
pulled. In tests 17–21 and 25, the Arcjet facility was used to create
a more focused spray pattern. In tests 5–10, the sprayed specimens
were cooled by the air from the spray gun. In all the tests, the
same adhesive was used for preparing the samples.
Transactions of the ASME
 Table 2 Bond strength test results

Coating
Test thickness Grit Failure Bond
No. Material Geometry Coating 共mm兲 Preheat grade Machining ArcJet Cooling modela strength 共MPa兲 Adhesive

1 Steel Flat 75B 0.5 N Glass None N Natural G – Araldite

2 Steel Flat 75B 0.5 N Glass None N Natural I 12.44 3M-2214
3 Cu Flat 75B 0.1 N Glass None N Natural M 3.80 3M-2214
4 Cu Round 75B/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 8.01 3M-2214
5 Cu Round 75B/95MXC 1.0 N Al2O3 None N Air jet I 6.03 3M-2214
6 CrCu Flat 75B/95MXC 1.0 N Al2O3 None N Air jet I 27.51 3M-2214
7 Cu Round 75B/95MXC 1.5 N Al2O3 None N Air jet – Lifted 3M-2214
8 Cu Round 75B/95MXC 2.0 N Al2O3 None N Air jet – Lifted 3M-2214
9 Cu Round 75B/95MXC 2.5 N Al2O3 None N Air jet – Lifted 3M-2214
10 Cu Round 75B/95MXC 3.0 N Al2O3 None N Air jet – Lifted 3M-2214
11 CrCu Flat 75B/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 34.7 3M-2214
12 CrCu Flat 75B/95MXC 1.0 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 26.2 3M-2214
13 CrCu Flat 75B/95MXC 1.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 19.1 3M-2214
14 CrCu ’Round 75B/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 33.63 3M-2214
15 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 22.00 3M-2214
16 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.9 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 13.22 3M-2214
17 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None Y Natural I 13.14 3M-2214
18 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None Y Natural I 11.00 3M-2214
19 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.9 Y Al2O3 None Y Natural – Lifted 3M-2214
20 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.9 N Al2O3 None Y Natural I 5.25 3M-2214
21 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 Y Al2O3 None Y Natural – Lifted 3M-2214
22 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 19.5 3M-2214
23 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 18.6 3M-2214
24 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 18.1 3M-2214
25 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 19.1 3M-2214
26 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 19.0 3M-2214
27 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 18.7 3M-2214
28 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.9 N Al2O3 Ground Y Natural I 4.77 3M-2214
29 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 0.7 N Al2O3 Ground N Natural I 12.72 3M-2214
30 CrCu Round 75B/95MXC 1.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 3.33 3M-2214
31 Ampco Round 10T/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural M 16.29 3M-2214
32 Ampco Round 11T/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural M 18.77 3M-2214
33 Ampco Round 10T/95MXC 1.0 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 13.58 3M-2214
34 Ampco Round 11T/95MXC 1.0 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 8.29 3M-2214
35 Ampco Round 10T/95MXC 1.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 3.61 3M-2214
36 Ampco Round 11T/95MXC 1.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 3.96 3M-2214
37 Ampco Round 10T/75B/95 MXC 1.0 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 2.32 3M-2214
38 CrCu Round 10T 0.2 N Al2O3 None N Natural C 50.87 3M-2214
39 CrCu Round 11T 0.2 N Al2O3 None N Natural C 46.67 3M-2214
40 CrCu Round 11T/75B/95MXC 1 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 16.18 3M-2214
41 CrCu Round 11T 1 N Al2O3 None N Natural I 5.08 3M-2214
42 CrCu Round 10T/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural M 38.81 3M-2214
43 Ampco Round 11T/95MXC 0.5 N Al2O3 None N Natural M 37.21 3M-2214

a
G⫽adhesive failure; I ⫽coating/substrata interface failure, C ⫽coating/coating failure, and M = I and C.

