Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.

Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 1
Digital Image Processing
Dr.-Ing. Tuan Do-Hong
Department of Telecommunications Engineering
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
HoChiMinh City University of Technology
E-mail: do-hong@hcmut.edu.vn
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 2
Outline
1. Digital Image Fundamentals
2. Image Enhancement and Restoration
3. Image Compression
4. Morphological Image Processing
5. Image Segmentation
6. Image Representation and Description
7. Introduction to Object (Pattern) Recognition
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References
[1] R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods, Digital Image
Processing, Addison Wesley, 2
nd
edition (2002), 3
rd
edition (2008).
[2] R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods, S. L. Eddins, Digital
Image Processing Using Matlab, Gatesmark
Publishing, 2
nd
edition (2009)
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Chapter 1:
Digital Image Fundamentals
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1. Digital Image
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1. Analog to Digital (1)
Record
output Display
object observe
Imaging
systems
digitize
Sampleand
quantize
store
Digital
storage
(disk)
process
Digital
computer
Refresh
/store
On-line
buffer
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1. Analog to Digital (2)
Computers work with numerical (rather than pictorial) data.
An imagemust beconverted to numerical formbeforeprocessing by
computer.
Pictureelements or pixels.
Rectangular sampling grid.
(Intensity) Brightness of theimage.
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1. Sampling (Digitization of Spatial Coordinates)
256256 6464
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1. Quantization (Intensity Digitization) (1)
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
255 255
255
255
255
255 255 255
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1. Quantization (2)
256256, 256 gray-levels 256256, 32 gray-levels
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1. Quantization (3)
256256, 2 gray-levels 256256, 256 gray-levels
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1. Colour Image
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1. Gray-level Image
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1. Binary Image
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1. Digital Image Processing
Manipulation of multidimensional signals
Image(photo):
Video:
CT, MRI:
Coding/compression
Enhancement, restoration, reconstruction
Analysis, detection, recognition, understanding
Visualization
) , ( y x f
) , , ( t y x f
) , , , ( t z y x f
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1. Image Transforms
Original Image Fourier Transform
Magnitude Phase
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1. Image Enhancement
Original Image High Pass Filtering
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1. Image Compression
) , ( y x f
H
) , ( y x g
Compressed
Representation
Decoder
1
H

) , (

y x f
) , ( y x g
Encoder
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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DHT, HCMUT 19
1. Image Analysis
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1. Applications
Image processing (medical imageprocessing, satellite/astronomy
imageprocessing, radar imageprocessing, etc.)
Image analysis - computer vision (character/face/hand/gesture
recognitions, content-based browsing and retrieval, medical image
analysis, industrial automation, remotesensing, forensics, robotics,
radar imaging, cartography, etc.)
Virtual reality (applications in manufacturing, medicine,
entertainment, etc.)
Multimedia communication/storage (video processing, digital TV,
video over networks, etc.)
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
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1. Image Model
Image: 2-D light-intensity function, f(x,y): valueof f at spatial
coordinates (x,y) gives intensity of imageat that point.
wherei(x,y): illumination (amount of sourcelight incident on the
scene), r(x,y): reflectance (amount of light reflected by theobjects in
thescene).
0 (total absorption), 1 (total reflectance)
In digital imageprocessing, f called gray level G, L
min
<G < L
max
.
Interval [L
min
, L
max
]: gray scale.
In practice, shifting gray scaleto [0, L], G =0: black, G =L: white.
< < ) , ( 0 y x f (2.1)
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( y x r y x i y x f =
(2.2)
1 ) , ( 0
) , ( 0
< <
< <
y x r
y x i
(2.3)
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1. Image Sampling & Quantization (1)
f(x,y) approximated by equally spaced samples in theformof (NM)-
matrix:
MatrixA is called digital image, each element of A is called image
element, pixel, or pel.
Sampling: partitioning xy-planeinto grid, coordinates of center of each
grid are(x,y); x,y: integer. Quantization: f is assigned agray-level value
G (real or integer numbers).
In practice, N =2
n
, M =2
k
, G =2
m
. Total number of bits required to
storeadigital image: NMm
Resolution: degreeof discernibledetail (how good approximation in
(2.4)), depending on thenumber of samples (spatial resolution) and
gray-levels (intensity resolution).
A =
(
(
(
(

~
) 1 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 ( ) 0 , 1 (
) 1 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 ( ) 0 , 1 (
) 1 , 0 ( ) 1 , 0 ( ) 0 , 0 (
) , (
M N f N f N f
M f f f
M f f f
y x f

