Civ 100

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards
Abstract
This section contains guidance for determining wind and earthquake loads on industrial structures and equipment. It also includes design methods for avoiding windinduced vibration of steel stacks. Wind load is based on ASCE 7-02 (2002) and the Uniform Building Code (1997) and earthquake load is based on UBC 1997. Wind and earthquake loads on tanks, buildings, and offshore platforms are beyond the scope of this document. The Tank Manual covers wind and earthquake loads on tanks. Local building codes define lateral loads on buildings. Finally, API RP-2A should be used for the design of offshore platforms. Maps showing basic wind speeds and seismic zones for the United States are included in this section. Allowable stresses, foundation stability ratios, soil bearing pressures, and sample calculations are also included. This section can be used as a design guide for contractors responsible for seismic and wind design of new or existing Company facilities. Copies of this section can be obtained from ETC Technical Standards Team. For additional guidance and requirements, refer to ChevronTexaco Specification CIV-EG-5009, Structural Design Criteria. This document can also be obtained from the ETC Technical Standards Team.
Contents
110 111 112 113 114 115 Design Standards Introduction General Wind Design Earthquake Design Allowable Stresses, Soil Bearing, and Stability Ratios
Page
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Civil and Structural Manual
120 121 122 123
Methods and Calculations Natural Period of Vibration Wind-Induced Vibration of Steel Stacks and Columns Examples of Wind and Earthquake Load Calculations
100-35
Example 1Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure per 1997 UBC (Assume El Segundo, CA Location) Example 2Uniform Cylindrical Column per 1997 UBC (Assume El Segundo, CA Location) Example 2AUniform Cylindrical Column at El Segundo, CA using ASCE 7-02 Wind Loads Example 3Column of Variable Cross Section per 1997 UBC (Assume Salt Lake City, UT Location) Example 3AVariable Cross Section Column at Salt Lake City, UT using ASCE 7-02 Wind Loads Example 4Braced-Column Spheres per 1997 UBC (Assume Richmond, California Location) Example 5Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs per 1997 UBC (Assume Richmond, CA Location) Example 6Stack Vibration and Ovalling Example 7Stack Vibration Example 8Effect of Various Wind Load Design Variables on Gust Effect Factor Example 9Comparison of Wind Loads with UBC 97 and ASCE 7 Various Editions 130 References 100-74
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110 Design Standards

111 Introduction
It is important that a civil engineer be consulted whenever new facilities or existing structures are being evaluated for seismic and wind loads. This section is for civil engineers of all experience levels. Engineers from other disciplines might use this as a reference to follow a civil engineers calculations. This section gives the reader specific instructions for calculating wind and earthquake loads on structures. It does not describe how to use the loads to calculate stresses and design/analyze a structure or piece of equipment. It does, however, give allowable stresses and foundation stability information that must be used in wind and earthquake design. This section includes formulas for natural period of vibration, example load calculations, and a method of preventing wind-induced vibration of tall steel stacks. Section 110 may be used as a design specification.
112 General
These requirements provide the basic criteria for calculating wind and seismic loads for Company facilities. For further information and background material used in formulating these provisions, a list of references is provided in Section 130. For critical structures containing significant quantities of acutely hazardous material whose failure could result in off-site consequences, more stringent requirements may be appropriate. Examples of critical structures are LNG tanks and ammonia spheres. The ETC Civil/Structural Technical Service Team may be consulted in these cases.
Use of Building Codes

Where legal or local building code provisions are more stringent and more applicable to a particular structure than the guidelines and requirements presented here, then the more stringent provisions must necessarily govern the design. These provisions apply primarily to framed industrial structures other than buildings and to industrial equipment.
Load Combinations
The basic principle of design for lateral forces involves determining the lateral forces due to wind and earthquake (although not both simultaneously) and designing for the most adverse conditions. Wind or earthquake loads should be combined with all other loads which may reasonably be expected to occur simultaneously with the design lateral loads. Vessels and other equipment and their supports should be analyzed for wind loads combined with gravity loads, both including and excluding the weight of the normal contents of the equipment. Earthquake loads need be
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combined only with normal operating and gravity loads. Wind and earthquake loads need not be combined with hydrostatic test loads. Structures designed for wind and earthquake loads must also be capable of withstanding all other conditions of loading. Stresses from other loads must not exceed normal allowable stresses.
Load Direction
The wind or earthquake forces should be considered as acting in any direction, but for analysis they can be resolved into components in the directions of the principal axes of the structure.
Dynamic Effects
Both wind and earthquake effects are dynamic phenomena. However, for the design of structures covered by this document, the use of equivalent static forces is adequate. Wind design for some structures, e.g., for stacks or slender processing columns, must consider dynamic behavior. ASCE 7 contains gust effect factor which will increase the wind load significantly if the structure is flexible. For earthquake design, dynamic behavior is considered to a limited extent in that the lateral force is based on the structures natural period. For major structures or critical facilities, it may be desirable to use dynamic procedures to supplement the basic static approach.
Design Standard Basis

The wind design provisions are based on 1997 UBC (equivalent to ASCE 7-93) and ASCE 7-02. The earthquake provisions are similar in form to those in Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary (1997 7th Edition), Structural Engineers Association of California, and to the 1997 Uniform Building Code. Locations outside the US must determine whether these standards or their own (e.g., Canadas NBC) apply.
113 Wind Design

Wind Design per 1997 UBC (or ASCE 7-93)
Design wind pressures are dependent on the Wind Speed Zone, which is defined for Company locations in Figure 100-1. Use Figure 100-2 to determine the Wind Speed Zone for other locations in the United States including Alaska and Hawaii. Increase the Wind Speed Zone if warranted by local conditions or anomalies. After determining the appropriate Wind Speed Zone, wind forces (Fw) on an exposed structure can be calculated: FW = (Shape Factor) (Basic Wind Pressure) (Projected Area) (Importance Factor)
(Eq. 100-1)
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Shape factors for various elements are defined in Figure 100-3. The wind importance factor IW shall be taken as 1.0 for normal non-critical oil industry structures. For critical structures or structures housing or supporting acutely hazardous materials (AHMs) Iw shall be taken as 1.15.
Fig. 100-1 Location
California Bakersfield/Cymric/McKittrick/Kern River/Taft Carpinteria/Gaviota El Segundo Richmond Colorado Rangely Hawaii Barbers Point/Honolulu Louisiana Venice/Leeville/Oak Point/Morgan City/Cameron/St. James 100 Mississippi Pascagoula Ohio Marietta Oregon Willbridge Texas El Paso Cedar Bayou/Houston/Mount Belvieu Orange Port Arthur Utah Salt Lake City Washington Kennewick Wyoming Evanston Rock Springs 75 80 75 70 75 90 95 100 75 70 100 80 70 70 70 70 70
Wind Speed Zone for Company Locations per UBC 1997 UBC 97 Wind Speed Zone (mph)
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Fig. 100-2
Basic Wind Speeds for the United States (from 1997 Ed. UBC) Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials
ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co. 100-6 March 2004
Civil and Structural Manual 100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards
Fig. 100-3
Shape Factors For Wind Load Calculation
The shape factor shall be 1.3 for structures 40 feet or less in height and 1.4 for structures over 40 feet in height, except as specified below: Spheres Tanks, stacks (except for cooling towers or stacks with helical spoilers) and other cylindrical structures, excluding appendages Induced draft cooling towers: N = number of cells in direction of wind loading Total design pressure shall not be less than 23 psf at any height. Cooling tower stacks Stacks with helical spoilers (projected area to include the spoilers, i.e., to outside diameter of spoilers) Columns and vessels, including normal piping and platforms: Under 4-ft diameter 4-ft to 8-ft diameter Over 8-ft diameter D = Outside diameter, including insulation, ft 1.4 1.7 (0.075D) 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.65 0.8 1.3 +(0.2N)
Note The above factors provide for normal piping and platforms. Other simplified methods which take these into account may be used in place of these factors. Where there is more than normal piping and platforms, determine the wind force by applying the factor for cylindrical structures, excluding appendages, to the column or vessel and adding the forces on the attached elements.
Elements of structures: Applies to the projected framing area of the wind members on any element exposed to the wind (i.e., consider both columns for a frame parallel to the wind). (Forces on equipment and piping supported on the structure shall be added.) Flat or angular sections Cylindrical members (including piping): Two inches or less in diameter Over two inches in diameter 1.0 0.8 1.3 2.0
Note For structures and elements of structures not listed, refer to ASCE 7-93 Force Coefficients, Cf.
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Basic Wind Pressures are defined in Figure 100-4 and are a function of exposures. Exposure B has terrain which has buildings, forest or surface irregularities 20 feet or more in height covering at least 20 percent of the area, extending one mile or more from the site. Exposure C has terrain which is flat and generally open, extending one-half mile or more from the site in any full quadrant. Exposure D represents the most severe exposure in areas with basic wind speeds of 80 mph or greater and has terrain which is flat and unobstructed facing large bodies of water over one mile or more in width. Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline 1/4 miles or 10 times building height, whichever is greater.
Fig. 100-4
Height 70 0-15 ft. 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 0-15 ft. 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 13 14 15 16 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 26 28 75 9 10 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 19 20 23 26 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 26 27 30 32
Basic Wind Pressures (psf) for Heights above Ground per UBC 1997
Fastest Mile Design Wind Speed (MPH) 80 10 11 12 12 14 16 17 19 20 21 23 26 29 17 18 19 20 21 23 25 26 27 29 31 34 36 85 11 12 13 14 15 18 19 21 22 24 26 30 33 20 21 22 23 24 26 28 30 31 33 35 38 41 90 13 14 15 16 17 20 21 23 25 27 29 33 37 22 23 25 26 27 30 32 33 35 37 39 43 46 95 14 15 16 17 19 22 24 26 28 30 32 37 41 24 26 27 29 30 33 35 37 39 41 43 47 51 100 16 17 18 19 21 24 26 29 31 33 36 41 46 27 29 30 32 33 37 39 41 43 46 48 53 56 110 19 21 22 23 26 29 32 35 37 40 44 50 55 33 35 37 38 40 44 47 50 52 55 58 64 68 Exposure
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Fig. 100-4
Height
Basic Wind Pressures (psf) for Heights above Ground per UBC 1997 (Contd.)
Fastest Mile Design Wind Speed (MPH) 70 75 20 21 22 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 34 80 23 24 24 25 27 28 30 31 31 33 34 36 38 85 26 27 28 28 30 32 33 35 36 37 39 41 43 90 29 30 31 32 34 36 37 39 40 42 43 46 48 95 32 33 35 36 37 40 42 43 44 47 48 51 54 100 35 37 38 39 42 44 46 48 49 52 54 57 60 110 43 45 46 48 50 53 56 58 59 62 65 69 72 17 18 19 19 20 22 23 24 24 25 26 28 29 Exposure
0-15 ft. 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 Note
For regions between the hurricane oceanline and 100 miles inland, the basic wind pressures shall be determined by linear interpolation. At the hurricane oceanline, the basic wind pressures shall be multiplied by 1.05. At 100 miles from the hurricane oceanline, the basic wind pressures shall be multiplied by 1.00. Hurricane oceanlines are the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastal areas.
The values of basic wind pressures in Figure 100-4 include: Structure Importance Factor for wind, Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, and a Gust Response Factor per ASCE 7-93. Use the projected area of each element within each height zone for calculating the force. The total force on the structure is the sum of the forces on all the elements, including wind up-lift forces on the surfaces of horizontal projections. Apply all forces at the centroids of the projected areas. For calculations demonstrating wind design methodology, see Section 123, Examples of Wind and Earthquake Load Calculations. Other wind design concerns include wind-induced vibration of stacks, above-grade pipelines, or any slender element which can be excited aerodynamically. See Section 122 for an analysis of this problem.
Wind Design per ASCE 7-2002 Edition

The wind design method described in this section is based on ASCE 7-02. The analytical wind procedure provides wind pressures and forces for the design of main wind force resisting systems and other structures. The procedure involves determination of velocity pressure and wind directionality factor, the selection or determination of an appropriate gust effect factor (function of rigidity of the structure), the effects of differing wind exposures, and the speed-up effects of certain topographic features such as hills and escarpments. The ASCE 7-02 procedure allows the selection of the importance factor based on the level of structural reliability required and whether the risk of structural failure has been properly assessed. For ASCE 7, basic design wind speed was changed from fastest-mile speed to 3-second gust in the 1995 and later editions, while UBC is still based on fastest mile wind speed. Therefore it is very important not to mix basic design wind speed in these two codes. Design 3-second gust wind speed in the U.S. can be found in
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ASCE 7. In the case where direct wind speed data is not available, the table in Figure 100-5 can be used to convert wind speeds from the classic fastest mile to 3-second gust.
Fig. 100-5
V3S Vfm
Equivalent Basic Wind Speed in MPH (from IBC 2000 Table 1609.3.1)
85 70 90 75 100 80 105 85 110 90 120 100 125 105 130 110 140 120 145 125 150 130 160 140 170 150
Note: V3S = 3 second gust wind speed; Vfm = fastest mile wind speed.
Design Methodology
Design Procedures for Open Buildings, Pressure Vessels, Columns, and other similar non-building structures per ASCE 7: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Determine basic wind speed V Determine wind directionality factor Kd Determine importance factor I Determine exposure category (B, C, or D) and velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz Determine topographic factor Kzt Determine gust effect factor G for rigid structures or Gf for flexible structure Determine velocity pressure qz Determine force coefficient Cf Determine design wind force Fw
More details can be found below. Example calculations using ASCE 7-02 methodology are included in Section 123 following the classic UBC 97 examples. Design Wind Velocity Pressure, qz. Design wind velocity pressures qz is defined by
q z = 0.00256 K z K zt K d V 2 I
(ASCE Equation 6-15)
where: V = basic 3-second gust design wind speed