3.3 Thermal Conductivity Tests. The 95 MXC chrome steel

material was supplied in wire form and a value for the thermal
conductivity was quoted by the manufacturer. However, the ther-
mal conductivity of the sprayed material was required and this has
been determined experimentally. For this, two cylindrical samples
of the 95MXC material were manufactured by repeatedly spraying
into a blanked off section of a steel pipe which was greased on its
internal wall to stop the spray from adhering. The samples were
25 mm in diameter and 25 mm long. These were drilled to accept
thermocouples and then attached to the rig as shown in Fig. 3. The
two samples were placed in a box insulated with rockwool and
two small thermostatically controlled electric heaters were placed
between them. Cold plates were clamped to the samples and to a
heat sink, which was air cooled. When the heaters reached a preset
temperature of 100° C, the rig was allowed to run until readings at
the thermocouples were reasonably stable indicating a steady heat
flow through the two samples. Temperature data were then col- Fig. 2 Tensile adhesion test

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Fig. 3 Thermal conductivity rig „shown with top insulation
removed…
lected for about 3 min. The thermal conductivity of the sprayed
95MXC material was then derived from the temperature measure-
ments using Fourier’s equation.
3.4 Casting Simulation Rig. An experimental rig was de-
signed and manufactured to simulate the thermal conditions of the
pressure die casting process. The main components of the rig are:
a pseudodie block, a heater, an air compressor 共with drier and
filter兲, a combined water temperature controller and pump, a
pneumatically controlled shutter, and a thermal shield. The layout
of the rig is shown in Fig. 4.
A pseudodie block was manufactured from C18200 copper and
Fig. 4 Casting simulation rig
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sprayed with 95MXC on a thin coating of bonding agent. The rig
was designed to reproduce the heat transfer mechanisms involved
in pressure die casting but avoiding at the same time the hazard-
ous features of the actual process. The rig has two modes of op-
eration. In the noncyclic mode, the heat is applied to the die cavity
at a constant rate and this simulates the steady-state condition. In
the cyclic mode, heat applied to the cavity is applied for part of
the cycle time and for the other part, a reciprocating thermal
shield is placed between the infrared heater and the die block.
This simulates the transient behavior of the pressure die casting
process. Thermocouples were inserted at strategic points in the die
block and the results compared with numerical predictions.
The pseudodie block contained a single cooling channel, as
shown in Fig. 5. The die blocks, made of chromium copper
C18200, consisted of three main parts: a die block with the cavity
and cooling channel machined in and with two glass windows to
observe if any boiling takes place in the coolant; the backplate
containing threaded apertures for cooling channel hose connectors
and a rectangular aperture for an optional glass observation win-
dow; and a retaining plate to hold the three observation windows
in place. Figure 5 also shows the assembled and sprayed
pseudodie block prior to final grinding. An infrared heater was
used to heat the die cavity. The heater comprised six quartz infra-
red heating bulbs set in front of a parabolic reflector. At the rated
voltage of 144 V, the net heat flux at the heater window was
0.38 W / mm2. The heater itself was cooled by water at a flow rate
of 180 l / h and dry, refrigerated, filtered air from the compressor
at 44,200 l / h.
Cooling water was supplied to the die block by an integrated
temperature control unit containing a pump and heat exchanger.
The desired inlet water temperature could be preset to within
±2 ° C. A water-cooled stainless steel thermal shield was inter-
Fig. 5 Pseudodie block
Transactions of the ASME

