Law of Conservation of Energy Energy before the transformation is equal to energy after.

BUT, energy going to a less useful form it has been degraded. Sankey Diagrams

It shows where energy is lost in a process. Non-Renewable/Renewable Non-renewable is considered temporary, and depleted when used. Coal Crude oil Natural gas Renewable energy sources are permanent, or can be replenished as used. Solar Waves Wind Energy Density It is the amount of potential energy stored in a fuel per unit mass or volume (depending on fuel). Energy Density of a Fuel = Chemical Potential Energy / Mass Advantages/Disadvantages Nuclear Hazards of radioactivity High energy density Hydropower No greenhouse gas emissions High efficiency, low cost Large dams needed (population displacement) Solar Available everywhere

Exempt from rising energy prices Few environmental problems Small energy output per surface area of cell Wind Cheap, clean, renewable High initial set up costs Structures noisy 8.3.1 Outline the historical and geographical reasons for the widespread use of fossil fuels Increased drastically over the years US uses 33% of the worlds energy Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world Fossil fuel use increased due to the invention of the steam engine 8.3.2 Energy Density of Fossil Fuels and Power Station Demand Each type of fossil fuel has a different energy density Because of the high energy density of natural gas, it is becoming the preferred choice of many power stations Also easy to transport very lightweight Cleaner and less polluting than coals and oils 8.3.3 Transportation and Storage of Fossil Fuels Via pipelines, railroads, trucks, and ships Natural gas is through pressurized containers as well Power stations are located near coal mines to minimize transportation costs 8.3.4 Efficiency of Fossil Fuelled Power Stations Three main factors affect efficiency of power stations: Fuel type (lignite, black coal, gas, oil) Load Factor (full load, part load) Employed Technology (conventional, combined) Load factor is the indication of electricity used by consumers Calculated by dividing average load by peak load over a certain period of time Residential homes have low load factors 8.3.5 Environmental Recovery and use Concerns Coal can be mined in two ways: Underground mine seams through tunneling Open cut or strip mining Underground mining is more dangerous and expensive and have to be ventilated Gas and crude oil are brought to the surface by natural water drive or artificial means Water/oil mixture is passed through separator Oil is pumped through pipelines under high pressure POLLUTANTS! 8.4.1 The Role of Neutrons in Nuclear Fission

Transmutation: nuclear reactions where the nuclei changes and gains or loses elections Products are daughter nuclides and elementary particles 8.4.2 Controlled and Uncontrolled Nuclear Fission When Uranium 235 is bombarded with neutrons, two lighter fragment daughter nuclides form. Not every nucleus of U-235 produces the same two daughter nuclides. This research influenced Albert Einstein (military applications of fission research) and the Manhattan Project (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) 8.3.4 Fuel Enrichment U-238 and U-234 are not fissionable with thermal neutrons (only U-235 is) Most commercial reactors are thermal reactors Fuel is a mixture of fissionable and fertile material, but it is enriched with U-235 to increase probability of fission occurring 8.4.4 Energy Transformations of a Nuclear Power Station 8.4.5 Essential Features of a Thermal Fission Reactor Fuel Moderator: Slows down fast neutrons Control Rods: Controls rate of nuclear fission Coolant: Circulates through reactor core and removes thermal energy Radiation Shielding: Ensures the safety of people working inside and around the reactor 8.4.6 The heat exchange in nuclear reactors Heat Exchanged: a system acting as a heat engine driven by chemical or nuclear reactions 8.4.7 Neutron Capture and Plutonium-329 U-238 is non-fissionable and can be converted by neutron capture to U-239 Then it undergoes Beta Decay to produce fissionable plutominum-239 8.4.8 Plutonium-239 as a Nuclear Fuel Used in slow and fast breeder reactors A nuclear fission that creates more fissionable material than consumed 8.4.9 Safety and Risks of Nuclear Power Safety Produces a significant amount of energy More efficient Reduce fossil fuel waste Reduce need to use coal, natural gas, or oil Risks Mining of uranium Disposal of nuclear waste Thermal Meltdown

Means to produce nuclear weapons 8.4.1 Problems Unsolved Technological problems Cost of electricity will be too high when compared to other energy sources More energy is required to produce the fusion than the energy produced by the nuclear reaction Solar Power Photovoltaic devices use the photoelectric effect and photons to create energy Thermoelectric devices use the heat from the infra-red region of the spectrum Main factors for variation are: Solar constant Earths distance from the sun Altitude of the sun in the sky Length of night and day (seasonal) Hydroelectric Power Gravitational potential energy can be converted into electrical energy in hydroelectric power stations: Water storage in lakes Tidal water storage Pump storage Widely used in mountainous areas Wind Power Produced due to the uneven heating of the earths surface Used in countries for centuries to run windmills for grinding grain and pumping water through wind turbines Power output of a wind generator: Directly proportional to the blade area Directly proportional to the cube of wind speed Wave Power Buoyant Moored Devices: float above or below the water and are moored to the sea floor with cables Hinged Contour Devices: a series of floating devices that are hinged together at joints Oscillating Water Column Devices

