Digital Communications

Instructor : Dr. Phan Van Ca Lecture 05: Pulse Shaping , Bandwidth Efficiency and Demodulation

A New Way of Viewing Modulation

The I/Q representation of modulation is very convenient for some modulation types. We examine an even more general way of looking at modulation using signal spaces. By choosing an appropriate set of axis for our signal constellation, we will be able to:
z Design modulation types which have desirable properties z Construct optimal receivers for a given type of

modulation z Analyze the performance of modulation types using very general techniques.

Summary of Gram-Schmidt Procedure

1st basis function is normalized version of 1st signal. Successive basis functions are found by removing portions of signals which are correlated to previous basis functions, and normalizing the result. This procedure is repeated until all basis functions are exhausted. If f k (t ) = 0 , then no new basis function is added. The order in which signals are considered is arbitrary.

Notes on Gram-Schmidt Procedure

A signal set may have many different sets of basis functions. A change of basis functions is equivalent to rotating coordinates. The order in which signals are used in the Gram-Schmidt procedure will affect the resulting basis functions. The choice of basis functions does not effect performance.

Pulse Shaping - Why Does it Matter

One way of reducing bandwidth requirements is through efficient quantization Sample rate: f s samples/second. Bit rate out of the quantizer : f s log2 M = f s n bits/ second Once these two factors are determined, the bandwidth is given by : BW = CPS f s nHz The constant C PS depends on the pulse shape Example: first null bandwidth (with rectangular pulse shaping): f s n Hz

Definitions of Bandwidth for Baseband Signals

Absolute Bandwidth
W ( f ) = 0, for f > B

X dB Bandwidth
max{W ( f )} 2 > X dB, f > B 10 log10 W f ( )

Y % Power Bandwidth
) 2 df Y 2 W ( f ) df 100
B

B W ( f

First Null Bandwidth

Design Criteria for Pulse Shapes

Two important characteristics

z First null bandwidth z Size of sidelobes

Would like to round off corners of pulses |W(f)|^2 dB down

BW

f (Hz)

Rectangular Pulse
Time Domain Plot of 1 us Rectangular Pulse 1 0.9 0.8 0.7

Energy Spectrum of 1 us Rectangular Pulse 20

10

0
0.6 0.5 x(t) 0.4 0.3 0.2

-10 )|^2 (dB) -20

-30
0.1 0 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 t (us) 0.5 1 1.5 2

-40 -5

0 f (MHz)

First Null BW: 1/T = 1 MHz First Sidelobe: 13.6 dB down

Triangular Pulse
Time Domain Plot of 1 us Triangular Pulse 1 0.9
0 Energy Spectrum of 1 us Triangular Pulse 20

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 x(t) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 t (us) 0.5 1 1.5 2
-100 -10 -5 0 f (MHz) 5 10 -80 -40 |X(f)|^2 -60 (dB) -20

First Null BW: 2/T = 2 MHz First Sidelobe: 26 dB down

Sinusoidal Pulse Shape

Time Domain Plot of 1 us Sinusoidal Pulse 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 x(t) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 t (us) 0.5 1 1.5 2 -80 -10 -5 0 f (MHz) 5 10 -20 |X(f)|^2 (dB) -40 -60 20 0 40 Energy Spectrum of 1 us Sinusoidal Pulse

First Null BW: 1.5/T = 1.5 Mhz First Sidelobe: 22 dB down

Truncated Gaussian Pulse Shape

Time Domain Plot of 1 us Truncated Gaussian Pulse 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 x(t) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 t (us) 0.5 1 1.5 2

Energy Spectrum of 1 us Truncated Gaussian Pulse 30 20 10 0 |X(f)|^2 (dB) -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -10 -5 0 f (MHz) 5 10

First Null BW: 1.5/T = 1.5 MHz Largest Sidelobe: 31 dB down

Intersymbol Interference

Though we may refine our pulse shape further, it is clear that we are close to the limit. One way to achieve a narrow spectral is to use longer duration pulses. If pulses overlap, they may produce intersymbol interference w(t)

time

Nyquists First Criteria for Zero ISI

Overlapping pulses will not cause intersymbol interference if they have zero amplitude at the time we sample the signal.
C, k = 0 Mathmatically: he ( kTs ) = 0, k 0
z where k is an integer and Ts is one symbol duration