Fig. 6 Copper die block assembly
posed between the die block and heater so that only the cavity was
exposed to the radiant heat. A pneumatically controlled shutter
was used to periodically shield the cavity from the heater thus
inducing transient temperature fields in the block when required.
Six sheathed 0.5 mm iron-copper/nickel thermocouples were
used to measure the die temperatures at various distances between
the cavity and cooling channel; two thermocouples were used to
Fig. 7 Copper die block
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measure the inlet and outlet water temperatures. Portions of the
six thermocouples exposed to the heater were insulated with ther-
mal cement. The cooling circuit included two pressure regulators
close to die inlet and outlet and a combined flow meter/regulator
near the die inlet.
The experimental rig was operated in steady-state and transient
modes. In the steady-state mode, the shutter was redundant and
was left open, while in transient mode an adjustable pneumatically
controlled time delay valve was set to operate the shutter at the
desired cycle time. Figure 4 shows the complete rig as well as its
schematic layout. The rest of the experimental procedure was ap-
plied to both operating modes as follows:
共i兲 Water was circulated through the test die at ambient
temperature.
共ii兲 The water was then heated to the required inlet tem-
perature.
共iii兲 The inlet flow rate and pressure were adjusted in tan-
dem.
共iv兲 The cooling water and air were switched on and circu-
lated through the infrared heater and the thermal shield.
共v兲 The infrared heater was then switched on and adjusted
up to a pre-set power output level, identical for all runs.
共vi兲 Data were recorded once readings had stabilized.
共vii兲 The nonoccurrence of boiling was confirmed by visual
inspection through the die block windows.
3.5 Die Casting Trials. To further verify the model, a copper-
alloy 共C18200兲 test die was designed and manufactured compris-
ing two die blocks and a stepped cavity, which included core pin
holes, a gate, and a runner. This die was used on a production hot
chamber die casting machine. Steel inserts were incorporated in
the die to provide structural support and provision for ejection
pins and cores as shown in Figs. 6 and 7共a兲. The die was spray
coated with alloyed steel on the cavity and interface surfaces and
subsequently machined 共Figs. 7共b兲 and 7共c兲兲. Figure 7共d兲 shows
NOVEMBER 2006, Vol. 128 / 849
 Fig. 8 Thermocouple arrangement
the cavity after it was sprayed; the figure shows cracks whose
positions correspond to those of the interface between steel inserts
and copper, suggesting they are caused by differential cooling
rates.
As many as 21 thermocouples were placed in this die and their
position is illustrated in Fig. 8. Prior to spraying, seven blind holes
of 2 mm diameter were drilled from the backface of the right die
block, such that they terminated at 2.5 mm from the front face of
the die. Next seven holes of 1 mm diameter were drilled through
the cavity face of the die block such that they were concentric
with the 2.5 mm holes. These holes were temporarily filled with
glass bead masking tape and the die block was sprayed. The
sprayed coat was then machined before a final seven holes of
0.4 mm diameter were laser cut through the coating material to
meet the holes in the copper block. Seven J type 共iron-constantan兲
thermocouples, with a sheath diameter of 0.25 mm, were fed
through the holes from the back of the die block until they pro-
truded from the front face. The protruding stems of the thermo-
couples were coated with epoxy resin, rated to 260° C for continu-
ous use, and then pulled back into the die so that the tips were
flush with the front face of the die half. This ensured that they
would be in contact with the component surface during casting. A
further seven thermocouples of type J type and diameter 0.25 mm
diameter were inserted so that their tips were in contact with the
back surface of the spray coating, i.e., 1 mm back from the cavity
surface. Finally, seven larger J type thermocouples, with a sheath
diameter of 0.5 mm, were positioned in the 2 mm holes so that
their tips were in contact with the die and were at a distance of
Fig. 9 Typical load/displacement graphs
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2.5 mm from the front face of the cavity. These holes were then
backfilled with more epoxy resin to hold the thermocouples in
position. The inlet water temperature for all the three channels
was monitored using a combined pump/temperature controller
unit with a digital readout. The outlet temperatures of the three
channels was measured using 1 mm diameter thermocouples.
4 Experimental Results
4.1 Bond Strength Results. The effect of the different pro-
cess parameters on the bond strength has been studied by carrying
out several tests. In each test, a coated copper specimen was glued
to a cylindrical pull bar and then the glued assembly was pulled to
failure. Table 1 shows the details of the tests performed and the
resulting bond strengths. The word “lifted,” in the table, indicates
that the coating separated from the substrata before the pull test
was carried out.
Although identical process conditions were used in tests 22–27,
differing results were obtained thus exhibiting the natural variabil-
ity of the spray process due to its stochastic nature. This sample of
results shows a standard deviation of 0.48 MPa and an absolute
variation of about 8% which must be taken into consideration
when making comparisons with other tests.
The measured bond strengths varied from 2.32 to 50.8 MPa
over all the tests. A typical load/displacement graph is shown in
Fig. 9. Tests 7–10 suggest that the thickness of the coating on
copper should be limited to 1 mm or less. If the thickness is
greater, the spray coat was found to separate from the copper. As
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 10 Strength/coating thickness graphs using 95MXC on 10T and 11T bonding spray
mentioned above, a cylindrical specimen of coated copper was
glued to a cylindrical pull bar. This was true for all the tests except
12 and 13. In these two tests, a cylindrical pull bar was glued to a
flat rectangular sample of coated copper and this resulted in es-
sentially pulling a round portion from the rectangular area of coat-
ing. The registered strength for these tests is not solely bond
strength but also includes the shear strength of the coating. This is