(Figure 100-6 or Figure 100-7, or ASCE Figures 6-1, 6-1a, 6-1b, or 6-1c)
Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient at height z for the corresponding exposure category.
(ASCE Table 6-3, or Figure 100-8)
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Kzt = topographic factor

(ASCE Figure 6-4)
Kd = wind directional factor

(ASCE Table 6.4)
I = importance factor per ASCE Table 6-1 based on structure category per Table 1-1. Structures can be assigned an importance factor of 1.0 (Category II) if hazard risk assessment has been performed to mitigate the risks to the general public. Otherwise, vessels that manufacture, handle or store hazardous (Category III) or extremely hazardous (Category IV) fuels or chemicals should be assigned an importance factor of 1.15. Values of velocity pressure qz at different heights for various wind speeds and exposures are listed in Figure 100-3. These tabular values are based on topographic factor Kzt =1.0, wind direction factor Kd =1.0 and importance factor I =1.0. User will need to adjust the table values by multiplying the appropriate factors specific to their design. Design Wind Force, Fw.
Fw = q z G C f A f (ASCE Equation 6-25)
where: Fw = wind force in pound force
G = gust effect factor, function of rigidity or fundamental frequency of structure,

(ASCE Section 6.5.8)
Cf = force coefficient (shape factor), function of shape, surface, and h/D ratio
(ASCE Figures 6-18 - 6.22)
Af = area normal to the wind direction in square feet Additional guidance on wind loads can be found in the ASCE Publication Wind Loads and Anchor Bolt Design for Petrochemical Facilities (Reference 16). Although the guidelines were developed with the ASCE 7-1995 edition in mind, most of the guidance on pipe racks, open frame structures and pressure vessels are applicable to the 2002 edition. For example, for pressure vessels that may not have detailed information at the time of design of foundation or piles, a simplified approach would be to add 5 ft to the diameter of the vessel, or add 3 ft plus the diameter of the largest pipe to the diameter of the vessel, whichever is greater. If there is large diameter pipe and platform attached on top of the vessel, then the vessel height should be increased one vessel diameter.
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Fig. 100-6
Design Wind Speed for Company Locations per ASCE 7-02 3-Second Gust Wind Speed ASCE 7-02 (mph)
85 85 85 85 90 105 130
Location
California Bakersfield/Cymric/McKittrick/Kern River/Taft Carpinteria/Gaviota El Segundo Richmond Colorado Rangely Hawaii Barbers Point/Honolulu Louisiana Venice/Leeville/Oak Point/ Morgan City/Cameron/St.James Mississippi Pascagoula Ohio Marietta Oregon Willbridge Texas El Paso Cedar Bayou / Houston / Mount Belvieu Orange Port Arthur Utah Salt Lake City Washington Kennewick Wyoming Evanston Rock Springs
150 90 85 90 120 120 130 90 85 90 90
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Fig. 100-7
Basic Wind Speeds for the United States (Reproduced from ASCE 7-02 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 2003, Figure 6-1, 6-1a, 6-1b, and 6-1c. Used with permission of ASCE) (1 of 2)
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Fig. 100-7
Basic Wind Speeds for the United States (Reproduced from ASCE 7-02 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 2003, Figure 6-1, 6-1a, 6-1b, and 6-1c. Used with permission of ASCE) (2 of 2)
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Fig. 100-8
Design Wind Velocity Pressure qz (psf) for Heights Aboveground when used with ASCE 7-02 (See notes on bottom of the table for values of specific parameters assumed for the derivation of these pressures)
3-Second Gust Basic Wind Speed (mph) 85 10.6 11.5 12.3 13.0 14.1 15.8 17.1 18.3 19.3 20.9 22.3 25.0 27.2 15.7 16.7 17.5 18.2 19.3 21.0 22.3 23.4 24.3 25.8 27.1 29.5 31.3 19.1 20.0 20.8 21.5 22.6 24.3 25.5 26.5 27.4 28.8 29.9 32.1 33.7 90 11.9 12.9 13.8 14.5 15.8 17.7 19.2 20.5 21.6 23.4 25.0 28.0 30.5 17.6 18.7 19.6 20.4 21.6 23.6 25.0 26.2 27.3 29.0 30.4 33.1 35.1 21.4 22.5 23.3 24.1 25.3 27.2 28.6 29.7 30.7 32.2 33.5 36.0 37.8 100 14.7 16.0 17.0 17.9 19.5 21.9 23.7 25.3 26.7 28.9 30.8 34.6 37.6 21.7 23.1 24.2 25.1 26.7 29.1 30.9 32.4 33.7 35.8 37.5 40.8 43.4 26.4 27.7 28.8 29.8 31.3 33.6 35.3 36.7 37.9 39.8 41.4 44.4 46.7 110 17.8 19.3 20.6 21.7 23.6 26.5 28.7 30.6 32.2 35.0 37.3 41.9 45.5 26.3 27.9 29.3 30.4 32.3 35.2 37.4 39.2 40.7 43.3 45.4 49.4 52.5 31.9 33.5 34.9 36.0 37.8 40.6 42.7 44.4 45.8 48.2 50.1 53.7 56.5 120 21.2 23.0 24.5 25.8 28.0 31.5 34.2 36.4 38.4 41.7 44.4 49.9 54.1 31.3 33.2 34.8 36.2 38.5 41.9 44.5 46.7 48.5 51.5 54.0 58.8 62.5 38.0 39.9 41.5 42.8 45.0 48.3 50.8 52.8 54.5 57.3 59.6 63.9 67.2 130 24.9 27.0 28.8 30.3 32.9 36.9 40.1 42.8 45.0 48.9 52.1 58.5 63.5 36.7 39.0 40.9 42.5 45.1 49.2 52.2 54.8 56.9 60.5 63.4 69.0 73.3 44.6 46.9 48.7 50.3 52.9 56.7 59.6 62.0 64.0 67.3 69.9 75.0 78.9 140 28.8 31.3 33.4 35.2 38.2 42.9 46.5 49.6 52.2 56.7 60.4 67.9 73.7 42.6 45.3 47.4 49.3 52.4 57.0 60.6 63.5 66.0 70.1 73.5 80.0 85.0 51.7 54.3 56.5 58.3 61.3 65.8 69.2 71.9 74.2 78.0 81.1 87.0 91.5 150 33.1 35.9 38.3 40.4 43.8 49.2 53.4 56.9 60.0 65.1 69.4 77.9 84.6 48.9 51.9 54.4 56.6 60.1 65.5 69.6 72.9 75.8 80.5 84.4 91.9 97.6 59.3 62.4 64.9 66.9 70.4 75.5 79.4 82.5 85.2 89.6 93.1 99.9 105.0 D C B Exposure Kz 0.57 0.62 0.67 0.70 0.76 0.85 0.93 0.99 1.04 1.13 1.20 1.35 1.47 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.98 1.04 1.14 1.21 1.27 1.32 1.40 1.46 1.59 1.69 1.03 1.08 1.13 1.16 1.22 1.31 1.38 1.43 1.48 1.55 1.62 1.73 1.82
Height 0-15 ft. 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 0-15 ft. 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 0-15 ft. 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400
Note:Above table is based on qz = 0.00256 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I
with Kz, Kzt, Kd, I = 1.0
Exposure Categories. For the selected wind direction at which the wind loads are to be evaluated, the exposure of the structure shall be determined. Exposure reflects
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the characteristics of ground roughness and surface irregularities. To determine the exposure category, we need to determine the extent and surface roughness of the frontal area upwind of the structure. Surface roughness category B is for urban and suburban areas with closely spaced obstructions, Surface roughness C is for open terrain with scattered obstructions and includes flat open country, grassland and all water surfaces in hurricane prone regions. Surface roughness category D is for flat, unobstructed areas and water surface outside hurricane-prone regions. Exposure category B applies to situation where surface roughness category B prevails for a distance of 2630 ft or 10 times the height of the structure, whichever is greater. Exposure category D applies to situations where surface roughness category D prevails for a distance of 5000 ft or 10 times the height of the structure, whichever is greater. Exposure D shall extend inland from the shoreline for a distance of 660 ft or 10 times the height of the structure, whichever is greater. Anything else including shorelines in hurricane prone regions fall under Exposure Category C. ASCE 7-02 further requires evaluation for two upwind sectors extending 45 degrees on either side of the selected wind direction. The higher resulting wind load governs. For all practical purpose, if we choose the most severe roughness in the general area upwind of the structure, we would have captured the most severe wind load to the structure. Design Wind Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz. Wind velocity pressure Coefficient Kz is a function of exposure roughness category upwind of the structure and the height at which the evaluation is performed. It has been built into the tabular wind pressure values and also listed in Figure 100-8. Topographic Factor, Kzt. The topographic factor Kzt accounts for the effect of wind speed-up over hills, ridges, and escarpment. Kzt is 1.0 unless the structure is built behind hills, ridges, or escarpment. In those cases, the value of Kzt, equals to (1 + K1 K2 K3)2, can be determined from ASCE Table 6-4, shown as Figure 100-9.
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Fig. 100-9
Wind Topographic Factor Kzt (from ASCE Table 6.4. Used with permission of ASCE from ASCE 7-02)
Wind Directional Factor, Kd. This factor has been hidden in previous ASCE 7 editions in the form of load combination multiplication factor for wind load. ASCE 7 states that this factor has been taken out from the load factor for the ease of future adjustments. It is for this reason that this factor can only be used with the explicit ASCE load combinations. ASCE 7 load combination also does not permit allowable stress increase when Allowable Stress Design (ASD) method is used. Since most designers still use ASD, we recommend not taking credit for this factor, i.e. use a Kd factor of 1.0. For completeness, the values of Kd are listed in Figure 100-10.
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Note that the proper reduction factor Kd should be used when evaluating foundation for overturning.
Fig. 100-10 Wind Directional Factor Kd (from ASCE Table 6.4. Used with permission of ASCE from ASCE 7-02) Structure Type
Buildings Main Wind Force Resisting System Components and Cladding Arched Roofs Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures Square Hexagonal Round Solid Signs Open Signs and Lattice Framework Trussed Towers Triangular, square, rectangular All other cross sections 0.85 0.95 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Directionality Factor Kd(1)
(1) Directionality Factor Kd has been calibrated with combinations of loads specified in Section 2. This factor shall only be applied when used in conjunction with load combinations specified in 2.3 and 2.4
Gust Effect Factor, G or Gf Gust effect on the structure depends on its response to the wind dynamics. It is a function of the structures fundamental natural frequency (n1) and the system critical damping ratio. See Section 121 for the determination of the natural frequency of structure. Most structures are rigid structures (n1 1 hz). Gust effect factor G for rigid structure can be calculated using ASCE Equation 6-4. Note that ASCE permits a value of 0.85 for rigid structures without calculation. For flexible structures (n1 < 1 hz), gust effect factor Gf is given by ASCE Equation 6-8 in Section 6.5.8. Note that for flexible structures, the gust effect factor can be significantly higher than 0.85. An example structure with height equals to 100 ft and diameter equals to 5 ft is used in Example 8 to illustrate how the gust effect factor varies with natural frequency, exposure category, wind speed and system damping ratio. Force Coefficient, Cf This net force coefficient can be viewed as a shape factor. For pressure vessels, chimneys, tanks and similar non-building structures, values can be obtained from Figure 100-11. For other type of structures, refer to ASCE 7. Note that additional guidance is also available from the ASCE wind load guidance document (Reference 16) on choosing the appropriate force coefficients for different structures.
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Fig. 100-11 Force Coefficient Cf for Other Structures (from ASCE 7 Figure 6-19. Used with permission of ASCE from ASCE 7-02)
Alternative ChevronTexaco Shape Factor. In lieu of the ASCE 7-02 gust effect factor G (or Gf) and force coefficient Cf as shown above, user can also use the classic ChevronTexaco shape factors per Figure 100-3 together with the actual diameter to estimate the wind load. This method has been used successfully at ChevronTexaco in the past for initial load estimates when detailed information is not available. For a comparison of results generated using these methods, user is referred to Example 2A (Figure 100-32, Figure 100-33) and Example 3A (Figure 100-37, Figure 100-38 and Figure 100-39). ASCE 7 coefficients should be used for detailed calculations when all the piping, platform and other appurtenances are known.
114 Earthquake Design

These requirements are intended only for use in designing ordinary industrial structures. They are not intended to cover offshore platforms or buildings. These criteria are adequate for most conditions. However, specific sites may present special seismic hazards, such as soil liquefaction, landslide, surface rupture, and
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tsunami that require additional design considerations beyond the scope of this document. These provisions shall apply to the structure as a unit and also to the individual parts of a structure.
Structural Systems Similar to Buildings (SSSB)

A concentric braced frame is a braced frame in which the members are subjected primarily to axial forces. A shear wall is a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of the wall (sometimes referred to as a vertical diaphragm). A light-framed wall with shear panels is similar to a shear wall system except the vertical diaphragm is usually light gage metal, i.e., similar to a refinery box furnace. A moment-resisting space frame is a structural system in which the members and joints are capable of resisting lateral forces primarily by flexure. An ordinary moment-resisting space frame (OMRSF) is a moment-resisting space frame not meeting special detailing requirements for ductile behavior. An intermediate moment-resisting space frame (IMRSF) is a concrete space frame designed in conformance with UBC Section 1921.8. A special moment-resisting space frame (SMRSF) is a moment-resisting space frame specially detailed to provide ductile behavior and comply with the requirements given in UBC Section 1921 for concrete and UBC Chapter 22, Division IV or V for steel. An induced draft cooling tower is typically a timber structure with some type of internal brace system.
Nonbuilding-Type Structures
These structures include all self-supporting structures (equipment with integral supports) other than buildings which carry gravity loads and resist the effects of earthquake. Nonbuilding structures also include structures supporting equipment with structural systems similar to buildings (SSSB).
Design Base Shear for Structures