8.5.1 Intensity of the Suns Radiation Solar energy represents the greatest potential energy source available to man Produced by nuclear fusion reactions within the Sun Of the solar radiation traveling to Earth: 30% is reflected back into space 51% is absorbed by the Earth during the day as thermal energy 23%-51% is used in the water cycle 0.25% is consumed in supplying the energy that drives convection currents of the oceans and atmosphere 0.025% is stored by photosynthesis in plants as chemical potential energy 8.5.2 Albedo Albedo the ratio between the incoming radiation and the amount reflected Reflecting power of a surface Expressed as a coefficient or as a percentage Latin for white 8.5.3 Factors that affect planet Albedo

Earths albedo varies daily and is dependent on season (cloud formations) and latitude The global annual mean albedo is 30% on Earth 8.5.4 Describing the greenhouse effect Moons avg. temp: -18C vs. Earths avg. temp: 34C warmer than moon Both similar distances from sun Difference in temp accounted by different atmospheres Earths atmosphere is 71% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen 1% of natural greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere help keep Earth at its current temperature 8.5.5 The greenhouse gases and their sources Co2 largest contributor to greenhouse gases, caused by respiration, decay, etc. Methane main source is decaying vegetation Water vapor caused by evaporation Nitrous oxide natural sources include forests, grasslands, oceans, and soil cultivation CFCs and Ozone formerly found in aerosols; Ozone produced by action of sunlight on O2 molecules 8.5.6 The molecular mechanism for absorbing infrared radiation Resonance occurs when the frequency of the infrared radiation is equal to the frequency of vibration If resonance occurs and the molecular dipole moment undergoes a change, then the greenhouse gas will absorb energy from the Albedo infrared radiation coming from a surface 8.5.7 Analysis of IR Absorption Graphs If molecules absorb energy they vibrate at a certain resonance frequency This is analyzed to show at what wavenumber these molecules vibrate the most 8.5.8 Black-body radiation Radiation emitted by a perfect emitter 8.5.9 Emission Spectra of Black Bodies Emission spectra of black bodies vary by wavelength 8.5.10 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 * 10^-8 Wm^-2K-4 Power radiated by an area A of a black body radiator is represented by P=AT^4 8.5.11 Emissivity and Emission Rate from Surface Stefans Law can also be written as: P = eAT^4 E = emissivity of a material, emissivity is the ratio of the amount of energy radiated from a material at a certain temperature and the energy that would come from a blackbody at the same temperature and as such would be a number between 0 and 1

8.5.13 Surface Heat Capacity The energy required to raise the temperature of a unit area of a planets surface by one degree Kelvin Measured in Jm^-2K^-1 Cs = Q/AT 8.5.14 Energy Balance Climate Models Energy Balance Models use spreadsheets to study the incoming and outgoing global radiation balance and energy transfers One-Dimensional Radiative-Convective Models simulate atmospheric environments by only considering the radiation balance and heat transport by convection heat transfer Two-Dimensional Statistical-Dynamical Models combination of energy balance and radiative-convective models 3-D General Circulation Models simulate the global and continental climate considerations 8.6.1 Reasons for Global Warming Changes in the composition of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere Increased solar flare activity Cyclical changes in the Earths orbit Volcanic activity Continental drifts affecting the ocean currents and wind 8.6.2 The enhanced Greenhouse Effect Human activities enhance the greenhouse effect 8.6.3 Increased Combustion of Fossil Fuels Generally accepted view is that human activities (mainly related to burning fossil fuels) has released extra CO2 into the atmosphere 8.6.4 Evidence for Global Warming due to Enhanced Greenhouse Gases Ice core samples Tree rings Sedimentary records 8.6.5 Mechanisms for the increase in rate of global warming Temperature reduces solubility of Co2 in the waters of the Earth and increases gaseous Go2 concentrations in atmosphere Radiation absorbed by greenhouse gases re-radiated to the Earths land surface causing global warming 8.6.6 Coefficient of Volume Expansion V = V0T 8.6.7,8 Rise in the mean sea-level Increase in Earths temperature would melt ice and snow and would increase sea levels 8.6.9 Climate Change and the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

Human activity has increased effect Combustion of fossil fuels is biggest enhancer to greenhouse gases Causes pollution 8.6.10 Problems 8.6.11 Possible Solutions to Reduce the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Greater efficiency of power production Replacing the use of coal and oil with natural gas Use of combined heating and power systems Increased use of renewable energy sources and nuclear power Co2 capture and storage Use of hybrid vehicles 8.6.12 International Efforts to Reduce the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Kyoto Protocol Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APPCDC)