confirmed by comparing the bond strengths registered in tests 13
and 30.
The first plot in Fig. 10 is based on tests 28, 30, and 32 and
shows the relationship between coating thickness and failure
strength using 10T as the bonding agent. A similar relationship is
shown using 11T as the bonding agent. In both cases, as the thick-
ness increases, bond strength decreases.
The high thermal conductivity of copper means that impinging
droplets of spray are frozen quickly 共in the order of 1 ␮s兲 result-
ing in little or no fusion layer. Ideally the copper should be hot
when receiving the spray. Tests 19 and 21 highlight the problems
of preheating the copper. Heating the copper accelerates oxidiza-
tion on the surface to be sprayed thus reducing the adhesion
strength of the coating/copper interface.
Comparing test 14 with 17, and 15 with 18 suggests that using
the ArcJet facility available on the spray gun has a detrimental
effect on the bond strength.
When compared with Ampcolloy, the use of chrome-copper
almost doubles the bond strength as can be seen by comparing test
31 with 42, and 32 with 43.
There was no significant change in the bond strength if the
bonding agent is changed from 10T to 11T as is evident from tests
31 and 32, 35 and 36, and 42 and 43. However, both these bond-
ing agents resulted in a slightly higher bond strength than 75B as
can be seen by comparing test 14 with tests 42 and 43. Also, using
a combination of two bonding agents, 10T and 75B, instead of a
single bonding agent 共10T兲, lowers the bonding strength drasti-
cally. For example, comparing test 33 with 37, the bond strength
is reduced from 13.58 to 2.32 MPa.
4.2 Thermal Conductivity Results. The conductivity rig was
first tested using materials whose conductivity was known. The
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disparity between the manufacturers data sheet figures and the
experimental results was assumed to be a measure of the error of
the experimental procedure. This error was found to be a maxi-
mum of 15% using copper and 8% using steel. Figure 11 shows
the positions of thermocouples T1 to T6. The graphs in Fig. 11
show the average measured temperatures over a 3 min data col-
lection period. The sprayed material was found to have a thermal
conductivity of 14– 15 W mm−1 ° C−1 which was approximately
half that of the material in its wire form.
4.3 Casting Simulation Rig Results. Two series of results
were obtained using the die casting simulation rig: the first with
the steel coated pseudodie block running in steady state mode and
the second using the same block in transient mode.
4.3.1 Pseudodie Block—Steady State Results. Twelve runs
were made using a half factorial combination of three pressures
共0.15, 0.2, and 0.275 MPa兲, four volumetric flow rates 共40, 80,
140, and 200 l / h兲, and two inlet water temperatures 共25 and
75° C兲. The initial flow rate used was 200 l / h, at a pressure of
0.2 MPa and an inlet temperature of 75° C. During this first run,
the power to the heater was adjusted until the thermocouple, lo-
cated 1.5 mm from the cavity surface, registered the same reading
as the predicted temperature. This heater power setting was then
noted and used as the power output for all other runs. The tem-
perature readings at depths of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 mm from the cavity
surface were recorded. As predicted, these operating conditions
produced no visibly discernible boiling and the results are shown
in Fig. 12. It may be mentioned that, in the case of the pseudo
steel die block, reducing the flow rate from 200 to 80 l / h estab-
lished vigorous boiling on the channel surface 关1兴. Altering the
coolant pressure did not affect die temperatures significantly. The
predicted temperatures for this die are compared with the experi-
mental temperatures recorded by all the 36 thermocouples and the
errors are shown in Fig. 13. The errors lie within a band of −17%
to +9%. This compares with a band of −6%to +8% for the pseu-
dosteel die block. The increased error is probably caused by the
greater thermal variation due to the absence of boiling which
tends to dampen temperature fluctuations.
NOVEMBER 2006, Vol. 128 / 851
 Fig. 11 Schematic of 1D conductivity rig and thermocouple results for 95MXC samples
4.3.2 Pseudodie Block—Transient Results. The transient tests
were carried out at 0.125 MPa pressure, 80 l / h volumetric flow
rate and an inlet temperature of 75° C. Two cycle times were used:
2 and 10 s. The time ratio of shutter open/closed was maintained
at approximately 1 for both the cycle times. Figure 14 compares
the transient results obtained from the copper and steel dies for a
2 s cycle time 关1兴. The temperature amplitudes with the copper
coated die are much greater. This is probably due to the absence of
boiling which tends to have a dampening effect. As expected, the
amplitude of the temperature variations decreases with increased
depth from the cavity surface. The amplitudes with a 10 s cycle
time 共see Fig. 15兲 are much greater than the 2 s cycle time. How-
ever, as can be seen from Fig. 16, there is little variation in the
mean temperatures; any apparent variation could be due, in part,
to the inexactitude of the shutter open/closed ratio. The mean
values of the transient variations are slightly lower than the cor-
responding value obtained from the steady state test. This could be
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due to the thermal feedback from the shutter causing the heater
output to vary. Even though the shutter surface was painted black
its absorptivity is less than 1.
4.4 Stepped Cavity Test Die—Thermal Results. The second
phase of experimental results were carried out on a Dynacast ma-
chine using the copper die blocks shown in Fig. 7. While setting
the die on the machine and during the first few minutes of opera-
tion thermocouples 4, 5, 6, 12, 14, 19, 20, and 21 ceased to func-
tion. Also, after a few dozen castings had been produced, the area
of the die that contacts the nozzle was found to be damaged. This
rendered the die unusable and a steel insert had to be attached to
the die so that the injection nozzle could be seated correctly 共Fig.
17兲. The experiments were conducted at speeds of 31, 40, 50, and
60 cycles per minute 共cpm兲.
When steady state conditions were reached for each speed, ther-
mocouple readings were taken at a sampling rate of 200 Hz for
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 12 Measured and predicted temperatures on pseudodie block