The determination of design base shear is directly related to the structures fundamental period of vibration, T. The fundamental period of a structure can be determined by rational methods as demonstrated in Section 121, Natural Period of Vibration. Structures with longer periods of vibration, such as stacks, frames, onecolumn pipe supports, and vertical vessels, will typically be governed by Equation 100-2 below. Rigid structures with a short period of vibration, such as short horizontal vessel supports or pump foundations, will typically be governed by Equation 100-6. It is important to note that the earthquake design forces specified by the 1997 Uniform Building Code are based on strength design; whereas in past editions of the UBC the design forces were based on allowable stress design. Because this section is based on the 1997 UBC, the following equations will provide results which are
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strength design based. If one desires to use allowable stress design, the earthquake forces calculated using the following equations need to be divided by a factor of 1.4. For structure systems similar to buildings (such as those listed in sections I and II of Figure 100-18) the total design base shear in a given direction shall be: Cv I -W V = ------RT With the conditions that: 2.5 C a I V max = ---------------- W R and V min = 0.11 C a IW In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, 0.8 ZN v I -W V min = ------------------R (Eq. 100-5) (Eq. 100-4) (Eq. 100-3) (Eq. 100-2)
For nonbuilding structures (such as those listed in Sections III and IV of Figure 100-18) and having a period, T, less than 0.06 seconds, the total design base shear shall be: V = 0.7 C a IW (Eq. 100-6)
For flexible nonbuilding structures (such as those listed in sections III and IV of Figure 100-18), Equation 100-2 and Equation 100-3 shall apply, with the additional stipulations that: V min = 0.56 C a IW and additionally, for Seismic Zone 4, 1.6 ZN v I -W V min = ------------------R The coefficients used above are defined as follows: V = Total base shear Z = Seismic zone factor I = Occupancy importance factor (Eq. 100-8) (Eq. 100-7)
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Ca, Cv = Site-dependent seismic coefficients representing the ground motion Na, Nv = Near-source factors related to the proximity of the structure to known faults in seismic zone 4 R = Structural system factor T = Fundamental period of vibration, in seconds, of the structure in the direction under consideration. See Section 121. W = Total seismic deadload plus operating weight The Seismic Zone Factor, Z, shall be as specified below for the earthquake zone in which the structure is located. The earthquake zone shall be as listed in Figure 100-12 and shown on Figure 100-13.
Seismic Zone
0 1 2A 2B 3 4
Corresponding Seismic Zone Factor, Z

0 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40
Fig. 100-12 Seismic Zone for Company Locations (1 of 2)(1) Location

California Bakersfield/Cymric/McKittrick/Kern River/Taft Carpinteria El Segundo Gaviota Richmond Colorado Rangely Hawaii Barbers Point/Honolulu Louisiana Venice/Leeville/Oak Point/Morgan City/Cameron/St. James Mississippi Pascagoula 0 0 2A 1 4 4 4 4 4 1.0 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.6 1.33 1.33 1.6
Earthquake Zone
Na
Nv
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100-22
Fig. 100-12 Seismic Zone for Company Locations (2 of 2)(1) Location

Ohio Marietta Oregon Willbridge Texas Cedar Bayou/Houston/Mont Belvieu/ Orange/Port Arthur El Paso Utah Salt Lake City Washington Kennewick Wyoming Evanston Rock Springs 2B 1 2B 3 0 1 3 1
Earthquake Zone
Na
Nv
(1) Near-source factors (Na and Nv) are given for Company locations found in Zone 4 only.
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Fig. 100-13 Seismic Zone Map of the United States (from 1997 ed. of UBC) Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials
March 2004 100-24 ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.
100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards Civil and Structural Manual
The Occupancy Importance Factor, I, shall be taken as 1.0 for normal non-critical oil industry structures. For critical structures or structures housing or supporting acutely hazardous materials (AHMs), I shall be taken as 1.25. See Figure 100-19. The seismic coefficients, Ca and Cv, shall be determined using Figures 100-14 and 100-15:
Fig. 100-14 Seismic Coefficient Ca (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials) Seismic Zone Factor, Z Soil Profile Type
SA SB SC SD SE SF
Z = 0.075
0.06 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.19
Z = 0.15
0.12 0.15 0.18 0.22 0.30
Z = 0.2
0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.34 See Footnote(1)
Z = 0.3
0.24 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.36
Z = 0.4
0.32Na 0.40Na 0.40Na 0.44Na 0.36Na
(1) Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coefficients for Soil Profile Type SF.
Fig. 100-15 Seismic Coefficient Cv (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials) Seismic Zone Factor, Z Soil Profile Type
SA SB SC SD SE SF
Z = 0.075
0.06 0.08 0.13 0.18 0.26
Z = 0.15
0.12 0.15 0.25 0.32 0.50
Z = 0.2
0.16 0.20 0.32 0.40 0.64 See Footnote(1)
Z = 0.3
0.24 0.30 0.45 0.54 0.84
Z = 0.4
0.32Nv 0.40Nv 0.56Nv 0.64Nv 0.96Nv
(1) Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coefficients for Soil Profile Type SF.
Ca and Cv represent the ground motion, and are a function of the seismic zone (Z) and the soil profile type (given in Figure 100-16). In seismic zone 4 only, Ca and Cv are also a function of the near source factors Na and Nv. Na and Nv factors are dependent on the distance of the structure to known active large magnitude faults. The Na and Nv factors for Company locations in seismic zone 4 are given in Figure 100-12. A review of the Design Response Spectra (shown in Figure 100-17) helps to illustrate how the seismic coefficients Ca and Cv define the seismic response throughout the spectral range. There are two basic regions to the response spectrum-short period (T < TS) and long period (T > TS). Equation 100-2 represents the curved
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Fig. 100-16 Site Coefficients (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials) Average Soil Properties for Top 100 Feet (30 480 mm) of Soil Profile Standard Penetration Test, N [or NCH for cohesionless soil Undrained Shear layers] (blows/foot) Strength SU psf (kPa)
Soil Profile Type

SA SB SC SD SE(1) SF
Soil Profile Name/Generic Description

Hard Rock Rock Very Dense Soil and Soft Rock Stiff Soil Profile Soft Soil Profile
Shear Wave Velocity Vs feet/second (m/s)

> 5,000 (1,500) 2,500 to 5,000 (760 to 1,500) 1,200 to 2,500 (360 to 760) 600 to 1,200 (130 to 360) < 600 (180)
---
---
> 50 15 to 50 < 15
> 2,000 (100) 1,000 to 2,000 (50 to 100) < 1,000 (50)
Soil Requiring Site-specific Evaluation. See Section 1629.3.1.
(1) Soil Profile Type SE also includes any soil profile with more than 10 feet (3048 mm) of soft clay defined as a soil with a plasticity index, PI > 20, wmc 40 percent and su < 500 psf (24 kPa). The Plasticity Index, PI, and the moisture content, wmc, shall be determined in accordance with approved national standards.
(long period) portion of the response spectrum, while Equation 100-3 represents the flat (short period) portion of the spectrum. The Structural System Factor, R, reflects the expected earthquake resistance for different types of structures. It is a numerical coefficient which represents the inherent global energy absorbing capability or ductility and overstrength in a particular type of structural system. Values for R for a wide variety of structural systems are presented in Figure 100-18. Two major types of structural systems exist, e.g., structures similar to buildings, and nonbuilding-type structures, each having a different minimum design requirement.
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100-26
Fig. 100-17 Design Response Spectra (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials)
Fig. 100-18 Structural System Factors (R Factors) (1 of 2) Structural System Description

I. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS SIMILAR TO BUILDINGS (SSSB) Steel Structures Special moment resisting frame Ordinary moment resisting frame Braced frame a. Eccentrically braced frame b. Concentrically braced frame Inverted pendulum type structure (cantilever column) Concrete Structures Special moment resisting frame Intermediate moment resisting Ordinary moment resisting Shear wall Inverted pendulum type structure (cantilever pier/column) frame(1) frame(2) 5.6 4.5 3.5 4.5 2.2 5.6 4.5 2.2 5.6 4.5
Structural System Factor, R
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Fig. 100-18 Structural System Factors (R Factors) (2 of 2)

II. PIPEWAYS Steel Special moment resisting frame Ordinary moment resisting frame Braced frame (CBF) Cantilever column Concrete Special moment resisting frame Intermediate moment resisting frame(1) Ordinary moment resisting frame(2) Cantilever column III. EQUIPMENT BEHAVING AS STRUCTURES WITH INTEGRAL SUPPORTS Vertical vessels/heaters, tanks, or spheres supported by: Steel skirts Steel skirt when tshell/tskirt > 1.5 Steel braced legs Steel or concrete unbraced legs Horizontal vessels Flexible concrete support Boilers Light steel framed wall with shear panels Steel braced frame where bracing carries gravity load Steel ordinary moment frame Chimneys, stacks, or truss covers Steel guyed Steel cantilever Concrete IV. COOLING TOWERS Wood frame Concrete 5.6 3.6 2.9 2.9 2.9 4.5 4.5 4.5 2.2 2.9 2.2 2.9 2.2 5.6 4.5 3.5 2.9 5.6 4.5 4.5 2.9
(1) Some R values are slightly different than those prescribed by the 1997 UBC. This is in accordance with the ASCE Publication Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and Design of Petrochemical Facilities. (2) For analysis of existing Moment-Resisting Frames, use R for an Ordinary Moment-Resisting Frame unless a different value can be justified. (3) If assigning a value of R to a system not itemized in this table, in the absence of a detailed study, use R = 2.1. ETCs Civil/Structural Team is available for counsel on this subject. (1) Prohibited in Seismic Zones 3 and 4, except as permitted in UBC Section 1634.2. (2) Prohibited in Seismic Zones 2A, 2B, 3, and 4.
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100-28
Vertical Distribution of Base Shear Force for Free Standing Structures

For structures having a natural period, T, greater than 0.7 sec., a portion of the total base shear force, V, shall be applied at the top of the structure, as determined by the following equation: Ft = 0.07 TV where: Ft = Portion of base shear applied at the top of the structure. T = Structure natural period of vibration, sec. V = Total base shear from appropriate equation (Equation 100-2 through Equation 100-8) Ft need not exceed 0.25V (applies when T is equal to or greater than 3.57 sec.). If T is less than or equal to 0.7 sec., Ft shall be taken as zero. The remainder of the total base shear force shall be distributed and applied to the various masses in the structure in accordance with the following equation: Wx hx F x = ( V F t ) ----------- Wh where: Fx = Lateral force applied to a mass at level x. Wx = Weight of the mass at level x. hx = Height of level x above the base (normally the bottom of the base plate of the structure or portion of the structure being analyzed) V = Total base shear from appropriate equations (Eq. 100-2 through 100-8) Wh = The sum of the products of Wx and hx for all the masses within the structure. (Eq. 100-10) (Eq. 100-9)
Vertical Distribution of Base Shear Force for Guyed Structures

Where guys are used to provide lateral force resistance, the total lateral force shall be distributed to the various masses in direct proportion to their weights and shall be applied at their centers of gravity. See Section 300 for more information on the design of guyed structures.
Horizontal Distribution of Base Shear Force

The total shear in any horizontal plane shall be distributed to the various resisting elements in proportion to their rigidities, considering the rigidity of the horizontal bracing system or diaphragm as well as the rigidities of the vertical resisting elements. Provision shall be made for the increase in shear resulting from the horizontal torsion due to an eccentricity between the center of mass and the center of rigidity. Negative torsional shears may be neglected. In addition, where the vertical resisting elements depend upon diaphragm action for shear distribution at any level,
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the shear resisting element shall be capable of resisting a torsional moment assumed to be equal to the shear at the level, acting with an eccentricity of not less than 5% of the maximum structure plan dimension at that level.
Details of Earthquake Resistant Design

Much of the damage sustained in past earthquakes could have been avoided through proper detailing of structural elements and connections. It is important in earthquake-resistant design to give the structure the ability to absorb energy if loaded to levels above the minimum design. This quality is best achieved by detailing the structural frame, the members, and the connections so that overall structural deformation will be ductile rather than brittle. This flexibility is particularly desirable for reinforced concrete construction. Structures should also have a consistent stress level, or margin of reserve strength throughout. An increased force, Em, shall be used for the design of crucial structural components in the lateral force resisting system such as collector elements, steel connections, and elements supporting discontinuous systems. The symbol Em represents the estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in a structure. It is a function of the base shear and the system overstrength, which takes into account factors such as material overstrengths, advantageous collapse mechanisms, and the type of lateral force resisting system. For more information on this topic, contact the ETC Civil/Structural Team. The following general comments apply to structures and components of structures. 1. 2. Masonry StructuresAlways reinforce in accordance with Section 2106 of the Uniform Building Code. Reinforced Concrete StructuresConcrete frames in Seismic Zones 3 and 4 shall be Special Moment Resisting Space Frames (SMRSF). Concrete frames in Seismic Zones 2A and 2B shall be, as a minimum, an Intermediate Moment Resisting Space Frame (IMRSF). Concrete shear walls, braced frames, or moment resisting frames used to resist earthquake forces shall be designed in accordance with Section 1921 of the Uniform Building Code. Steel StructuresPay special attention to connections. At connections and other points of high stress in rigid frame structures, follow the requirements of the AISC Specification for plastic design regarding width-thickness ratios, lateral bracing, web stiffening, and fabrication. Follow the provisions of Chapter 22, Divisions IV or V of the Uniform Building Code. Vessels, Columns and SpheresMinimize stress raisers and provide for continuity of reinforcement around openings. Use bracing effective in tension and compression for braced legs of spheres and vertical vessels. Anchor bolts should be sized to resist the maximum predicted earthquake forces. Use the Standard Anchor Bolt Drawing (GD-Q68922) for bolt selection and spacing. This drawing was developed based on a ductile failure criteria. Do not oversize the anchor bolts as this will result in a non-ductile failure.
3.
4.
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100-30
5.
FoundationsProvide tie beams, reinforced concrete slabs, or other equivalent restraint interconnecting individual footings on piles when the surface soil does not provide adequate lateral restraint.
See Sections 1626 through 1636 of the Uniform Building Code for general earthquake regulations.
Electrical and Mechanical Equipment