(2.4)
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1. Image Sampling & Quantization (2)
Digitizingthe
coordinate
values
Digitizingthe
amplitude
values
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DHT, HCMUT 24
1. Image Sampling & Quantization (3)
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1. Image Sampling & Quantization (4)
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1. Image Sampling & Quantization (5)
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Faculty of EEE
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1. Image Sampling & Quantization (6)
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1. Image Sampling & Quantization (7)
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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DHT, HCMUT 29
1. Image Interpolation
Interpolation: Process of using known datato estimateunknown values.
E.g., zooming, shrinking, rotating, and geometric correction.
Interpolation (sometimes calledresampling): an imaging method to
increase(or decrease) thenumber of pixels in adigital image.
Somedigital cameras useinterpolation to producealarger imagethan the
sensor captured or to createdigital zoom
(http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/key=interpolation)
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (1)
Neighbors of a pixel: consider apixel p at (x,y)
o 4-neighbors of p, N
4
(p): neighbors at (x+1,y), (x-1,y), (x,y+1), (x,y-1).
o 4-diagonal neighbors of p, N
D
(p): (x+1,y+1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1,y+1),
(x-1,y-1).
o 8-neighbors of p, N
8
(p): N
4
(p) and N
D
(p).
p
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (2)
Connectivity: Two pixels areconnected if they areadjacent (e.g. 4-
neighbors) and their gray levels satisfy specified criterion of similarity
(e.g. they areequal).
Let V set of gray levels used to defineconnectivity (e.g. V={1}: binary
image; V={32,33,,63,64}: gray-scaleimage).
4-connectivity (4-adjacent): p and q are4-connected if their
values fromV and q is in N
4
(p).
8-connectivity (8-adjacent): p and q are8-connected if their
values fromV and q is in N
8
(p).
m-connectivity (m-adjacent, mixed connectivity): p and q arem-
connected if their values fromV and
q is in N
4
(p), or
q is in N
D
(p) and set S=N
4
(p) N
4
(q) is empty (pixels e S
are4-neighbors of both p and q, andwhosevalues are
fromV).
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (3)
m-connectivity introduced to eliminateambiguity in path
connections(resulted fromallowing 8-connectivity)
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
8-neighbors of center pixel m-neighbors of center pixel
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (4)
Path
A (digital) path (or curve) frompixel p with coordinates (x
0
, y
0
) to
pixel q with coordinates (x
n
, y
n
) is asequenceof distinct pixels
with coordinates:
(x
0
, y
0
), (x
1
, y
1
), , (x
n
, y
n
)
where(x
i
, y
i
) and (x
i-1
, y
i-1
) areadjacent for 1 i n. Heren is
thelengthof thepath.
If (x
0
, y
0
) =(x
n
, y
n
), thepath is closed path.
Wecan define4-, 8-, and m-paths based on thetypeof
connectivity used.
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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DIP2012
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (5)
Examples: Connectivity and Path, V ={1, 2}
01,1 11,2 11,3 0 1 1 0 1 1
02,1 22,2 02,3 0 2 0 0 2 0
03,1 03,2 13,3 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent
The8-path from(1,3) to (3,3):
(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
(ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)
Them-path from(1,3) to (3,3):
(1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (6)
Connected in S
Let S represent asubset of pixels in an image. Two pixels p with
coordinates (x
0
, y
0
) and q with coordinates (x
n
, y
n
) aresaid to be
connected in S if thereexists apath:
(x
0
, y
0
), (x
1
, y
1
), , (x
n
, y
n
)
where
Let S represent asubset of pixels in an image
For every pixel p in S, theset of pixels in S that areconnected to p
is called aconnected component of S.
If S has only oneconnected component, then S is called
connected set.
Wecall R aregion of theimageif R is aconnected set.
Two regions, R
i
and R
j
aresaid to beadjacent if their union forms
aconnected set.
Regions that arenot to beadjacent aresaid to bedisjoint.
,0 ,( , )
i i
i i n x y S s s e
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DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 36
1. Relationships Between Pixels (7)
Boundary (or border)
Theboundary of theregion R is theset of pixels in theregion that
haveoneor moreneighbors that arenot in R.
If R happens to bean entireimage, then its boundary is defined as
theset of pixels in thefirst and last rows and columns of the
image.
Foreground and background
An imagecontains K disjoint regions, R
k
, k =1, 2, , K. Let R
u
denote
theunion of all theK regions, and let (R
u
)
c
denoteits complement.
All thepoints in R
u
is called foreground;
All thepoints in (R
u
)
c
is called background.
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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DHT, HCMUT 37
1. Relationships Between Pixels (8)
Distance measures
Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t), (u, v)
respectively, thedistancefunction D has following properties:
a. D(p, q) 0 [D(p, q) =0, iff p =q]
b. D(p, q) =D(q, p)
c. D(p, z) D(p, q) +D(q, z)
Thefollowing arethedifferent distancemeasures:
a. Euclidean distance:
D
e
(p, q) =[(x - s)
2
+(y - t)
2
]
1/2
b. City block distance:
D
4
(p, q) =|x - s|+|y - t|
c. Chess board distance:
D
8
(p, q) =max(|x - s|, |y - t|)
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (9)
Array vs. Matrix operation
11 12
21 22
b b
B
b b
(
=
(