Raised Cosine Pulse Family Satisfies the Nyquist Criteria

Frequency Domain:
1, f < f1 ( f f1 ) 1 He ( f ) = 1 + cos , f1 f B 2 2 f 0, f > B
z B is the absolute bandwidth of the filter

f=Bf0, f1 = f0 f, r= f f0
sin(2f 0t ) cos(2f t ) )} = 2 f 0 2f 0t 1 (4 f t )2

Time Domain:

he (t ) = F 1{ He ( f

Spectrum of Raised Cosine Pulse

r=0 corresponds to Sa(.) function

He ( f )
1.0 0.5

f f

f1

f0 B

f (Hz)

Raised Cosine Pulse - Time Domain

Raised Cosine Pulses for Several Different Rolloff Factors 2 r=0 r=0.35 r=0.5 r=1.0

1.5

1 x(t) 0.5

-0.5 -4

-3

-2

-1

0 t (us)

Raised Cosine Pulse - Frequency Domain

Energy Spectrum of Raised Cosine Pulses 40 |X(f)|^2 (dB) 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -5 r=0 r=0.35 r=0.5 r=1.0

0 f (MHz)

Implementation of Raised Cosine Pulse

Can be digitally implemented with an FIR filter Analog filters such as Butterworth filters may approximate the tight shape of this spectrum Practical pulses must be truncated in time
z Truncation leads to sidelobes - even in RC pulses

Sometimes a square-root raised cosine spectrum is used when identical filters are implemented at transmitter and receiver
z We will discuss this more when we talk about matched

filtering

Truncated Raised Cosine Pulses

Truncating raised cosine pulse to finite duration results in some sidelobes

Energy Spectrum of Truncated Raised Cosine Pulses 40 |X(f)|^2 (dB) 20

Truncated Raised Cosine Pulses for Different Rolloff Factors 2

1.5

0
1 x(t) 0.5 r=0 r=0.35 r=0.5 r=1.0

-20 -40 -60 r=0 r=0.35 r=0.5 r=1.0

-80
-0.5 -1.5

-1

-0.5

0 t (us)

0.5

1.5

-100 -5

0 f (MHz)

Raised Cosine (R-C) Filter ( 2 - ASK , r = 0 )

Roll-off Factor : r = 0 Filter Duration = [-4Ts,4Ts] No. of Oversampling = 8

Output of Matched Filter [1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1]

Raised Cosine Filter ( 2 - ASK , r = 0.5 )

Roll-off Factor : r = 0.5 Filter Duration = [-4Ts,4Ts] No. of Oversampling = 8

Output of Matched Filter [1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1]

Raised Cosine Filter ( 2 - ASK , r = 1 )

Roll-off Factor : r = 1.0 Filter Duration = [-4Ts,4Ts] No. of Oversampling = 8

Bandwidth Considerations

Signal bandwidth is determined from transmitted signals power spectral density ss ( f ) . Computation of ss ( f ) is discussed in Section 4-4-1, We summarize important results. We define bandwidth as the range of positive frequency for which signal is non-negligible. That may mean:
z

First spectral null occurs within a bandwidth z 99% of power is contained with a bandwidth z All spectral components are 40 dB down from peak value

Factors Affecting Bandwidth

Symbol Rate Rs (related to bit rate by Rb = Rs log2 M ) - large Rs implies short pulses and large BW Number of dimensions K of signal space. Ways of implementing dimensions:
z Distinct Time Slots z Distinct Frequency Bands z Signals in Quadrature

Type of pulse shaping employed

Pulse Shaping

Rectangular pulses have first null BW

z BW = z BW =

Rs
2 Rs

(Baseband signal) (Bandpass signal)

Optimum pulse shape has absolute BW z BW = Rs / 2 (Baseband signal)

z BW =

Rs

(Bandpass signal)

How is optimum pulse shape implemented?

z Raised Cosine Pulse

Bandwidth Requirements for Bandpass Modulation (Assuming Both I&Q Used)

Optimum Pulse Shaping: R Rb BW = s K = K 2 2 log 2 M Rectangular Pulse Shaping (a good rule of thumb):
BW = Rs K = KRb / log 2 M

Raised Cosine Pulse Shaping: R Rb BW = s K (1 + r ) = K (1 + r ) 2 2 log 2 M If quadrature channel is not used (e.g. BPSK), then BW is twice as large.