All equipment and equipment anchorage to foundations or supporting structures shall be designed to resist a minimum lateral earthquake force acting at the center of mass of the equipment. This provision includes such items as switch gear, transformers, vessels supported in structures, control panels, etc. For equipment supported by a structure: h x ap Ca Ip - 1 + 3 ---- W F p = ---------------Rp h r p With the condition that: F pmin = 0.7 C a I p W p F pmax = 4.0 C a I p W p where: Fp IP Wp ap Rp hx hr = Design lateral earthquake force = Seismic importance factor (See Figure 100-19) = Total operating weight of equipment = In-Structure Component Application Factor (from Figure 100-20) = Component Response Modification Factor (from Figure 100-20) = element or component attachment elevation with respect to grade. hx shall not be less than 0.0 = structure roof elevation with respect to grade (Eq. 100-12) (Eq. 100-13) (Eq. 100-11)
For rigid equipment supported at grade (such as a transformer, switchgear, etc.): F p = 0.7 C a I p W p
Fig. 100-19 Seismic Importance Factor
(Eq. 100-14)
Description Equipment required for life safety systems Items containing sufficient quantities of acutely hazardous material whose failure could result in off-site consequences. All other equipment or normal non-critical structures Critical structures
I 1.25 1.25
IP 1.5 1.5
1.0 1.25
1.0 1.5
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March 2004
Fig. 100-20 Horizontal Force Factors (ap and Rp) Equipment Description
1. Vessels (including contents), and their support systems 2. Electrical, mechanical, and plumbing equipment and associated conduit and ductwork and piping such as switchgears, transformers, pumps, and air-handling units.
NOTE: Refer to UBC Table 16-0 for a more extensive listing of horizontal force factors.
ap
1.0 1.0
Rp
3.0 3.0
Direct anchorage through anchor bolts shall be provided where possible. For shallow expansion anchor bolts, use Rp = 1.5. For nonductile or adhesive anchor bolts, use Rp = 1.0. In situations where anchor bolt connections are impractical, a welded ductile connection between equipment and support may be provided. A ductile connection shall be defined as one that will undergo inelastic deformation through yielding before the connection fails. The direct welding of rigid equipment to a rigid foundation or support is not recommended. Appendix H indicates the appropriate base shear equations that should be used for many typical refinery structures and types of equipment. Appropriate R values are also included.
Displacement
There is no specific code requirement which limits the lateral displacement/drift in industrial structures. However, it is recommended that the lateral displacement be limited to a displacement that can be tolerated by the equipment being supported, including the associated piping and other appurtenances. The Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, M, corresponds to the maximum deformations of a structure responding in the inelastic range. In order to calculate M, the design level displacement (S) is simplified to the inelastic level using the following equation: M = 0.7 R S where: M is as defined above S is the displacement corresponding to the code-level design seismic forces R is the structural system factor. The analysis used to determine the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement (M) shall consider P effects. For guidance on this subject, contact the ETC Civil/Structural Team. (Eq. 100-15)
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100-32
Earthquake Loads
To design a structure, calculate the forces to be applied to each element of the structure. The earthquake load (E) on an element of a structure is a result of the combination of the horizontal component (Eh) and the vertical component (Ev), and can be calculated using the following equation: E = Eh + Ev where: = redundancy/reliability factor = 1.0 for nonbuilding structures and for structures in seismic zone 0, 1, or 2 1.0 for structural systems similar to buildings (SSSB) in seismic zone 3 or 4 Eh = earthquake load due to either the base shear (V) or the design lateral force (Fp) Ev = the load effect resulting from the vertical component of the earthquake ground motion = 0.5CaID for Strength Design = 0 for Allowable Stress Design The intent of the factor is to encourage the design of redundant lateral force resisting structures by penalizing non-redundant structures. There are a number of important benefits to redundancy, one of the most evident being that the failure of any single element in a non-redundant structure can produce global structural collapse. Therefore, in order to obtain good seismic performance, the lateral resistance should be distributed throughout the structure so that failure of any single element will not result in collapse of the entire structure. The factor varies between 1.0 and 1.5, and takes into account the number of lateral force resisting elements, the plan area of the structure, and the distribution of the forces to the lateral force resisting elements. For a structure with an adequate level of redundancy, the factor would be equal to 1.0; whereas a structure with poor overall redundancy could have a factor of up to 1.5, resulting in design forces that are 50% higher than otherwise required. Contact the ETC Civil/Structural Team for guidance on this subject. (Eq. 100-16)
Analysis of Existing Facilities

These Design Standards are intended to apply to the design of new facilities. In general, structures and equipment properly designed in accordance with earlier codes need not be redesigned to meet the present Wind and Earthquake Design Standards. However, when any significant modification is made or weight is added to an existing structure, the design should be reviewed. If required, the structure should be modified to meet the requirements of the appropriate building code. Although current building codes do not require the upgrading of existing facilities, in keeping with Corporate Policy 530 for Safety, Fire, Health, and the Environment,
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March 2004
it may be appropriate to review the design of facilities in critical service. A portion of that policy instructs management to conduct scientific hazard and risk assessments, as needed, to identify, characterize, and safely manage any present or future potential hazards of Company products and operations. A critical facility is defined as one for which a major failure would cause one of the following: 1. 2. 3. Develop a condition which would result in serious injury or death. Result in damage to the environment significantly beyond that which the earthquake would cause at the site. Result in appreciable loss of revenue.
To evaluate the risk of a critical facility, the following steps are recommended: 1. 2. Determine the existing strength of the structures. Make a judgment as to whether the existing strength is acceptable in light of current conditions, including the types of risk factors previously noted.
The judgments required to determine acceptability should include evaluation of structural redundancy and reserve strength. The assessment of existing facilities for earthquake capacity is not commodity engineering and should be done by qualified personnel. Since most assessments of existing facilities are voluntary efforts to mitigate potential business risks, it is not always necessary or even beneficial to measure a structures acceptability against the current building code requirements. ETCs Civil/Structural Technical Service Team has performed many seismic assessments of Company owned facilities utilizing Proposed Guidance for Risk Management and Prevention Program (RMPP) Seismic Assessments. This document was developed in 1992 by a team of technical experts and industry professionals to aid in the assessment of seismic risk at existing industrial facilities. In 1998, this document was revised and renamed Proposed Guidance for California Accidental Release Prevention (CalARP) Program Seismic Assessments. Proposed Guidance for CalARP Seismic Assessments evaluates the ultimate strength capacity of existing structures. The ultimate strength capacity of a structure is defined here as the ability of a structure to perform inelastically while avoiding failure. The ultimate strength must be compared to the expected structural demand resulting from the expected levels of ground shaking at the site. The CalARP guidelines utilize the same level of acceptable risk as that defined in the current UBC, i.e., the level of ground motion associated with a 10 percent chance of exceedance in 50 years. For facilities with unacceptably low strength, one of the following should be considered: 1. 2. Strengthen the facility De-rate the facility to lower the risk of failure. For example, reduce the safe operating height for tanks.
ETCs Civil/Structural Technical Service Team is available for counsel regarding these procedures and judgments.
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100-34
115 Allowable Stresses, Soil Bearing, and Stability Ratios

Allowable Stresses for Structural Members
The allowable stresses for structural members for loading conditions including wind or earthquake loads shall be one-third greater than the stresses allowed for normal conditions of loading by applicable structural design codes.
Stability Ratio
The stability ratio of the resisting moments about the edge of a foundation to the overturning moment due to wind loads shall not be less than 1.5. The stability ratio for earthquake loads shall not be less than 1.0 and the force Ft, if applicable, may be omitted when determining the earthquake overturning moment to be resisted at the foundation-soil interface.
Foundation Soil Bearing Pressures

Foundation soil bearing pressures for loading conditions including wind or earthquake loads should be based on sound engineering principles taking into account the nature of the subsoil and distribution of the load. In the absence of other criteria, the allowable soil bearing pressures may be increased by one-third when considering wind or earthquake forces acting alone or when combined with vertical loads.
Allowable Stresses in Pressure Vessel Shells and Skirts

See the Pressure Vessel Manual for allowable stresses in pressure vessels subject to wind or earthquake loads. Allowable stresses for loading conditions including wind or earthquake loads are typically higher than stresses allowed for normal conditions.
120 Methods and Calculations

121 Natural Period of Vibration
In the design of flexible structures for earthquake loads and wind-induced vibration, it is necessary to determine the first mode natural period of vibration of the structure. The following figures (Figures 100-21 through 100-27), and their accompanying equations give the natural period of vibration for several types of industrial structures. Texts about dynamics of structures tell how to find the periods of more complex structures. Computer programs with dynamic structural analysis capabilities can also determine periods of structural vibration. The units used throughout the following formulas must be consistent except where otherwise noted. Equation 100-23 in Figure 100-27 is an approximate formula which is sufficiently accurate for most non-uniform distillation columns and vertical vessels. If a vessel has a lower section several times the diameter of the upper portions, and the lower portion is short compared with the overall height (such as a vertical seal drum on which is mounted a self-supporting flare or vent stack), the period can be more
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March 2004
accurately determined by finding the period of the upper portion, assuming that displacement and rotation are fixed at its junction with the lower section. For vessels where the shell diameter or thickness is large in comparison with the supporting skirt, such as for high pressure reactors, the period calculated from Equation 100-23 may be overly conservative for earthquake design, and more accurate methods may be justified. The equations presented in this section ignore the effects of soil-structure interaction. Soil-structure interaction can have a profound effect on the natural period of large vertical vessels on individual pile-supported foundations. All critical calculations for such vessels should consider this dynamic phenomenon. The ETC Civil/Structural Technical Service Team may be consulted in these cases. Figure 100-21 gives the general formula for determining the natural period of vibration, T, for a one mass structure. Figure 100-22 gives the equation for determining the natural period of vibration for a one mass, Bending Type Structure. Figure 100-23 gives the equations for a one mass, rigid frame-type structure. Figure 100-24 gives the equation and parameters for determining the natural period of vibration for a two mass structure. Figure 100-25 gives the equation for a bending type structure of uniform weight distribution and constant cross section. Figure 100-26 gives the equation for the natural period of vibration for a uniform vertical cylindrical steel vessel. Figure 100-27 gives the equation for the natural period of vibration for a nonuniform vertical cylindrical vessel. Figure 100-28 lists the coefficients for determining the natural period of vibration of free-standing cylindrical shells with varying cross sections and mass distribution.
Fig. 100-21 Natural Period of Vibration - One Mass Structure

0.5 y - T = 2 - g
(Eq. 100-17)
where: y = static deflection of mass resulting from a lateral load applied at the mass equal to its own weight. g = acceleration due to gravity. See Examples 4 and 5 for application.
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100-36
Fig. 100-22 Natural Period of Vibration - One Mass, Bending Type Structure
(Eq. 100-18)
Fig. 100-23 Natural Period of Vibration - One Mass, Rigid Frame Type Structure
(Eq. 100-19)
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Fig. 100-24 Natural Period of Vibration - Two Mass Structure
(Eq. 100-20)
Fig. 100-25 Natural Period of Vibration - Bending Type Structure, Uniform Weight Distribution and Constant Cross Section
(Eq. 100-21)
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100-38
Fig. 100-26 Natural Period of Vibration - Uniform Vertical Cylindrical Steel Vessel
(Eq. 100-22)
Fig. 100-27 Natural Period of Vibration - Non-uniform Vertical Cylindrical Vessel Courtesy of the James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
(Eq. 100-23)
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Fig. 100-28 Coefficients for Determining Period of Vibration of Free-Standing Cylindrical Shells Having Varying Cross Sections and Mass Distribution Courtesy of the James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
hx ---H
1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80
March 2004 100-40 ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.
2.103 2.021 1.941 1.863 1.787 1.714 1.642 1.573 1.506 1.440 1.377 1.316 1.256 1.199 1.143 1.090 1.038 0.988 0.939 0.892 0.847 0.804 0.762 0.722 0.683
8.347 8.121 7.898 7.678 7.461 7.248 7.037 6.830 6.626 6.425 6.227 6.032 5.840 5.652 5.467 5.285 5.106 4.930 4.758 4.589 4.424 4.261 4.102 3.946 3.794
1.000000 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000 1.000000 0.999999 0.999998 0.999997 0.999994 0.999989 0.999982 0.999971 0.999956 0.999934 0.999905 0.999867 0.999817 0.999754 0.999674 0.999576 0.999455 0.999309 0.999133 0.998923 0.998676
hx ---H
0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41
0.3497 0.3269 0.3052 0.2846 0.2650 0.2464 0.2288 0.2122 0.1965 0.1816 0.1676 0.1545 0.1421 0.1305 0.1196 0.1094 0.0998 0.0909 0.0826 0.0749 0.0678 0.0612 0.0551 0.0494 0.0442
2.3365 2.2400 2.1148 2.0089 1.9062 1.8068 1.7107 1.6177 1.5279 1.4413 1.3579 1.2775 1.2002 1.1259 1.0547 0.9863 0.9210 0.8584 0.7987 0.7418 0.6876 0.6361 0.5872 0.5409 0.4971
0.99183 0.99065 0.98934 0.98789 0.98630 0.98455 0.98262 0.98052 0.97823 0.97573 0.97301 0.97007 0.96688 0.96344 0.95973 0.95573 0.95143 0.94683 0.94189 0.93661 0.93097 0.92495 0.91854 0.91173 0.90448
hx ---H
0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06
0.010293 0.008769 0.007426 0.006249 0.005222 0.004332 0.003564 0.002907 0.002349 0.001878 0.001485 0.001159 0.000893 0.000677 0.000504 0.000368 0.000263 0.000183 0.000124 0.000081 0.000051 0.000030 0.000017 0.000009 0.000004
0.16200 0.14308 0.12576 0.10997 0.09564 0.08267 0.07101 0.06056 0.05126 0.04303 0.03579 0.02948 0.02400 0.01931 0.01531 0.01196 0.00917 0.00689 0.00506 0.00361 0.00249 0.00165 0.00104 0.00062 0.00034
0.7914 0.7776 0.7632 0.7480 0.7321 0.7155 0.6981 0.6800 0.6610 0.6413 0.6207 0.5992 0.5769 0.5536 0.5295 0.5044 0.4783 0.4512 0.4231 0.3940 0.3639 0.3327 0.3033 0.2669 0.2323
0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76
0.75 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.66
0.646 0.610 0.576 0.543 0.512 0.481 0.453 0.425 0.399 0.374
3.645 3.499 3.356 3.217 3.081 2.949 2.820 2.694 2.571 2.452
0.998385 0.998047 0.997656 0.997205 0.996689 0.996101 0.995434 0.994681 0.993834 0.992885
0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31
0.0395 0.0351 0.0311 0.0275 0.0242 0.0212 0.0185 0.0161 0.0140 0.0120
0.4557 0.4167 0.3801 0.3456 0.3134 0.2833 0.2552 0.2291 0.2050 0.1826
0.89679 0.88864 0.88001 0.87088 0.86123 0.85105 0.84032 0.82901 0.81710 0.80459
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.
0.000002 0.000001 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.
0.00016 0.00007 0.00002 0.00000 0.00000 0.
0.1966 0.1597 0.1216 0.0823 0.0418 0.
122 Wind-Induced Vibration of Steel Stacks and Columns