11 12
21 22
a a
A
a a
(
=
(

11 11 12 21 11 12 12 22
21 11 22 21 21 12 22 22
*
a b a b a b a b
A B
a b a b a b a b
+ + (
=
(
+ +

11 11 12 12
21 21 22 22
.*
a b a b
A B
a b a b
(
=
(

Array product
Matrix
product
Array
product
operator
Matrix
product
operator
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (10)
Linear vs. Nonlinear operation
| | ( , ) ( , ) H f x y g x y =
| |
| |
( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , )
i i j j
i i j j
i i j j
i i j j
H a f x y a f x y
H a f x y H a f x y
a H f x y a H f x y
a g x y a g x y
( +

( = +

( = +

= +
Additivity
Homogeneity
H is said to bealinear operator;
H is said to beanonlinear operator if it does not meet theabove
qualification.
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (11)
Arithmetic operation
Arithmetic operations between 2 pixels p and q: addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division (carry out pixel by pixel).
Mask (window) operation:
with proper selection of coefficients, theoperation is used for noise
reduction, region thinning, edgedetection.
p
7
p
4
p
1
p
6
p
3
p
8
p
5
p
2
p
9
w
7
w
4
w
1
w
6
w
3
w
8
w
5
w
2
w
9
5
9
1
p p w p
i
i i
=

=
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (12)
Exampleof averagewindow:
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (13)
Set and Logical operations
Let A betheelements of agray-scaleimage.
Theelements of A aretriplets of theform(x, y, z), wherex and y are
spatial coordinates and z denotes theintensity at thepoint (x, y).
Thecomplement of A is denoted A
c
Theunion of two gray-scaleimages (sets) A and B is defined as theset:
{( , , )| ( , )} A x y z z f x y = =
{( , , )|( , , ) }
2 1; is thenumber of intensity bits used to represent
c
k
A x y K z x y z A
K k z
= e
=
{max( , )| , }
z
A B a b a A b B = e e
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (14)
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (15)
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1. Relationships Between Pixels (16)
Logic operations: used for featuredetection, shapeanalysis, binary
imageprocessing.
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
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1. Imaging Geometry (1)
Translation: A point (x, y, z) is shifted to new position at (x, y, z) by
using displacements (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
):
Matrix form: v=Tv.
Scaling: by factors S
x
, S
y
, S
z
along thex, y, z axes given by
0
0
0
'
'
'
z z z
y y y
x x x
+ =
+ =
+ =
(
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
'
'
'
0
0
0
z
y
x
z
y
x
z
y
x

(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1
'
'
'
0
0
0
z
y
x
z
y
x
z
y
x
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
z
y
x
S
S
S
S
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 47
1. Imaging Geometry (2)
Rotation:
Rotation of apoint about z-coordinateby an angleu :
Rotation of apoint about x-coordinateby an angleo:
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 cos sin
0 0 sin cos
u u
u u
u
R
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 cos sin 0
0 sin cos 0
0 0 0 1
o o
o o
o
R
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DHT, HCMUT 48
1. Imaging Geometry (3)
Rotation of apoint about y-coordinateby an angle| :
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0 0
0 cos 0 sin
0 0 1 0
0 sin 0 cos
o |
| |
|
R
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DHT, HCMUT 49
1. Image Transforms: General Form
1
0
( , ) ( , , , ) ( , )
M
x
T u v r x y u v f x y

=
=

1 1
0 0
( , ) ( , , , ) [ ( , )]
M N
u v
g x y s x y u v R T u v

= =
=

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Faculty of EEE
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DHT, HCMUT 50
1. Image Transforms: 2-D Fourier Transform (1)
Definition:
Properties:
Separability:
for u, v =0, 1., N-1.
for x, y =0, 1., N-1.