about 30 s. The machine speed was then increased. Castings were

produced up to a running speed of 64 cpm. The die showed nu-
merous signs of damage particularly on the gate and runner, and
around the core pins as shown in Fig. 18. The castings produced
were of poor quality due to the many surface defects, which are
clearly shown in Fig. 19. This was not unexpected, as porosity of
up to 10% was estimated prior to casting, as shown in Fig. 20.
The results presented in Fig. 21 represent the readings taken
over two casting cycles of 1 s. The moment of injection is repre-
sented by values of approximately 0.8 and 1.8 s on the x-axis.
Figure 21 also shows the comparison between the thermocouple
readings and the predicted transient temperatures. Thermocouples
1–7 were in contact with the component surface. Of these only 1,
2, 3, and 7 produced results. Their readings are represented by one
of the continuous curves in plots a, b, c, and g. Thermocouples
8–14 were set 1 mm back from the front face of the right die half
measuring the temperature at the back of the spray coating. Of
these seven thermocouples, only 8, 9, 10, 11, and 13 produced
results. The temperature recorded by them are shown in plots a, b, Fig. 13 Error of model predictions for the cavity wall of the
c, d, and f. Thermocouples 15–21 were 2.5 mm back from the pseudodie running in steady state mode

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 Fig. 14 Cyclic temperatures for steel and copper pseudodie blocks „30 cpm…

casting surface and, hence, measured the temperatures in the cop-
per die block. Of these seven, results from four of them are shown
in plots a, b, c, and d. Predictions for the casting surface tempera-
tures from the model are shown at 0.04 s intervals until the cast-
ing is ejected. Predictions of the die temperatures are also shown
at 0.04 s intervals throughout the casting cycle.
The melt was injected at a pot temperature of 410° C. It can be
seen that all the thermocouples on the casting surface could not
respond to the rapid temperature variation at injection. After 0.1 s
into the cycle, however, all the thermocouples give reasonably
good results. From the temperatures recorded by thermocouples 1,
2, 3, and 7, it appears that the surface temperature of the casting

Fig. 15 Cyclic temperatures for copper pseudodie block „6 cpm…

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 Fig. 16 Mean cyclic temperatures
Fig. 19 Steel runner insert

does not decay after injection as rapidly as predicted. This sug-

gests a higher thermal resistance at the copper/spray interface than between the predicted and measured results for thermocouples 9,
used in the computer simulation. The results also show that the 11, and 13 but thermocouple 8 has registered a much higher value
central portion of the 2.5 mm thick section of the casting is the than predicted. This could be due to the ingress of molten zinc
hottest area and probably the last to solidify. This is probably due into the thermocouple hole. Readings from thermocouples 16, 17,
to the flow pattern resulting in this region of the cavity being the
last to be filled. Results from thermocouples 5 and 6 show that the
thin 0.5 mm section of the casting is the coolest, resulting in al-
most instantaneous solidification in this region and inhibiting fur-
ther feeding of the melt, which in turn could be the reason for the
poor surface finish on the thin section. There is good agreement