Introduction
Welded steel stacks and other tall, cylindrical structures such as fractionating columns are susceptible to large-amplitude oscillations during steady winds of moderate velocity. These oscillations occur transverse to the mean wind direction and are driven by the vortices which form the downstream wake. The amplitude of the oscillations is inversely related to the mass and damping of the structure. Unacceptable oscillations are most likely to be encountered with lightly damped structures, such as welded steel stacks on rigid foundations, and less likely with lined stacks, riveted structures, concrete stacks, or columns containing process fluids. The following is a method for design to avoid wind-induced oscillations for tall cylindrical structures, including guyed stacks. The method is based on a conservative interpretation of available data, and will produce reliable results when used with realistic estimates of structural damping. Ovalling vibration of thin walled stacks must also be checked.
Critical Wind Velocity

The design objective is to have the Critical Wind Velocity (Uc) be greater than the Design Wind Velocity (Ud), thereby eliminating wind-induced vibration. The Critical Wind Velocity is the lowest velocity at which wind-induced oscillations occur. It is computed as follows: 1. 2. Determine the natural fundamental period (T) of the structure (See Section 121) Using the outside diameter of the stack (D), find the Critical Wind Velocity (Uc): 4.7 D U c = ----------(Eq. 100-24) T Determine the Mean Steady Wind Velocity (Um) at the site, sustained for approximately 10 minutes. This wind velocity should be referenced to a particular height above grade (Z), which is 30 feet in most meteorological data. Note: This is not the Wind Speed Zone used in Section 113 or the Base Shear Z used in Section 114. Determine the Mean Steady Wind Velocity (Ut) at the top of the stack (H): H U t = U m -- Z 5. Calculate the Design Wind, (Ud):
0.28
3.
4.
(Eq. 100-25)
(Eq. 100-26) Ud = 3Ut If Uc > Ud, then the stack is not susceptible to wind-induced oscillation. If Uc < Ud, the following design check is required.
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Design Check
The design objective is to have the Design Damping Coefficient (Cd ) be less than the Structural Damping Coefficient (Cs ) so wind-induced vibration amplitudes will not exceed acceptable limits. The Design Damping Coefficient (Cd ) and the Structural Damping Coefficient (Cs ) are determined as follows. 1. Select an allowable vibration amplitude, Ya, which represents the amplitude of vibrations that could be sustained indefinitely without fatigue damage to the stack. Use this method to find a good approximation for Ya. a. Define allowable stress range (Fr) for infinite life. For shells with butt welded circumferential joint, Fr is 16 ksi. For shells with fillet welded circumferential joint, Fr is 5 ksi. For other types of connections, refer to the tables in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, Part 5, Appendix K4. Determine stress per unit-deflection (Fm) for the fundamental mode shape of the stack. This may be approximated by: Fm = 1.2 Fw / Yw where: Fw = the maximum change in stress from a static condition due to design wind load only. Yw = The maximum deflection from a static condition due to the design wind load only. c. Let: (Eq. 100-28) Ya = (Fr /2Fm) Note that allowable stress range is divided by two to get single amplitude allowable stress. 2. Compute Mr: w M r = --------(Eq. 100-29) D2 w = Weight/unit length of the top one-third of the stack. If variable, average the weight over the top one-third of the stack. = Weight density of air times /4 = 0.076 lb/ft3 x /4 = 0.06 lb/ft3 D = Diameter of the top one-third of the stack. If variable, take the square root of the length-weighted average of the squared values of the diameters over the top one-third. For example, for two sections:
2l + D 2l D1 1 2 2 D = ----------------------------( l1 + l2 ) 0.5
b.
(Eq. 100-27)
(Eq. 100-30)
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3.
Compute Design Minimum Required Damping Coefficient (Cd):

0.5 0.45 D - ------- 1.0 C d = -------- Mr Ya
(Eq. 100-31)
= A shape factor; use 1.3 for the fundamental mode of cantilever structures. 4. Select a Structural Damping Coefficient (Cs) by adding the appropriate fractions listed below (other values for structural damping may be used if they can be substantiated): Factor Basic Stack Refractory Basic Column Empty With Liquid Content Foundation soil strength: less than 1500 psf 1500 psf to 3000 psf greater than 3000 psf Pile-supported stacks Stacks supported atop structures 0.006 0.002 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.008 0.013 Incremental Damping Fraction 0.003 0.002
For example, a stack with refractory lining on a 2000 psf foundation would have: Cs = 0.003 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 0.007. 5. If Cd < Cs, then wind-induced vibration amplitudes will not exceed acceptable limits. If Cd > Cs, then design alternatives must be considered.
Design Alternatives
1. 2. 3. Lower H/D or increase t, stack wall thickness (to raise Uc above Ud.) Increase t or refractory line stack (to increase Mr and Cs.) Attach helical spoilers to the top third of the stack. Conservative guidelines for spoiler design are: a. Spoilers shall consist of three helical strakes over the top third of the stack with a pitch of 5D and a height of 0.12D.
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b.
A conservative estimate for Design Minimum Damping Fraction for a stack with spoilers is: --------C d = 0.30 Mr (Eq. 100-32)
Spoilers will be effective if Cs > Cd. A lower value of Cd may be used if it can be justified. Note that spoilers increase the effective area and shape factor for static wind load, which must be accounted for in the design. 4. Attach a damping device to the stack. Several such devices have been used. Two proven alternatives are hydraulically tensioned guys, and chain impact dampers.
If Design Minimum Damping is close to the required minimum, so that short durations of wind-induced vibration will not result in damage, then a reasonable alternative is to design an auxiliary damping system and provide attachments to the stack (i.e., padeyes), but defer fabrication and installation of the dampers until after the stack is erected and actual unacceptable vibration amplitudes have been observed.
Ovalling Vibration of Thin-walled Stacks

Thin-walled stacks are also susceptible to ovalling vibrations, i.e., oscillations where the stack cross-section vibrates as a ring. The same aeroelastic phenomena described in the introduction to this section create this mode of vibration. Ovalling, however, can be directly prevented by the addition of circumferential stiffeners to the stack. Criteria for avoiding ovalling is: Ud t - < -------------- stiffeners are required If -R 10200 where: t = stack wall thickness, inch R = stack radius, inch Ud = Design Wind (see Equation 100-26), fps If stiffeners are required: 1. Choose a spacing of stiffeners, L, such that: L -6 4 -R (Eq. 100-34) (Eq. 100-33)
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2.
Calculate the required moment of inertia, Ir (in4), of the added stiffener section about its center of gravity axis by U d 2 0.00334 LtR 4 - ------------------------------I r = ----------2.5 D E (Eq. 100-35)
where: E = modulus of elasticity at operating temperature in psi D = Diameter in feet R = Radius in inches 3. 4. Select the stiffener section to provide this Ir. Usually a flat projecting circumferential bar will do this efficiently. Check that stack thickness, t, is large enough to avoid possible vibration of the shell between stiffeners. t > 0.003 R (Eq. 100-36)
Example Calculations
See Section 123, Examples 6 and 7, for a demonstration of the methodology for analyzing wind-induced vibration of steel stacks
123 Examples of Wind and Earthquake Load Calculations

Following are eleven examples of wind and earthquake load calculations for several different structures and supports. These examples are: Example 1 Example 2 Example 2A Example 3 Example 3A Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 Example 7 Example 8 Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure per UBC 1997 (Assume El Segundo, CA Location) Uniform Cylindrical Column per UBC 1997 (Assume El Segundo, CA Location) Uniform Cylindrical Column per ASCE 7-02 (Assume El Segundo, CA Location) Column of Variable Cross Section per UBC 1997 (Assume Salt Lake City, UT Location) Column of Variable Cross Section per ASCE 7-02 (Assume Salt Lake City, UT Location) Braced-Column Spheres per UBC 1997 (Assume Richmond, California, Location) Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs per UBC 1997 (Assume Richmond, CA Location) Stack Vibration and Ovalling Stack Vibration Effect of Various ASCE 7-02 Wind Load Design Variables on Gust Effect Factor
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Example 9
Comparison of Wind Loads with UBC 1997 and ASCE Various Editions for Pascagoula, MS and Port Arthur, TX
Note The earthquake design forces specified by the 1997 UBC are based on strength design; whereas in past editions of UBC the design forces were based on allowable stress design. Therefore, in order to be consistent with the 1997 UBC, examples 1-5 are strength design based. If you want to use allowable stress design, the calculated earthquake forces should be divided by a factor of 1.4.
Example 1Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure per 1997 UBC (Assume El Segundo, CA Location)
Fig. 100-29 Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support StructureSMRSF, EQ Zone 4, Wind Zone 70 MPH
Earthquake Forces on structure as shown in Figure 100-29 (Transverse direction Loads on one bent) W = 20 kips (includes structure weight) Deflections from 1 kip at A and B (calculations not shown): Caa = 0.0384 in., Cab = 0.0180 in., Cbb = 0.0157 in.
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Use Equation 100-20 12 ( 0.0384 ) + 8 ( 0.0157 ) + [ [ 12 ( 0.0384 ) 8 ( 0.0157 ) ] + 4 ( 12 ) ( 8 ) ( 0.0180 ) ] - T = 2 ( 3.14 ) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 ( 386 ) = 0.234 sec > 0.06 sec Cv I -W Use V = ------RT Z = 0.40 (Seismic Zone 4) I = 1.0 Assume Type Sc soil. For El Segundo, Na = 1.1 and Nv = 1.33 (Figure 100-12) C a = 0.40 N a = 0.40 ( 1.1 ) = 0.44 C v = 0.56 N v = 0.56 ( 1.33 ) = 0.745
2 2 0.5 0.5
(Eq. 100-2)
(Figure 100-14) ( Figure 100-15 )
R = 5.6 (Figure 100-11) Special Moment-Resisting Space Frame - Concrete Cv I ( 0.745 ) ( 1.0 ) - ( 20 ) = 11.17 kip Total Base Shear - W = -----------------------------V = ------( 5.6 ) ( 0.234 ) RT Check vs. Vmax: 2.5 C a I V max = ---------------- W R ( 2.5 ) ( 0.44 ) ( 1.0 ) = ---------------------------------------- ( 20 ) 5.6 = 3.93
k
(Eq. 100-3)
V max controls! Use V = 3.93