Bandwidth Efficiency:

Definition: B = Rb / BW (bits/sec)/Hz

Measures how efficiently a modulation type uses bandwidth Typical Values (assuming optimum pulse shaping):
z BPSK: 1 bits/sec/Hz z QPSK: 2 bits/sec/Hz z 8-ary PSK: 3 bits/sec/Hz z 16 QAM: 4 bits/sec/Hz z 2-ary FSK: 0.5 bits/sec/Hz z 8-ary FSK: 3/8 bits/sec/Hz

Modulation

We want to modulate digital data using signal sets which are:

z bandwidth efficient z energy efficient

A signal space representation is a convenient form for viewing modulation which allows us to:
z design energy and bandwidth efficient signal constellations z determine the form of the optimal receiver for a given

constellation z evaluate the performance of a modulation type

Problem Statement

We transmit a signal s(t ) {s1(t ), s2 (t ),, sM (t )} , where s( t ) is nonzero only on t [0, T ] . Let the various signals be transmitted with probability:

p1 = Pr[ s1(t)],, pM = Pr[ sM(t)]

The received signal is corrupted by noise: r ( t ) = s(t ) + n(t ) Given r ( t ) , the receiver forms an estimate s (t ) of the signal s(t ) with the goal of minimizing symbol error probability P s = Pr[ s(t) s(t)]

Noise Model

The signal is corrupted by Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) n ( t )

N The noise n( t ) has autocorrelation nn ( ) = 0 ( ) and 2 power spectral density nn( f ) = N0 2

Any linear function of variable

n(t) will be a Gaussian random

Channel

s(t )

r (t )

n( t )

Signal Space Representation

The transmitted signal can be represented as:

sm ( t ) = sm , k f k ( t )
k =1 K

where sm,k = sm (t ) f k (t )dt .

0

The noise can be respresented as: n(t ) = n(t ) + nk f k (t )

k =1

where nk = n(t ) f k (t )dt

0

and n(t ) = n(t ) nk f k ( t )

k =1

Signal Space Representation (continued)

The received signal can be represented as:

K K K

r ( t ) = sm, k f k ( t ) + nk f k ( t ) + n ( t ) = rk f k ( t ) + n ( t )
k =1 k =1 k =1

where rk = sm, k + nk

The Orthogonal Noise: n ( t )

The noise n ( t ) can be disregarded by the receiver

T T K = s ( t ) n ( t ) dt s ( t ) n t ( ) nk f k ( t ) dt m m k =1 0 0 T K

K = sm,k f k (t ) n( t ) nk f k (t ) dt k =1 0 k =1 2 t dt = sm, k f k (t )n(t )dt sm,k nk f k () K T K T k =1 K k =1

= sm,k nk sm,k nk = 0
k =1 k =1

We can reduce the decision to a finite dimensional space!

We transmit a K dimensional signal vector:

s =[ s1,s2, ,sK] {s1, ,sM} We receive a vector r =[r ,rK] = s + n which is the sum 1,
of the signal vector and noise vector n = [n1,,nK] Given r , we wish to form an estimate s of the transmitted signal vector which minimizes P s = Pr[s s]

Channel

Receiver

MAP (Maximum a posteriori probability) Decision Rule

Suppose that signal vectors {s1, , s M } are transmitted with probabilities { p1, , pm } respectively, and the signal vector r is received We minimize symbol error probability by choosing the signal sm which satisfies: Pr (sm r ) Pr (si r ), m i Equivalently:

p( r sm ) Pr (sm ) p(r si ) Pr (si ) , m i p( r ) p( r )

or p( r sm ) Pr (sm ) p(r si ) Pr (si ), m i

Maximum Likelihood (ML) Decision Rule

If p1 = = pm or the a priori probabilities are unknown, then the MAP rule simplifies to the ML Rule We minimize symbol error probability by choosing the signal sm which satisfies p(r s m ) p(r si ), m i