=
+
=
1
0
1
0
) / / ( 2
) , (
1
) , (
M
x
N
y
N vy M ux j
e y x f
MN
v u F
t

=
+
=
1
0
1
0
) / / ( 2
) , ( ) , (
M
u
N
v
N vy M ux j
e v u F y x f
t
( ) ( )


=

=
1
0
/ 2
1
0
/ 2
) , (
1
) , (
N
y
N vy j
N
x
N ux j
e y x f e
N
v u F
t t
( ) ( )


=

=
=
1
0
/ 2
1
0
/ 2
) , (
1
) , (
N
v
N vy j
N
u
N ux j
e v u F e
N
y x f
t t
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
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DHT, HCMUT 51
1. Image Transforms: 2-D Fourier Transform (2)
Advantageof separability property: F(u,v) or f(x,y) can be
obtained in 2 steps by successiveapplications of the1-D Fourier
transformor its inverse:
with
Others: translation, periodicity and conjugatesymmetry, rotation,
scaling.
( )

=
1
0
/ 2
) , (
1
) , (
N
x
N ux j
e v x F
N
v u F
t
( )
(

1
0
/ 2
) , (
1
) , (
N
y
N vy j
e y x f
N
N v x F
t
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
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DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 52
1. Image Transforms: 2-D Fourier Transform (3)
Examples of 2-D Fourier transform:
Original Image Magnitudeof
Fourier transform
Phaseof
Fourier transform
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DHT, HCMUT 53
1. Image Transforms: 2-D Fourier Transform (4)
Original
image
Magnitude
of Fourier
transform
Low pass
filter used
Reconstructed
image
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DHT, HCMUT 54
1. Image Transforms: 2-D Fourier Transform (5)
High pass
filter used
Reconstructed
image
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DHT, HCMUT 55
1. Image Transforms: 2-D Fourier Transform (6)
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1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (1)
DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform):
for u, v =0, 1., N-1, and
for x, y =0, 1., N-1.
where
(

+
(

+
=

=
N
v y
N
u x
y x f v u v u C
N
x
N
y
2
) 1 2 (
cos
2
) 1 2 (
cos ) , ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
1
0
1
0
t t
o o
(

+
(

+
=

=
N
v y
N
u x
v u C v u y x f
N
u
N
v
2
) 1 2 (
cos
2
) 1 2 (
cos ) , ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
1
0
1
0
t t
o o

=
=
=
1 ,..., 2 , 1 ,
2
0 ,
1
) (
N u
N
u
N
u o
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DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 57
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (2)
2-D general transform:
whereT(x,y,u,v) and I(x,y,u,v) areforward and inversetransform
kernel (basis functions), respectively. Thebasis function depends
only on theindexes u, v, x, y, not on thevalues of imageor its
transform.

=
=
1
0
1
0
) , ( ) , , , ( ) , (
M
x
N
y
y x f v u y x T v u F

=
=
1
0
1
0
) , ( ) , , , ( ) , (
M
u
N
v
v u F v u y x I y x f
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 58
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (3)
Exampleof basis functions of 2-D DCT, N=4:
0
1
2
3
0 1 2 3
u
v
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 59
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (4)
Exampleof basis functions of 2-D DCT, N=8:
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 60
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (5)
DCT is areal transform.
Therearefast algorithms to computetheDCT similar to theFFT.
DCT has excellent energy compaction properties.
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 61
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (6)
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 62
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (7)
DCT FFT
Original
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 63
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (8)
Transform (DCT) Transform (DCT)
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 64
1. Image Transforms: 2-D DCT (9)
Original Reconstructed fromIDCT, (J <5)
Reconstructed fromIDCT, (J <10) Reconstructed fromIDCT, (J <20)
Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.
Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 65
1. Probabilistic Methods (1)
Let , 0, 1, 2, ..., -1, denotethevalues of all possibleintensities
in an digital image. Theprobability, ( ), of intensity level
occurring in agiven imageis estimated as

i
k
k
z i L
M N p z
z
=

( ) ,
where is thenumber of times that intensity occurs in theimage.
k
k
k k
n
p z
MN
n z
=
1
0
( ) 1
L
k
k
p z

=
=

1
0
Themean (average) intensity is given by
= ( )
L
k k
k
m z p z

1
2 2
0
Thevarianceof theintensities is given by
= ( ) ( )
L
k k
k
z m p z o

=

Dept. of Telecomm. Eng.

Faculty of EEE
DIP2012
DHT, HCMUT 66
1. Probabilistic Methods (2)
14.3 o =
th
1
0
The moment of theintensity variable is
( ) = ( ) ( )
L
n
n k k
k
n z
u z z m p z

31.6 o =
Example: Comparison of standard deviation values
49.2 o = 31.6 o =