k
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V = 3.93K) should be divided by 1.4.
T 0.7 sec., therefore F t = 0.0 W A h A = 12 ( 20 ) = 240 ; W B h B = 8 ( 10 ) = 80 ; Wh = 320 WA hA WB hB 240 80 - = ( 3.93 ) -------- = 2.95 kip ; F = --------------- = 0.98 kip F A = V --------------- = 3.93 -------B Wh 320 320 Wh
(Eq. 100-10)
Base Moment, Mo = (2.95) (20) + (0.98) (10) = 68.2 k-ft.
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Wind Forces (Transverse directionLoads on one bent). Assume wind speed zone = 70, Exposure B. Shape Factors: Vessels = 1.4; Open Framework Structures = 1.3
10 11 20 - - + 1.0 ----- + 1.3 ( 8 ) 1.5 ----1.4 ( 9 ) 4 ---- 2 2 2 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.64 kip 1 ,000 11 15 - + 1.0 10 - + 1.3 ( 8 ) 1.5 --------- + 10 1.4 ( 8 ) 2 ---- 2 2 2 = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.41 kip Total Shear = 1.05 kip 1 ,000
FA
FB
Base Overturning Moment = (0.64) (20) + (0.41) (10) = 16.9 k-ft Therefore, the Earthquake Moment controls the design.
Example 2Uniform Cylindrical Column per 1997 UBC (Assume El Segundo, CA Location)
In most columns of constant diameter, the entire mass can be assumed uniformly distributed over the height. Where there are large concentrations of mass or variations in cross-section, the analysis should be made as shown in Example 3.
Fig. 100-30 Uniform Cylindrical Column: Earthquake Forces
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Period of Vibration: 7.78 100 2 12 600 6 0.5 - -------- ----------------------------= 0.898 sec T = -------- 0.25 10 6 6 Z = 0.4 (Zone 4); Importance Factor, I = 1.0 Na = 1.1; Nv = 1.33 (From Figure 100-12). t vessel 0.625 - = 2.5 and 2.5 > 1.5, therefore, use R = 2.2 (from Figure 100-18) -------------- = -----------0.25 t skirt Assume Type Sc soil. From Figures 100-14 and 100-15, Ca = 0.40Na = 0.40(1.1) = 0.44 Cv = 0.56Nv = 0.56(1.33) = 0.745 W = wH = ( 600 lb ft ) ( 100 ft ) = 60 ,000 lb = 60 kip CV I ( 0.745 ) ( 1.0 ) - ( 60 kip ) = 22.63 kips - W = -----------------------------Base Shear, V = -------( 2.2 ) ( 0.898 ) RT
(Eq. 100-22)
(Eq. 100-2)
2.5 C a I ( 2.5 ) ( 0.44 ) ( 1.0 ) ( 60 ) = 30.0 kip Check V max = ---------------- W = --------------------------------------2.2 R Check Vmin: V min = 0.56 C a IW = 0.56 ( 0.44 ) ( 1.0 ) ( 60 ) = 14.78kips Also, for Zone 4: 1.6 ZN V I -W V min = -------------------R 1.6 ( 0.4 ) ( 1.33 ) ( 1.0 ) - ( 60 ) = ----------------------------------------------2.2 = 23.21kips V min controls! Use V = 23.21 kips
(Eq. 100-0)
(Eq. 100-7)
(Eq. 100-8)
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V = 23.21k) should be divided by 1.4.)
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T > 0.7 sec, therefore Ft = 0.07 TV = 0.07(0.898)(23.21) = 1.46 kip V-Ft = 21.75 kip
(Eq. 100-9)
When the weight is distributed uniformly along the height, the distribution of the lateral force V-Ft given by Equation 100-10 resolves to the triangular distribution shown in Figure 100-30. 2 - ( 21.75 ) ( 100 ) = 1 ,596 k-ft Base Moment, M o = F t H + F x h x = 1.46 ( 100 ) + -3 The moment at the top of the skirt, or at any other elevation, can be found by drawing a free body diagram. For example, M15 = 1,243 k-ft.
Fig. 100-31 Uniform Cylindrical Column: Wind Forces
Wind Forces (Wind Zone = 70, Exposure C) Diam. = 6 ft.-0 in. + 2 (2 in) = 6.33 ft. Shape Factor = 1.7 - (0.075 D) = 1.7 - (0.075)(6.33) = 1.23
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By dividing the column into sections as shown in Figure 100-31, wind loads can be found as shown below: Wind Base Shear, VW F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 = 1.23(13)(6.33)(15) = = 1.23(14)(6.33)(5) 1.23(15)(6.33)(5) = = = = = = = 1,520 550 580 1,870 2,800 2,960 3,110 Wind Moment, MOW: M01 M02 M03 M04 M05 M06 M07 Mow = = = = = = = 1,520(7.5) 550(17.5) 580(22.5) 1,870(32.5) 2,800(50) 2,960(70) 3,110(90) = = = = = = = = 11,400 9,630 13,050 60,780 140,000 207,200 279,900 722 k-ft
= 1.23(16)(6.33)(15) = 1.23(18)(6.33)(20) = 1.23(19)(6.33)(20) = 1.23(20)(6.33)(20) Vw
= 13,390 lb
= 721,960 lb-ft
Moment at top of skirt: M15 = 1.23(14)(6.33)(5)(2.5) + 580(7.5) + 1,870(17.5) + 2,800(35) + 2,960(55) + 3110(75) = 532.5 k-ft. Therefore, Earthquake Moment controls the design. Wind and earthquake moments can be determined similarly at other sections. Combine the larger of wind or earthquake moment with corresponding gravity forces at each section and use allowable stresses to determine the required skirt and shell thickness.
Example 2AUniform Cylindrical Column at El Segundo, CA using ASCE 7-02 Wind Loads
Wind design force Fw is given by:
Fw = [ q z G C f ] A f
Using the simplified approach per ASCE Wind Load guideline (Reference 16), 5 ft diameter will be added to the actual diameter of 6 ft for the calculation of the effective wind area Af. Note that this increase in diameter should be used for area calculations only. Actual diameter should be used for determining the vessels dynamic characteristics. Value of the velocity pressure
q z = ( 0.00256 K z K zt K d V 2 I )
The values of the velocity pressure qZ can be obtained using Figure 100-8 as a function of the design wind speed (85 mph) and Exposure Category (C). Although the velocity pressure at mid height of each section could be used to obtain the design wind pressure, we will use values based on the top elevation to be conservative, and
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for the convenience of table look up in this case. It should be noted that the table assumes factors Kzt, Kd and I to be 1.0, of which we assume to be applicable for this design. Assume the vessels natural frequency is greater than 1 hz, i.e. rigid. For rigid structures, a gust effect factor G of 0.85 can be used. Refer to Section 121 for a method to calculate the actual natural frequency of the vessel. Force coefficient Cf for pressure vessel can be obtained using Figure 100-11. To use this figure, the value of qz or Kz will need to be calculated first. With D=6 ft, Kzt = 1.0, Kd = 1.0, V=85 mph and Exposure C, Kz of 1.27 is obtained from Figure 100-4.
D qz = D
0.00256 K z K zt K d V 2 I = 6 0.00256 (1.27) (1.0) (1.0) (85 2 ) (1.0) = 29.1
With Round ( D q z > 2.5 ) and Moderately Smooth surface, a force coefficient of 0.654 is obtained for (h/D) ratio of 16.7 (100/6). Figure 100-32 shows the calculations for wind base shear VW and wind overturning moment MW using ASCE 7 gust effect factor and force coefficient with effective diameter equal to actual plus 5 feet. Figure 100-33 shows the calculations using ChevronTexacos classic shape factors and actual outside diameter.
Fig. 100-32 Wind Loads for El Segundo Rigid Uniform Cylindrical Column Using ASCE 7-02 Gust Effect Factor and Force Coefficient
Velocity Pressure at Top Elevation (psf) 23.4 22.3 21.0 19.3 17.5 16.7 15.7
Section Top 6 5 4 3 2 Skirt Total
Top Elevation (ft) 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 25.0 20.0 15.0
MidSection Elevation (ft) 90.0 70.0 50.0 32.5 22.5 17.5 7.5
G x Cf 0.556 0.556 0.556 0.556 0.556 0.556 0.556
Design Wind Pressure (psf) 13.01 12.40 11.68 10.73 9.73 9.29 8.73
Projected Area 2 (ft ) 220 220 220 165 55 55 165
Fx (k) 2.86 2.73 2.57 1.77 0.54 0.51 1.44 Vw =
Vx (k) 2.86 5.59 8.16 9.93 10.47 10.98 12.42 12.42
M (k-ft) 257 191 129 58 12 9 11 Mw =
Mx (k-ft) 257 449 577 635 647 656 666 666
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Fig. 100-33 Wind Loads for El Segundo Rigid Uniform Cylindrical Column Using ASCE 7-02 Method and ChevronTexaco Classic Shape Factor
MidSection Elevation (ft) 90.0 70.0 50.0 32.5 22.5 17.5 7.5 Velocity Pressure at Top Elevation (psf) 23.4 22.3 21.0 19.3 17.5 16.7 15.7 Chevron Shape Factor 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 Design Wind Pressure (psf) 28.67 27.32 25.73 23.64 21.44 20.46 19.23
Section Top 6 5 4 3 2 Skirt Total
Top Elevation (ft) 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 25.0 20.0 15.0
Projected Area 2 (ft ) 127 127 127 95 32 32 95
Fx (k) 3.63 3.46 3.26 2.25 0.68 0.65 1.83 Vw =
Vx (k) 3.63 7.09 10.35 12.60 13.28 13.93 15.76 15.76
M (k-ft) 327 242 163 73 15 11 14 Mw =
Mx (k-ft) 327 569 732 805 820 832 845 845
Example 3Column of Variable Cross Section per 1997 UBC (Assume Salt Lake City, UT Location)
Fig. 100-34 Column of Variable Cross Section: Natural Period of Vibration
Period of VibrationUse Equation 100-23 (see Figure 100-27.) Z = 0.30 (Zone 3); Occupancy Factor = 1.0 t vessel 0.625 -------------- = ------------ = 2.5 and 2.5> 1.5, therefore, use R =2.2 (from Figure 100-18) t skirt 0.25
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Assume SD soil. Therefore, from Figures 100-14 and 100-15, Ca = 0.36, and Cv = 0.54 W = 58.5(1.8) + 23.5(1.2) + 12(0.9) + 8.0 = 152.3 kips Cv I ( 0.54 ) ( 1.0 ) - ( 152.3 ) = 33.83 kips - W = -----------------------------Base Shear, V = ------( 2.2 ) ( 1.105 ) RT Check Vmin = 0.56CaIW = 0.56(0.36)(1.0)(152.3) = 30.7 kips
(Eq. 100-2)
(Eq. 100-7)
Therefore, use V = 33.83 kips. Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V=33.83 kips) should be divided by 1.4. T > 0.7 sec; therefore Ft = 0.07TV = 0.07 (1.105) (33.83) = 2.62 kip (Eq. 100-9) V - Ft = 31.21 kips Wx hx 31.21 -W h - = --------------F x = ( V F t ) ----------- Wh 7672.7 x x
(Eq. 100-10)
Shear and Moments: Divide column into segments not exceeding 20% of height. Base overturning moment, Mo = 2239.3 k-ft. See Figure 100-35. Wind Forces (Wind Speed Zone = 70, Exposure B) Base overturning moment, Mo = 499 k-ft. See Figure 100-36. The shape factor and projected area are based on the outside diameter including the insulation. M (Figure 100-36) is calculated for each section by multiplying average shear in section by height of section. (Area under shear diagram.) Therefore, M is the incremental moment at each section, while Mx is the total moment at each section. Therefore, Earthquake Moment controls the design.
Example 3AVariable Cross Section Column at Salt Lake City, UT using ASCE 7-02 Wind Loads
Wind design force Fw is given by:
Fw = [ q z G C f ] A f = [ ( 0.00256 K z K zt K d V 2 I ) G C f ] A f
Per ASCE Wind Load Guideline (Reference 16), add 5 ft diameter to the actual diameter for the calculation of the effective wind area Af.
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Fig. 100-35 Column of Variable Cross Section: Earthquake Forces
62 62
11.7 11.7 11.7 11.7 11.7 5.875 5.875 5.875 5.875
21.06 21.06 21.06 21.06 21.06 7.05 7.05 7.05 7.05
88.15 76.45 64.75 53.05 41.35 32.56 26.69 20.81 14.94
1856.44 1610.04 1363.64 1117.23 870.83 229.57 188.15 146.73 105.31
7.55 10.17 6.55 16.72 5.55 22.27 4.54 26.81 3.54 0.93 0.77 0.60 0.49 0.43 0.26 30.35 31.29 32.05 32.65 33.14 33.57
6.40 13.45 19.49 24.54 28.58 30.82 31.67 32.35 32.89 33.35 33.70 33.83
74.83 157.32 228.08 287.11 334.42 181.07 186.06 190.07 0.0 195.94 404.38
74.83 232.15 460.22 747.34 1081.76 1262.83 1448.89 1638.96 1638.96 1834.90 2239.28
Fig. 100-36 Column of Variable Cross Section: Wind Forces Per 1997 UBC
60 73 106 179 192 34 226 22 37 39 41 365 26 108 499 391 248 285 324
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Obtain velocity pressure qz from Figure 100-8 with design wind speed of 90 mph and exposure category B. Top elevation is used for table lookup and to be conservative. Assume the vessel is rigid, hence gust effect factor G of 0.85 can be used. Force coefficient Cf for pressure vessel can be obtained using Figure 100-11. To use this figure, the value of qz or Kz will need to be calculated first. For multi-diameter vessels, one can make the argument to use the weighted average diameter. To be conservative, we will use the smallest diameter of 5.5 ft as D. With Kzt = 1.0, Kd = 1.0, V=90 mph and Exposure B, Kz of 0.97 is obtained from Figure 100-8.
D qz = D 0.00256 K z K zt K d V 2 I = 5.5 0.00256 (0.97) (1.0) (1.0) (90 2 ) (1.0) = 24.7
With " Round ( D q z > 2.5 )" for Moderately Smooth surface and (h/D) ratio equals to 94
5.5
) = 17.1 , a net force coefficient Cf of 0.656 is obtained.
Figure 100-37 shows the calculations for wind base shear VW and wind overturning moment MW:
Fig. 100-37 Wind Loads for Salt Lake Rigid Column with Variable Cross Section Using ASCE 7-02 Gust Effect Factor and Force Coefficient
MidSection Elevation (ft) 87.0 70.0 50.0 39.0 35.5 31.5 27.5 22.5 17.5 13.5 6.0 15.0 Velocity Pressure at Top Elevation (psf) 20.1 19.2 17.7 15.8 15.6 14.9 14.5 13.8 12.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 Design Wind Pressure (psf) 11.21 10.71 9.87 8.81 8.70 8.31 8.09 7.70 7.19 6.64 6.64 6.64
Section Top 9 8 7 Transition 5 4 3 2 1 Skirt Reboiler TOTAL
Top Elevation (ft) 94.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 38.0 33.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 12.0
G x Cf 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558 0.558
Projected Area 2 (ft ) 182.0 260.0 260.0 26.0 58.8 31.5 52.5 52.5 52.5 31.5 126.0 20.0
Fx (k) 2.04 2.78 2.57 0.23 0.51 0.26 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.21 0.84 0.13 Vw =
Vx (k) 2.04 4.82 7.39 7.62 8.13 8.39 8.81 9.21 9.59 9.80 10.64 10.77 10.77
M (k-ft) 177 195 129 9 18 8 12 9 7 3 5 2 Mw =
Mx (k-ft) 177 372 501 510 528 536 547 556 563 566 571 573 573
If the natural period of vibration is 1.105 seconds as calculated per Figure 100-34, the natural frequency would be 0.905 hz, i.e. flexible structure. The gust effect factor should be calculated per ASCE 7 Section 6.5.8.2 for flexible structures. Assuming a damping ratio of 1%, h=94 ft, B=L=5.5 ft, the flexible gust effect factor Gf can be shown to be 1.062. As a comparison, if the largest diameter (8.0 ft) is used, Gf equals to 1.036. If the weighted average diameter (7.056 ft) is used, Gf equals 1.045. For this example, we will use 1.062. The factor (Gf x Cf) = 1.062 x 0.656 = 0.697.
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Figure 100-38 shows the calculations for wind base shear VW and wind overturning moment MW if the vessel is a flexible structure with natural frequency 0.905 hz and 1% system damping.
Fig. 100-38 Wind Loads for Salt Lake Flexible Column with Variable Cross Section Using ASCE 7-02 Gust Effect Factor and Force Coefficient
MidSection Elevation (ft) 87.0 70.0 50.0 39.0 35.5 31.5 27.5 22.5 17.5 13.5 6.0 15.0 Velocity Pressure at Top Elevation (psf) 20.1 19.2 17.7 15.8 15.6 14.9 14.5 13.8 12.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 Design Wind Pressure (psf) 14.00 13.38 12.33 11.01 10.87 10.38 10.10 9.61 8.99 8.29 8.29 8.29
Top Elevation (ft) 94.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 38.0 33.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 12.0
G x Cf 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697 0.697
Fx (k) 2.55 3.48 3.21 0.29 0.64 0.33 0.53 0.50 0.47 0.26 1.04 0.17 Vw =
Vx (k) 2.55 6.03 9.24 9.53 10.17 10.50 11.03 11.53 12.00 12.26 13.30 13.47 13.47
M (k-ft) 222 244 161 11 23 10 15 11 8 4 6 3 Mw =
Mx (k-ft) 222 465 626 637 660 670 685 696 704 708 714 717 717
Figure 100-39 shows the calculations for wind base shear VW and wind overturning moment MW if the classic ChevronTexaco shape factors are used instead of ASCE 7 gust effect factor and force coefficient.
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Fig. 100-39 Wind Loads for Salt Lake Column with Variable Cross Section Using ASCE 7-02 Method and ChevronTexaco Classic Shape Factor
MidSection Elevation (ft) 87.0 70.0 50.0 39.0 35.5 31.5 27.5 22.5 17.5 13.5 6.0 15.0 Velocity Pressure at Top Elevation (psf) 20.1 19.2 17.7 15.8 15.6 14.9 14.5 13.8 12.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 Chevron Shape Factor 1.100 1.100 1.100 1.100 1.169 1.263 1.263 1.263 1.263 1.263 1.263 1.400 Design Wind Pressure (psf) 22.11 21.12 19.47 17.38 18.23 18.81 18.31 17.42 16.29 15.02 15.02 16.66
Top Elevation (ft) 94.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 38.0 33.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 12.0
Fx (k) 2.58 3.52 3.25 0.29 0.65 0.33 0.53 0.51 0.48 0.26 1.05 0.33 Vw =
Vx (k) 2.58 6.10 9.35 9.64 10.29 10.62 11.15 11.66 12.14 12.40 13.45 13.78 13.78
M (k-ft) 224 246 163 11 23 10 15 11 8 4 6 5 Mw =
Mx (k-ft) 224 471 633 645 668 678 693 704 713 716 722 727 727
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Example 4Braced-Column Spheres per 1997 UBC (Assume Richmond, California Location)
The recommended bracing system for spheres consists of x-bracing connecting adjacent pairs of columns as illustrated in Figure 100-40. In accordance with Details of Earthquake Resistant Design in Section 114, the bracing for large spheres subject to earthquake loads should be effective both in tension and compression to better resist the lateral forces. The lateral forces are transmitted into the shell by a balcony girder.
Fig. 100-40 Recommended Bracing System for Spheres
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The shear in each panel and the maximum panel shear may be found by the formulas: 2V - cos V p = -----n V V pmax = 2 -----n where: Vp = panel shear Vpmax = maximum panel shear V = total lateral force n = number of panels (equal to number of columns) = angle between the plane of the panel and the direction of the lateral force.
(Eq. 100-37)
(Eq. 100-38)
Wind Forces
Wind force calculations for the sphere can be found in Figure 100-41.
Fig. 100-41 Wind Forces for Braced-Column Spheres Per 1997 UBC Wind Forces (Wind Speed Zone = 70, Exposure C)
Description Projected Area ft2 Shape factor 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Wind Pressure psf 18 16 16 15 14 13 16 15 14 13 Force k 2.9 4.0 2.1 1.8 1.4 0.8 1.2 1.1 1.1 3.0 19.4
Sphere Above 40 Elev. Sphere Between 30 and 40 Elev. Sphere Between 25 and 30 Elev. Sphere Between 20 and 25 Elev. Sphere Between 15 and 20 Elev. Sphere Below 15 Elev. Columns & Bracing Above 25 Elev. Columns & Bracing Between 20 and 25 Elev. Columns & Bracing Between 15 and 20 Elev. Columns & Bracing Below 15 Elev.
246 382 198 184 154 92 (1/6)[4(1)(30)+6(.5)(36)]=3 8 (1/6)[228]=38 (1/6)[228]=38 (1/2)[228]=114
Total Wind Force, VW =