Fig. 17 Porosity in the spray coating

Fig. 18 Cavity damage after casting Fig. 20 Casting defects

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 Fig. 21 Measured and predicted temperatures on stepped die

18, and 19 also show good agreement with the predicted values
and confirm that the amplitude of the cyclic temperature varia-
tions decay rapidly within a couple of millimeters depth from the
cavity surface. However, the flatness of the temperature curve for
each of these thermocouples could be due to the poor physical
contact between the tip and the die. Thermocouples 12–15 all read
slightly lower than predicted over most of the casting cycle. The
temperature curve from thermocouple 16, although slightly lower,
shows excellent agreement with the predicted variation of
temperature.
Figure 22 shows a −15% to 32% difference between measured
and predicted temperatures. An analysis carried out between the
predictions and data over the range 0.08– 1 s for the measure-
ments taken on the casting surface revealed an error range of −7%
to +20% as shown in Fig. 23. Measurements of the die tempera-
ture were predominantly lower than predicted. This could be
partly due to the difficulty of positioning the thermocouple tips
accurately in the die and keeping the tips free from contamination
by the epoxy cement. Overall the results show a mean absolute
error of 8% on the die and 9% on the casting, and a maximum
error of 32% overall. The main sources of error in the numerical
model are:
共i兲 the absence of a flow model for the filling of the cavity.
The assumption is made that the cavity is filled instan-

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 Fig. 22 Error of model predictions for the right hand die block Fig. 23 Error of model predictions on the surface of the
of the stepped die stepped casting

taneously with liquid metal at a uniform temperature;

共ii兲 the heat transfer coefficient between the melt and die is
strain in the y direction. The predicted stress 关16兴 and the stress
assumed to be uniform over the whole of the cavity
derived from experimental strain values are compared in Fig. 26.
surface and constant over the whole casting cycle; and
The mean absolute predictive error over all 80 predictions was
共iii兲 the boundary element mesh does not include features
approximately 10%.
such as steel reinforcing pins, back plates; ejection
pins, assembly screws and interfaces between the cop-
per die and its steel reinforcements.

The temperatures of the casting in both copper/alloy and steel 5 Conclusions

dies are compared in Fig. 24.
4.5 Stress Measurements and Predictions. Strain gauges
were attached to the coated pseudodie block at the locations
shown in Fig. 25. Ideally a temperature compensation of zero is
required in order to measure thermal stress. Therefore gauges with
a thermal expansion of 1.0 ppm/ ° C were chosen. Gauges 1 and 3
measured strain in the x direction while gauges 2 and 4 measured
The research demonstrated the feasibility of using copper dies,
reinforced with steel inserts and coated with a thin layer of wear-
resistant material. The research demonstrated that copper-backed
dies have the following advantages over traditional steel dies:
共1兲 Higher rates of heat extraction leading to shorter casting
times. The theoretical models predicted that it should be
possible to run the test die at 80 cpm compared to

Fig. 24 Comparison of steel and copper die temperatures

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 共2兲 More uniform temperature distributions were obtained
on the die cavity surfaces.

The disadvantages are:

共1兲 Copper-alloyed dies have to be strengthened with a steel
base and columns to ensure sufficient strength to with-
stand the forces, thus making the die relatively more
expensive to manufacture.
共2兲 Provision has to be made for special inserts to be placed
in the die in the runner region to withstand nozzle
impact.

The wear-resistant material was deposited using the thermal-arc

spray process and the following conclusions can be drawn from
the experimental work:
共1兲 The bond strength of the spray coating is approximately
inversely proportional to the thickness of the coating
over the range tested, which limited the layer thickness
to a maximum of 1 mm.
共2兲 Of the combinations tested, a chrome-copper die,
Fig. 25 Strain gauge positions
sprayed using a single bonding agent of 10T produced
the highest bond strength of 51 MN/ m2.
共3兲 Porosity in the sprayed layer at the die-cavity surface
resulted in poor surface finish on both the casting and
40 cpm for a conventional steel die. This speed was not die.
attainable on the Dynacast die casting machine but cycle 共4兲 The presence of steel inserts can result in surface cracks
times of 60 cpm were easily achieved even without appearing due to differential cooling between the two
cooling channel optimization. materials necessitating localized repair.

Fig. 26 Predicted and experimental stress values on the pseudodie block

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 References
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