Note
In computing the slenderness ratio of bracing in an x-braced frame, effective length may be taken as one-half the total length about both axes of the member. Braces should be attached at their point of intersection.
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100-60
Earthquake Forces
Period of Vibration: The period of vibration is found using the general formula for one-mass structure in Section 121, Equation 100-17. The static deflection, y, is found by determining the change in length of the bracing resulting from a total lateral load equal to the weight of the sphere. Deformation of the columns and balcony girder are usually neglected for one-story structures. 1 2 1500 36.0 - -------------------- --------- = 450 kip P = Maximum force in brace = - 20.0 2 6 PL ( 450 ) ( 36.0 ) ( 12 ) = Change in length of brace = ------ = ---------------------------------------- = 0.838 in. EA ( 29 ,000 ) ( 8.0 ) 36.0 - = 1.51 in. y = ---------- = ( 0.838 ) -------- 20 sin y Period of Vibration, T = 2 - g
0.5
(Eq. 100-17)
1.51 0.5 T = 2 -------------------= 0.393 sec 32.2 ( 12 ) Z = 0.4, Zone 4; Occupancy Factor I = 1.0, R = 2.9 (Figure 100-18) From Figure 100-12, Na = 1.2 and Nv = 1.6. Assume SE Soil (site over Bay mud) Therefore, from Figures 100-14 and 100-15, Ca = 0.36Na = 0.36(1.2) = 0.43 Cv = 0.96Nv = 0.96(1.6) = 1.54 Cv I ( 1.54 ) ( 1.0 )- W = -----------------------------( 1500 ) = 2026.8 kips Base Shear, V = -------( 2.9 ) ( 0.393 ) RT Check Vmax: 2.5 C a I V max = ---------------- W R 2.5 ( 0.43 ) ( 1.0 ) = ----------------------------------- ( 1500 ) = 556.0 kips 2.9
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Comparing Vmax with the wind force of 19.4 kips as shown in Figure 100-41,
V max controls. Use V = 556.0 kips
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V = 556 kips) should be divided by 1.4. Therefore, earthquake forces control the design.
Example 5Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs per 1997 UBC (Assume Richmond, CA Location)
Vertical vessels are often supported with legs rather than skirts as represented in Figure 100-42. Where the legs are braced, earthquake and wind loads may be determined as in Example 4. Small vessels are frequently supported on legs without bracing. Usually the legs are considered fixed at the vessel shell and pinned at their bases. For these cases, the shell must be adequate to resist the bending moments applied by the legs, or must be adequately stiffened.
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100-62
Fig. 100-42 Vertical Vessel with Unbraced Legs
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Earthquake Forces Period of Vibration: Since the stiffness of the shell is usually large compared with that of the legs, the period of vibration can be found using the general formula for a one-mass structure in Section 121 (Equation 100-17) assuming the deflection, y, equals the deflection of the legs resulting from a total lateral force equal to the weight of the vessel. For a vessel supported on three or more legs symmetrically spaced about the center, y may be determined from the formula: 2 WL 3 y = -----------------------------3 NE ( I x + I y ) where: N = number of legs Ix + Iy = sum of moments of inertia of one leg about the perpendicular axis L = length of legs from base to shell attachment For example shown: ( 2 ) ( 15.0 ) ( 5 12 ) 3 y = -------------------------------------------------------------------- = 3.80 in ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 29000 ) ( 2.45 + 2.45 ) Period of Vibration: 3.80 0.5 y 0.5 = 2 -------------------= 0.623 sec T = 2 - 32.2 ( 12 ) g Zone 4; Z = 0.40, Occupancy Factor, I = 1.0; Assume SE soil From Figure 100-12, Na = 1.2; Nv = 1.6 R = 2.2 (Figure 100-18) From Figure 100-14, C a = 0.36 N a = 0.36 ( 1.2 ) = 0.43 From Figure 100-15, C v = 0.96 N v = 0.96 ( 1.6 ) = 1.54 C v IW ( 1.54 ) ( 1.0 ) ( 1.5 ) - = 16.85 kips (Eq. 100-2) - = --------------------------------------Base Shear, V = ------------( 2.2 ) ( 0.623 ) RT
(Eq. 100-39)
(Eq. 100-17)
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100-64
Check Vmax: 2.5 C a I V max = ---------------- W R 2.5 ( 0.43 ) ( 1.0 ) = ----------------------------------- ( 15 ) 2.2 = 7.33 kips Vmax controls. use V = 7.33 k Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V = 7.33 kips) should be divided by 1.4. T < 0.7, therefore Ft = 0.0 Considering the weight, W, uniformly distributed along the shell length, the force VFt given by Equation 100-10 resolves to a trapezoid, the extended non-parallel sides of which intersect at the base as shown in the sketch in Figure 100-42. Earthquake Base Overturning Moment: For the distribution noted above, the base overturning moment, Mo, can be determined by the formula: 2 H3 L3 - ( V F t ) -----------------M 0 = F t H + -3 H2 L2 for design example, 15 3 5 3 ) 2 - ( 7.33 ) ( ------------------------ = 79.4 k-ft. M 0 = -3 ( 15 2 5 2 )
Fig. 100-43 Base Shear for Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs Item
Shell Legs
(Eq. 100-3)
(Eq. 100-40)
Projected Area (ft2)

5' 10' = 50 5' 0.84' = 4.2
Shape Factor
1.7-(0.0755) = 1.33 2.0
Wind Pressure
8 8 Base Shear =
Force (lb)
532 67 599 lb
Wind Forces (Wind Speed Zone = 70, Exposure B) Using base shear calculations as shown in Figure 100-43, Wind Base Moment Mo = 0.53(10) + 0.067(2.5) = 5.47 k-ft. Therefore, Earthquake Moment controls the design. The axial loads may be determined using the vessel weight and governing base overturning moment. The bending moment in the legs at the shell about each prin-
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cipal axis (axes of maximum and minimum moment of inertia) may be determined using the governing base shear.
Example 6Stack Vibration and Ovalling

Check the susceptibility to large-amplitude oscillation and also determine the required circumferential stiffener size and spacing for the following stack: H = 180 ft D = 15.0 ft t = 0.50 in. Um = 15 fps at elev. + 30 ft 1 - 490 = 959 lb/ft. - ( ( 180 ) 2 ( 179 ) 2 ) -------w = -144 4 Use Figure 100-26, Uniform Vertical Cylindrical Steel Vessel, for determining period of vibration. 7.78 180 2 12 959 15 0.5 - -------- -------------------------------= 0.66 sec. T = -------- 0.50 10 6 15
(Eq. 100-22)
4.7 D ( 4.7 ) ( 15 ) - = 106.8 fps - = ---------------------U c = ----------T 0.66
(Eq. 100-24)
0.28 0.28 H 180 - - = ( 15 ) -------= 24.8 fps U t = U m -- Z 30
(Eq. 100-25)
U d = 3 U t = ( 3 ) ( 24.8 ) = 74.4 fps
(Eq. 100-26)
Since Uc > Ud for this location, the stack is not susceptible to wind-induced vibration. Check Ovalling: t- = 0.5 ------ = 0.00555 -90 R Ud 74.4 - = 0.0074 -------------- = -------------10200 10200
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100-66
Ud t- --------------< R 10200 Ring stiffeners are required. Try spacing equal to 2D. L = 360 in.
U 2 d ( 0.00334 ) ( L ) ( t ) ( R ) 4 74.4 2 ( 0.00334 ) ( 360 ) ( 0.50 ) ( 90 ) 4 --------------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 5.35 in. 4 I = ----------2.5 D E 37.5 29 10 6
(Eq. 100-33)
(Eq. 100-35)
Use flat bar 5 in. x 9/16 in., I = 5.8 in.4 Check thickness necessary to prevent shell vibration between stiffeners: tmin > 0.003R tmin = 0.50 in. 0.003 R = 0.27 0.50 > 0.27 OK, thickness is adequate
Example 7Stack Vibration

Check the susceptibility of the stack to large amplitude oscillation: H = 188 ft. D = 7 ft. R = 42 in. t = 0.50 in. w = 900 lb/ft Um = 15 ft/sec at elev. + 30 ft. Exposure B Wind speed zone: 80 mph Foundation soil strength: 3000 psf Refractory lining
2 0.5 2 12 900 7 0.5 wD 7.78 7.78 -H --- 12 -------------- - 188 -------- ----------------------------T = --------= --------= 2.18 sec D t 7 6 6 0.5 10 10
(Eq. 100-22)
4.7 D ( 4.7 ) ( 7 ) - = ------------------- = 15.1 ft/sec U c = ----------T 2.18
(Eq. 100-24)
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H 0.28 188 0.28 U t = U m --= ( 15 ) -------= 25.1 ft/sec Z 30 U d = 3 U t = 75.3 ft/sec Uc < Ud, therefore continue design check: Geometric properties of stack section: Moment of Inertia: I = R 3 t = ( 42 ) 3 ( 0.5 ) = 116 ,377 in 4 = 5.61 ft. 4
(Eq. 100-25)
(Eq. 100-26)
(Eq. 100-41)
I Section modulus: S = -- = 2771 in. 3 R
(Eq. 100-42)
Fig. 100-44 Stack Vibration Wind Pressure
For exposure B and wind speed zone = 80 mph, wind pressure can be found as shown in Figure 100-44. 10 psf at base 23 psf at top Shape factor = 0.8 wb = Load at base: 10 x 7 x 0.8 = 56 lb/lf = 0.056 k/lf wt = Load at top: 23 x 7 x 0.8 =129 lb/lf = 0.129 k/lf
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100-68
H 4 wt ( wt wb ) ( 188 ft ) 4 k/lf ( 0.129 k/lf ) ( 0.056 k/lf ) - ----- ----------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.129 Y W = ---------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------EI 8 30 (Eq. 100-43) 8 30 ( 4 ,176 ,000 k/ft 2 ) ( 5.61 ft 4 ) = 0.763 ft. = 9.2 in.
Moment about base,

wt wb wb 0.129 k/lf ) ( 0.056 k/lf ) k/lf M = H 2 ------------------ + ------ = ( 188 ft ) 2 ( -------------------------------------------------------------- + 0.056 ---------------------3 2 3 2 = 1 ,850 k-ft. = 22 ,200 k-in.
(Eq. 100-44)
,200 = 8.01 ksi ------------------- = 22 Fw = M 2 ,771 S

Fw 8.01 - = 1.04 ksi/inch deflection Stress/unit deflection, F m = 1.2 ------- = ( 1.2 ) -------- 9.2 Yw
(Eq. 100-45)
(Eq. 100-27)
Assume a full penetration weld, ground flush and checked in accordance with the requirement of Table 9.25.3 of AWS D1.1. Hence, allowable fatigue stress range: Fr = 16 ksi
Fr 16 - 1 -- --------= 7.69 in. = 0.64 ft. Allowable vibration amplitude, Y a = ---------- = 2 1.04 2Fm
(Eq. 100-28)
w 900 M r = --------- = ---------------------------- = 306 2 D ( 0.060 ) ( 7 ) 2
(Eq. 100-29)
0.5 0.45 0.45 7 1.0 0.5 = 0.005 D - 1.3 - ---------------------- 1.0 = --------C d = -------- Mr Ya 306 0.64
(Eq. 100-31)
Structural damping coefficient, Cs = 0.003 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 0.007 Cd < Cs, therefore wind-induced vibration amplitudes will not exceed allowable limits.
Example 8Effect of Various Wind Load Design Variables on Gust Effect Factor
Gust effect factor varies as a function of the rigidity of the structure, wind speed, exposure category and system damping ratio. Figure 100-45 shows the results of a pressure vessel with height equals to 100 ft and diameter equals 5 ft. Three wind speeds (80, 100, 130 mph) were chosen. Note that these are 3-second gust wind
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speeds. All three exposure categories (B, C and D) were illustrated. Three damping ratios (5%, 1% and 0.5%) were assumed. Baseline case is represented by V=100 mph, Exposure C with damping ratio of 1%. As expected, the gust effect factor increases with wind speed and decreasing damping ratio. The effect from exposure is not as great. Note that this is for one specific geometry only. However, the example illustrates the importance of identifying the structures rigidity (natural frequency). All possible conditions (e.g. empty vs full, corroded vs new) should be considered when determining the structures dynamic response.
Fig. 100-45 Gust Effect Factor Variation
ASCE 7-02 Gust Effect Factor Comparison

Example Structure H=100', D=5'
1.5 Gf varies w ith frequency and exposure category B, C, D Damp=0.5% 1.4 V=130 mph Gf increases w ith increasing w ind speed (80mph, 100 mph, 130 mph)
1.3
Gust Effect Factor, G or Gf
1.2
Exp "B"
Exp "D" Gf decreases w ith increasing damping (5%, 1%, 0.5%)
V=80 mph 1.1
Baseline : V=100 mph, Exp "C", Damp=1% 1.0 Damp=5% More Flexible More Rigid Exp "C" Exp "B" Rigid G increases w ith increasing exposure category 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0.9
Fundamental Natural Frequency, Hz
Example 9Comparison of Wind Loads with UBC 97 and ASCE 7 Various Editions
Example 9 is an attempt to compare wind loads derived using UBC 97, ASCE 7-93, 7-95, 7-98 and 7-02. Since wind load has a bigger effect on U.S. Gulf Coast regions where winds are controlling, Pascagoula MS and Port Arthur TX are used in this example. It should be noted that the loads are dependent on the geometry and
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100-70
dynamic property of the structure. Actual design wind load may be different than what is shown here, especially for flexible structures. Some factors may be subjective. For example, the verbiage on building/structure classification had become more restrictive so that the same importance factor may not be appropriate for different editions. However, for this exercise, we assume a constant importance factor of 1.0 for all codes and editions. UBC 97 1. 2. 3. 4. Design wind speed of 100 mph is used for both locations. Exposure category D is assumed. Wind pressure Pw = Ce Cq qs I Pressure coefficient Cq equals to 0.8 for round chimneys or tanks.
ASCE 7-93 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Design wind speed of 100 mph (fastest mile) is used for both locations. Exposure category D is assumed. Velocity Pressure qz = 0.00256 Kz (I V)2 Wind pressure Pw = qz Gh Cf Cf of 0.7 is assumed based on moderately smooth round structure with h/D = 25. Wind load is multiplied by 1.05 for hurricane oceanline locations per Table 5.
ASCE 7-95 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Design wind speed of 135 mph is used for Pascagoula and 125 mph for Port Arthur. Note that these are 3-second gust wind speeds. Exposure category D is assumed. Velocity Pressure qz= 0.00256 Kz Kzt V2 I. Note that importance factor I is not squared. Topographic factor Kzt of 1.0 is assumed. Wind pressure Pw = qz G Cf Cf of 0.7 is assumed based on moderately smooth round structure with h/D = 25. Gust effect factor G set to 0.85 assuming rigid structure (n1 1 hz). ASCE 7-95 calls for a rational analysis for flexible structures.
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ASCE 7-98 and 7-02 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. These two editions are almost identical on wind load, and are taken as being the same here. 3-second gust design wind speed of 150 mph is used for Pascagoula and 130 mph for Port Arthur. Exposure category C is assumed. Exposure C is used here because of the explicit reference to hurricane-prone regions. Velocity Pressure qz= 0.00256 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I. Note that importance factor I is not squared. Topographic factor Kzt of 1.0 is assumed. Wind directionality factor Kd of 1.0 is assumed. Wind pressure Pw = qz G Cf Cf of 0.7 is assumed based on moderately smooth round structure with h/D = 25.
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100-72
9.
Gust effect factor G set to 0.85 assuming rigid structure (n1 1 hz). ASCE 7-98 and 02 included a method for calculating Gf for flexible structures.
Fig. 100-46 Wind Pressure Comparison for Pascagoula, MS

UBC 97 ASCE 7-93
Height (ft) 0-15 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400
V (mph) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Ce 1.39 1.45 1.50 1.54 1.62 1.73 1.81 1.88 1.93 2.02 2.10 2.23 2.34
Cq 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
qs (psf) 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6
Pw (psf) 28.47 29.70 30.72 31.54 33.18 35.43 37.07 38.50 39.53 41.37 43.01 45.67 47.92
Kz 1.20 1.27 1.32 1.37 1.46 1.58 1.67 1.75 1.81 1.92 2.01 2.18 2.31
V (mph) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
qz (psf) 30.72 32.51 33.79 35.07 37.38 40.45 42.75 44.80 46.34 49.15 51.46 55.81 59.14
Gh 1.15 1.14 1.13 1.12 1.11 1.09 1.08 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.02 1.01
Cf 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70
Pw (psf) 25.97 27.24 28.07 28.87 30.49 32.40 33.94 35.23 36.10 37.93 39.33 41.84 43.90
ASCE 7-95 Height (ft) 0-15 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 1.03 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.22 1.31 1.38 1.43 1.48 1.55 1.61 1.73 1.82 Kz V (mph) 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 qz (psf) 48.06 50.39 52.25 54.12 56.92 61.12 64.39 66.72 69.05 72.32 75.12 80.71 84.91 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 G Cf Pw (psf) 28.59 29.98 31.09 32.20 33.87 36.37 38.31 39.70 41.09 43.03 44.69 48.03 50.52 0.85 0.90 0.94 0.98 1.04 1.13 1.21 1.26 1.31 1.39 1.46 1.59 1.69 Kz V (mph) 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150
ASCE 7-98/02 qz (psf) 48.96 51.84 54.14 56.45 59.90 65.09 69.70 72.58 75.46 80.06 84.10 91.58 97.34 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 G Cf Pw (psf) 29.13 30.84 32.22 33.59 35.64 38.73 41.47 43.18 44.90 47.64 50.04 54.49 57.92
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Fig. 100-47 Wind Pressure Comparison for Port Arthur, TX

UBC 97 Height (ft) 0-15 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 V (mph) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1.39 1.45 1.50 1.54 1.62 1.73 1.81 1.88 1.93 2.02 2.10 2.23 2.34 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 Ce Cq qs (psf) 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 Pw (psf) 28.47 29.70 30.72 31.54 33.18 35.43 37.07 38.50 39.53 41.37 43.01 45.67 47.92 1.20 1.27 1.32 1.37 1.46 1.58 1.67 1.75 1.81 1.92 2.01 2.18 2.31 Kz V (mph) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ASCE 7-93 qz (psf) 30.72 32.51 33.79 35.07 37.38 40.45 42.75 44.80 46.34 49.15 51.46 55.81 59.14 1.15 1.14 1.13 1.12 1.11 1.09 1.08 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.02 1.01 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 Gh Cf Pw (psf) 25.97 27.24 28.07 28.87 30.49 32.40 33.94 35.23 36.10 37.93 39.33 41.84 43.90
ASCE 7-95 Height (ft) 0-15 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 1.03 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.22 1.31 1.38 1.43 1.48 1.55 1.61 1.73 1.82 Kz V (mph) 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 qz (psf) 41.20 43.20 44.80 46.40 48.80 52.40 55.20 57.20 59.20 62.00 64.40 69.20 72.80 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 G Cf Pw (psf) 24.51 25.70 26.66 27.61 29.04 31.18 32.84 34.03 35.22 36.89 38.32 41.17 43.32 0.85 0.90 0.94 0.98 1.04 1.13 1.21 1.26 1.31 1.39 1.46 1.59 1.69 Kz V (mph) 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130
ASCE 7-98/02 qz (psf) 36.77 38.94 40.67 42.40 44.99 48.89 52.35 54.51 56.68 60.14 63.17 68.79 73.12 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 G Cf Pw (psf) 21.88 23.17 24.20 25.23 26.77 29.09 31.15 32.44 33.72 35.78 37.58 40.93 43.50
130 References
1. 2. 3. American Society of Civil Engineers 7-93 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 1994. International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building Code. Copyright 1997, Whittier, California. American Petroleum Institute, API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP 2A. Production Department, Dallas, Texas. Seismology Committee, Structural Engineers Association of California, Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary. 1999 Edition, San Francisco, California.
4.
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100-74
5. 6.
American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of Steel Construction, Chicago, Illinois. Administering Agency (AA) Subcommittee; Region I Local Emergency Planning Committee (LEPC), Proposed Guidance for California Accidental Release Prevention (CalARP) Program Seismic Assessments, August 1998. American Welding Society, Structural Welding Code, ANSI/AWS D1.1-8.3., Miami, FL. Wiegel, R.L., Ed. Earthquake Engineering. Copyright 1970, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engleweel Cliffs, NJ, 518 pp. Newmark, N.M., and E. Rosenbluth. Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering. Copyright 1971, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 640 pp.
7. 8. 9.
10. Blume, J.A., N.M. Newmark, and L.H. Corning, Design of Multistory Reinforced Concrete Buildings for Earthquake Motions. Copyright 1961, Portland Cement Association (Chapter 5). 11. Tighe, J.T. Dynamic Analysis Methods for Structures in Earthquakes and Waves. Engineering Department Report, February 1972. 12. Lockheed Aircraft Corp. and Holmes and Narver, Inc. Nuclear Reactors and Earthquakes. TID-7024, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, August 1963, 415 pp.; see esp. Chapters 1 and 6 and Appendix F. 13. Titlow, Joseph D. Steel Stacks: Structural Behavior in Steady Winds and Fire Protection. Engineering Department Report, December 1968. 14. Kircher, C.A., R. M. Czarnecki, R.E. School, H.C. Shah, and J. M. Gere. Seismic Analysis of Oil Refinery Structures, Parts I and II. The John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center, Stanford University, Technical Report No. 31, September 1978. 15. American Society of Civil Engineers. Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and Design of Petrochemical Facilities, 1997. 16. American Society of Civil Engineers. Wind Loads and Anchor Bolt Design for Petrochemical Facilities, 1997.
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0-15 ft. 20 25 30 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400 Note

Wind Design per ASCE 7-2002 Edition

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards

Civil and Structural Manual

where: V = basic 3-second gust design wind speed

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

Civil and Structural Manual

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards

Kzt = topographic factor

Kd = wind directional factor

where: Fw = wind force in pound force

G = gust effect factor, function of rigidity or fundamental frequency of structure,

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards

Civil and Structural Manual

150 90 85 90 120 120 130 90 85 90 90

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

Civil and Structural Manual

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards

Civil and Structural Manual

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

Civil and Structural Manual

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards

Note:Above table is based on qz = 0.00256 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I

with Kz, Kzt, Kd, I = 1.0

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards

Civil and Structural Manual

ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.

Civil and Structural Manual

100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards