400 Small Buildings

Abstract
Section 400 gives civil engineers, and other engineers working outside their discipline, design and construction guidelines for typical, pre-engineered, steel, masonry, and blast-resistant buildings. It includes both Company-designed buildings and contractor-designed structures. The primary emphasis is on the civil and structural aspects of buildings. Building material (other than structural), architectural treatments, and electrical, lighting, and mechanical systems are not covered. Applicable codes and industry standards are referenced, as well as standard drawings of blastresistant building details.

Contents
410 411 412 413 420 421 422 423 424 425 430 440 450 451 452 460 Background and Basic Data Industry Codes, Practices, and Guidelines Design Considerations Layout and Design Considerations Building Shells Metal Building Systems Bearing Wall Construction Systems Curtain Wall Construction Systems Concrete Block Construction Roof Designs Blast-Resistant Design Safety Storage Buildings Model Specifications and Standard Drawings Model Specification Standard Drawing References

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410 Background and Basic Data

Industrial Buildings
For purposes of this section, industrial buildings include, but are not limited to, the following: Locker Rooms Shops Storehouses Guard Houses Equipment Shelters Electrical/Electronic Equipment Enclosures Small Operations Offices

Administration, control houses, and laboratory buildings are normally architecturally designed and are not addressed in detail in this section. Blast-resistant design, such as that used for control houses, is discussed in Section 430.

411 Industry Codes, Practices, and Guidelines

Listed below are the primary codes and industry standards that govern the design and construction of small industrial buildings. Most communities have minimum building requirements, usually adapted from codes established by regional organizations. It is important to review local code requirements to ensure that designs are in conformance. The latest edition of the applicable codes should generally be followed. However, designers should be aware that local communities commonly adopt regional codes by dated edition. Changes that appear in subsequent code editions may or may not be recognized.

Industry Codes
Building Codes UBC Uniform Building Code BBC Basic Building Code SBC Southern Building Code National Building Code of Canada Primary Areas Midwest, West, West Coast North, Northeast, Midwest South, Southeast Canada

Other Codes and Standards

Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) National Electric Code (ANSI/NFPA 70) Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-93) Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC) National Fire Code (NFPA)

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American Institute of Steel Construction Specification for the Design, Fabrication, and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings (AISC) American Concrete Institute Building Code, Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Handbook Series (ASHRAE) Metal Building Manufacturers Association (MBMA)

Building Permits
It is common practice for city or other local governmental units to require a building permit prior to start of construction. It is good practice to determine early in a building project the following information: Building permits required Documentation required with a request for permit Applicable code requirements and special local requirements, if any Applicable code classification for building by use or occupancy. Request confirmation by local jurisdiction Timing considerations When submitted How long for review and approval process

Local inspection required and at what construction hold points

412 Design Considerations

Design Methods
There are two basic methods by which the Company proceeds with building designs: Company completes in-house design Company prepares preliminary design with final designs completed by an outside consultant or with design/construct contract

The size and complexity of the building usually determines which method is chosen. Company designs are generally limited to structures that are constructed of basic building materials and usually do not require mechanical systems such as HVAC or special interior or exterior architectural treatment. Examples of possible Companydesigned buildings include: Pre-engineered building structures used for storage, small shops, small labs, equipment shelters, or temporary construction offices or facilities

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Small masonry structures with limited functions, such as remote area operators office, toilet facilities, or equipment shelters

Most other building designs would generally be contracted for design outside the Company. To increase the designers efficiency, it is recommended that in-house preliminary layouts be developed first. This is not intended to restrict the architect to a particular arrangement, since creative thinking by the architect should be encouraged to achieve a design that is functional, visually pleasing, and economical. The purpose of the preliminary layout is to: Define the scope for the job and required facilities Give the architect an understanding of how the building is to function Show how the occupants of the building need to interact

Site Considerations
Regardless of the method chosen to execute the building design, the following basic information on the proposed site must be developed in the preliminary planning phase: Size and configuration of site Site topography Access by vehicles and pedestrians Proximity to other buildings/facilities Building orientation considerations Special site restrictions, minimum clearances Access to utility services Soils, groundwater, drainage, possible subsurface contamination information Other space requirements (parking, outside storage) Requirements for matching architectural style and treatment of existing nearby buildings.

413 Layout and Design Considerations

Figure 400-1 provides guidelines for the layout and design of some typical industrial buildings. Facilities listed include: Small offices Lockers/toilets Storehouses Shops Electrical equipment Control houses

Sometimes these structures are designed as separate buildings; frequently, however, they are combined with other facilities within a single building. The following size, layout, and design considerations will be applicable for both cases.

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Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (1 of 6) Building Function: Small Offices Design Considerations
Combine various functions where possible. For example, training/conference room. Or, by using accordion-type wall divider, a training room and lunchroom could be combined. Fully understand the intended building functions. Importance of building appearance Advantages/disadvantages of multi-storied construction Importance for occupants being able to observe specific areas or activities Consider difficulty of maintaining building condition because of heavy traffic or work-related environment Provide adequate HVAC and insulation. Select building structural framing system and dimensions to suit proposed layout. Interior partitions can usually be arranged to accommodate columns without obstructing access. Building evacuation requirements.

Size Considerations
Possible facilities: Office(s) Training/conference room Toilets/locker room Safety locker Kitchen/lunchroom Switchgear room Mechanical room (HVAC) Handicap access and facilities Medical treatment Waiting area for visitors Building support services Janitor Copy Storage Computer room File room

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Fig. 400-1

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (2 of 6) Building Function: Change Houses (Lockers, Showers, Etc.) Design Considerations
Dual facilities for men and women employees. Size of lockers based on type of clothing stored. Overalls and special clothing requires full length locker. For other clothing half-size lockers may be appropriate to reduce space requirements. Provide means for positive ventilation through the individual lockers. Provide adequate water heating capacity with quick recovery. Access for personnel in and out and security considerations will influence layout. Employee parking facilities will influence building location. Consolidate arrangement of toilet/shower facilities to reduce cost of water supply and waste water plumbing systems. Pay careful attention to the materials specified for ceilings, walls, and floor. They should be selected for ease of cleanup, maintenance, and durability. Provide adequate HVAC for environmental conditions.

Size Considerations
Size determined by number of employees using the facilities: Locker number based on total employee requirements Toilets, showers, etc., based on maximum at shift changes Number of facilities provided generally based on code requirements (Reference 1) specifies minimum fixture requirements

May require substantial mechanical room for housing air handling and water heating equipment Allow for future growth. Extra space Provision for building expansion Special change rooms sometimes required to separate work clothes from street clothes.

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Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (3 of 6) Building Function: Storehouse Design Considerations
Location considerations: Convenient for outside truck deliveries without entering plant areas. Convenient for in-plant material pickup. Rail siding and unloading if service is available. Material receiving and distribution: Truck/rail loading docks Building security Floor slab designed for heavy industrial loading. Fork lift truck use High unit loading from material storage Adequate outside space available for outside storage and reclamation. Heating, ventilation, and A/C as required for offices and special materials storage. Doors with adequate width and height for material handling. If exterior walls are metal, consider ways to protect from physical damage. For example use masonry or concrete for lower 5 feet to 6 feet. Select building structural framing system and dimensions consistent with proposed layout. For example, match column layout with forklift traffic patterns. Fire protection requirements for chemical and other combustible material storage areas.

Size Considerations
Possible facilities: Toilet/locker room(s) Offices Conference room Space for files Kitchen/lunchroom Special Storage Waiting area for outside visitors Truck unloading/receiving area. Issue area for storehouse materials Special storage areas with controlled environment

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Fig. 400-1

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (4 of 6) Building Function: Shops Design Considerations
Material/equipment handling. Overhead bridge crane(s) Jib cranes Understand progression of equipment through shops to minimize handling time. Floor slab designed for heavy industrial loadings. Adequate ventilation. Heat and A/C as required for offices. Environmental control for electronic/instrument shops. Doors adequate in width and height for material and equipment handling. Provision for protection of building exterior wall panels from physical damage. Adequate outside space for work areas or equipment/materials storage. Location of building columns must suit proposed layout of facilities. Provide adequate lighting. Note fluorescent lighting can be a problem around rotating equipment.

Size Considerations
Possible facilities included: Specific shop facilities required Lockers/showers/toilets Offices Tool room(s) Shops storehouse Lunchroom/kitchen

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Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (5 of 6) Building Function: Electrical or Electronic Equipment Enclosures Design Considerations
Located as required for area served. Buildings are normally unoccupied. Ventilation and humidity control may be critical considerations. May require pressurization to meet desired electrical area classification. Air intakes must be located to provide clean air source. Careful planning is required for conduit entries. Provision for moving equipment in and out. Provide ample allowance to meet code safety clearances and working clearances in preliminary layouts. Actual size of equipment furnished may be larger than planned. Consider having MCC supplier furnish the building; for example, a complete prefabricated unit including installed MCC units.

Size Considerations
Equipment sizes Code clearances Allowances for future equipment Allowances for maintenance work on equipment.

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Fig. 400-1

Building Function, Size and Design Considerations (6 of 6) Building Function: Control House Design Considerations
Underfloor space (basement) often serves as air return and passage for routing of electrical/instrumentation cables. Use vapor barriers, seals, and allow absolute minimum openings to assure dryness. Conduit bank entrance is major source of water entry. A block and bleed double entrance may be required. Underfloor drain lines must be adequately supported. Welded steel pipe rather than cast iron may be best material. Laboratory facilities, a common internal fire hazard, should be isolated from the rest of the building with a floor to ceiling solid wall and separate exterior entrance. Construction materials should be reviewed with Health, Environment & Loss Prevention. Non-essential personnel should not be located in the control house. Electrical/instrumentation racks and panels should be securely anchored to prevent overturning during an earthquake or blast. If structure is designed for blast resistance, consider independent blast-resistant walls outside exterior doors to attenuate blast pressures acting on doors. Positive internal pressure maintained to keep hazardous vapors out. For computers (see also ICM-MS-3651, Control House Environment for Digital Instrumentation and Process Computers): Adequate HVAC Air filter system Humidity control Uninterruptible power system Raised (access) floor or trenches Fire extinguishing method

Size Considerations
Possible facilities: Control room Computer room Kitchen area/lunch room Toilets Lockers Offices Access area to instruments

Provide adequate allowances for structural member sizes, and for number (spacing) of columns. Changes after other designs have started become difficult to make. Air handling ducts tend to become very large. Consider these early as they may influence building dimensions. Get a clear agreement about provision for future expansion of the building. Can influence structural framing and components.

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Preliminary Building Layout Studies

The following guidelines are suggested for proceeding with preliminary building layouts. Define offices and facilities to be provided. This requires input from the user organization. Define preliminary space requirements for the proposed facilities. Review of similar building facilities provides helpful guidelines. Include in the space studies adequate area for building support services: Entrances Mechanical equipment Stairs (if required) Toilet (locker) facilities Copy room Storage Janitorial facilities

Determine user preferences for interrelationship between various offices and facilities, i.e., offices that should be grouped together or facilities that may (or should) be segregated. Study the advantages/disadvantages and acceptability of the following basic building concepts: Single level Two level For structures with high vertical clearances (shops or storehouse), the use of partial mezzanine area

If offices are required for the building, be aware there are Corporate guidelines for space allocation based on job placement: 115-150 180-225 90

Approximate Range (in usable square feet) Private Office 2-Person Clerical Offices

(includes space for aisles, normal files, and equipment) Information on current office space standards may be obtained from either the Companys manual, entitled Office Standards, or from Chevron Real Estate Management Company (CREMCO) in San Francisco. In starting preliminary building layouts, it is important to have a general concept in mind for possible framing systems. This is particularly true if interior columns may be required.

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For preliminary layout, studies begin with single line arrangement sketches. Consider a number of alternative arrangements, for this will help in the layout review process.

Review of Preliminary Layouts

There are two fundamentals to be kept in mind when planning building layouts: 1. It is human nature for every individual reviewing building layouts to offer suggestions. Relative to other Company endeavors, there is more input contributed from all levels to the planning of building layouts. Sorting through this information is important, as excellent suggestions and ideas come out of the review process. The level of user acceptance and satisfaction relates directly to consideration of their input. Individuals reviewing preliminary layouts frequently are unable to articulate what they really want or like. They are, however, able to recognize, even in very rough preliminary layouts, the things they dont like or arrangements that dont appear to work. It is sometimes helpful, therefore, to have a number of alternatives prepared when starting the review process.

2.

420 Building Shells

Building shells by definition include framing systems, exterior walls, and roof systems for buildings. All interior work, room dividers, and mechanical and electrical systems are not included. In this section the following examples of building shells are discussed: Metal building systems Bearing wall construction Curtain wall construction with independent framing system Concrete block construction

421 Metal Building Systems

Metal building systems, also called pre-engineered or prefabricated, have wide application for use as industrial buildings. They are available as a complete enclosure with a structural steel frame, with prefinished metal roof and wall panels, and are generally site-assembled. See Specification CIV-MS-4796, Pre-Engineered Metal Buildings, included in the specification section of this manual.

Building Framing
Manufacturers of the pre-engineered building systems generally offer four basic types of framing systems or some combination of these types. See Figure 400-2 through 400-5 for illustration of these framing systems: Rigid framefor column-free interior space Single slope for economic designs

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Fig. 400-2

Beam and columnfor wider span structures Trussfor heavy suspended loads and high building heights

Rigid Frame Metal Building

Fig. 400-3

Single Slope Metal Building

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Fig. 400-4

Beam and Column Metal Building

Fig. 400-5

Truss Metal Building

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Pre-engineered metal building systems generally use the manufacturers standard wall and roofing system to achieve cost-effectiveness and the best performance. The walls and roofs are generally assembled with large prefinished panels with or without insulation. The panels are usually ribbed or corrugated for strength and to provide interlocking of panel sections. For advantages/disadvantages and typical applications for metal building systems refer to Figure 400-6, Building Construction Comparison.

Division of Responsibility
In addition to furnishing the building components, the manufacturers of pre-engineered building systems normally furnish the following as part of the purchase order: Building drawings (building shell only) Anchor bolt pattern and schedule Foundation loadings Required special foundation details to suit building Erection drawings, details, and specifications

The purchaser of pre-engineered building systems normally provides: Detailed foundation and floor slab design drawings All interior design and construction (walls, partitions, ceilings, etc.) All mechanical, electrical, and lighting systems Special architectural treatment materials, such as masonry exterior walls All field installation labor and equipment

To take advantage of prefabricated building construction, the purchaser should allow flexibility in building dimensions of plus or minus several feet so that the manufacturers can use their standard designs.

422 Bearing Wall Construction Systems

In bearing wall construction systems, the roof assembly acts as a unit to transfer all gravity and lateral loads to the bearing walls. Walls transfer all vertical and lateral loads to the foundation with primary stresses being compression and shear.

Basic Types
Framed. Usually site assembled. Wood or metal studs with structural sheathing or diagonal bracing. Interior and exterior finishing compatible with stud construction. Masonry. Site assembled with stacked masonry units (concrete block or brick); vertical and horizontal reinforcing as required. See Section 424. Cast-Concrete. Includes cast-in-place, tilt-up, and precast construction Refer to Reference 3 for the following information on bearing walls:

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Building Construction Comparison Advantages

Design costs can be reduced because the structure is made up of pre-engineered standard building components, frames, purlins, wall girts, bracing, siding, and roofing.

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Building Construction
Metal Building Systems (pre-engineered/prefabricated)

Disadvantages

Applications
Storehouse facilities Shop facilities Temporary construction facilities Unoccupied equipment shelters Change houses

The appearance is generally not as attractive as architect-designed buildings where a wide choice of materials is available and a more pleasing architectural rendering can be developed. this disadvantage can be partially offset by Time to complete an installation is supplementary use of other more decoreduced because of short design period, rative materials to provide some fast material delivery to the site, and architectural rendering. quick erection time using all prefabricated components. Pre-engineered wall panels used in shops or storehouse activities are Available In many structural frame subject to damage from equipment or configurations and a large range of material movement. this kind of damage dimensions, and available for different can be difficult to repair or replace. the design loadings. use of masonry for wall sections subject to damage will reduce this problem. Buildings come complete with gutters, exterior trim, standard doors and Building layouts and configuration are windows, wall and roof ventilation, and limited to the standard sizes available insulation as specified by purchaser. from manufacturers. Provides a more permanent and attrac- Bearing wall construction generally tive appearance than metal building limited to single story buildings with structures. smaller dimensions Provides greater flexibility In layout options. Curtain wall construction can be used for multi-story structures. Requires more design time to select and detail all structural components and other architectural detail. Cost is higher than prefabricated metal building systems.

Bearing Wall And Curtain Wall Construction

Occupied buildings: Offices Control houses Laboratories Fire protection buildings Security buildings Change houses

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Distribution of loads Types and properties Compatible floor and roof framing systems Load-bearing capacity

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Exterior and interior facings Selection considerations Wall insulation Wall details

Roof deck systems for buildings with bearing wall construction are commonly constructed with bar joists, precast tees, hollow core planks, or metal deck pans with lightweight concrete, gypsum, or rigid insulation. Hot-applied built-up roofing is commonly used to provide a watertight barrier. Refer to References 3 and 9 for information on alternative systems and materials, insulation, membranes, and construction details.

423 Curtain Wall Construction Systems

Curtain walls are perimeter wall panels which carry their own weight and transfer lateral loads to a structural frame. Gravity and live loads on the structure are carried to the foundation by an independent structural framing system of steel or concrete. Examples of curtain wall systems include: Sandwich-type insulated panels of steel or aluminum Precast concrete Single thickness panel (formed metal panels with corrugations or ribs)

Roof decks for curtain wall construction use systems similar to those described for bearing wall construction. For additional information on curtain wall construction refer to References 3 and 9.

424 Concrete Block Construction

This section discusses the design and recommended details for reinforced and unreinforced hollow unit masonry bearing walls. Model Specification No. CIV-MS-943 covers concrete block construction.

Design
Designs are usually made in conformance with: ACI 531Building Code Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures UBCChapter 24 Other jurisdictional codes

Design Strength of Masonry

The compressive strength for concrete masonry includes both the mortar and the masonry unit itself. If a significant amount of block masonry construction is involved, it might be desirable to establish allowable stresses based on standard compression tests using the same masonry and mortar materials to be used in the structure. For most work, however, designs are based on assumed ultimate compres-

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sive strength given by code. This results in allowable stresses that are intentionally conservative. The codes recognize that the quality of workmanship is critical to the integrity of the masonry structure. For example, ACI 531 states that without engineering or architectural inspection to ensure quality control of materials, construction, and workmanship, allowable compressive stresses are reduced by one-third and shear and tension by one-half. For loadings due to wind or earthquake, a one-third increase in allowable stresses is permitted.

Hollow Block Masonry

Masonry units are usually furnished to ASTM C90. There are two grade designations used by C90 (and also in UBC Standards). Grade N Grade S For general use in exterior walls above and below grade Limited to use for interior walls or above grade in exterior walls with weather-protective coating

For general use on Company construction, load bearing hollow block concrete units are specified as Grade N-I (general-use blocks with moisture control) with a specified minimum compressive strength on the average net area of 2100 psi. Moisture control of the masonry unit is important for attaining the desired strength of masonry construction. If the masonry unit is too moist, it will not draw out sufficient moisture from the mortar to achieve a good bond between mortar and unit If the masonry unit is too dry, it will draw out moisture too rapidly from the mortar which will reduce the strength and bond of the mortar

ASTM C90 establishes moisture-content requirements for masonry units. Maximum moisture-content is specified for three different job site humidity conditions: humid, intermediate, or arid. Masonry with or without moisture control is designated as Type I or II respectively.

Reinforcement
Figure 400-7 illustrates typical wall reinforcement for load bearing reinforced concrete masonry. In Seismic Zones, all walls shall be reinforced with both vertical and horizontal reinforcement. The sum of the areas of horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be at least 0.002 times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall, and the minimum area of reinforcement in either direction shall not be less than 0.0007 times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall. The spacing of reinforcement shall not exceed 4 feet. Horizontal wall reinforcement must be provided at top of foundations, top and bottom of wall openings, and at roof levels.

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Masonry Wall Construction

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Vertical reinforcement should be provided on each side of openings, at intersections, ends, and corners.

Example for Determining Reinforcement Spacing

8 in. thick wall 8 ft high (8 in.) (8 ft) (12 in.) = 768 in2 AT = 0.002 (768) = 1.536 in2 0.0007 (768) = 0.538 in2 Use three No. 4 bars horizontally AH = 0.60 in2 > 0.538 in2 OK

AT - AH = 1.536 - 0.6 = 0.936 in2 AV 0.936 in2. Use five No. 4 bars. AV = 1.00 in2 >0.936 in2 OK Spacing (8 ft.) (12 in.) 5 = 19.2 in. Say 16 in. to match cells. See References 1, 8 and 9 for more information in the design of reinforced masonry.

Control Joints
Control joints are continuous vertical joints built into masonry walls to aid in controlling wall movements. Control joints in walls should be located over any control joints in the foundation. The maximum spacing for control joints is discussed in ACI 531.

425 Roof Designs

The advantages for flat roof systems and sloped (pitched) roof systems are: Flat Sloped Is not subject to wind forces (or in the Roof drainage is better and more easily case of blast-resistant design, to reflected directed. Can be used for longer spans overpressure forces). without interior columns. Is architecturally more pleasing than a highly pitched sloping roof. Snow and ice may be less of a problem. Generally can be a more economical structural design.

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430 Blast-Resistant Design

Control houses or other buildings housing personnel and control equipment near processing plants are sometimes designed with a level of blast resistance. The intent is to protect personnel and critical control systems for facilities to permit an orderly shutdown and prompt recovery after an accident. The decision to design for blast resistance is made by the project design team after consultation with the CRTC Process Risk Team. Generally, blast-resistant design should be considered when the building or control house: 1. 2. 3. 4. serves two or more refinery process plants serves one major plant that processes large volumes of volatile and flammable liquids and gasses must be located closer to the plant than the recommended minimum spacing is adjacent to LPG or Pentane above flash temperature and greater than 200 psig

Blast-resistant design may not be necessary if the building is far enough from the potential source of a blast, even if it meets conditions 1 or 2 above. Consult the Fire Prevention Manual or the Process Risk Team for guidelines on control house locations.

Design Blast Loads

In the rare event of a Vapor Cloud Explosion, (VCE), and fire in a process plant, a control house can be damaged, not only by fire itself, but by: overpressure resulting from the ignition and explosion of flammable material that has escaped into the atmosphere, or overpressure or missiles from runaway reactions.

When a VCE occurs, there is a violent release of energy that causes a sudden pressure increase in the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure disturbance, termed a blast or shock wave is characterized by an almost instantaneous rise from normal pressure to an overpressure condition. This high pressure shock front, with a very short duration (expressed in milliseconds), expands outward from the center of the blast. The shock wave intensity decays with distance and as a function of time. The measured pressure at a given point exhibits an instantaneous increase in overpressure from atmospheric to a peak overpressure value as the shock wave reaches that point. The overpressure then decays rapidly, followed by a period of negative pressure. If the shock wave impinges on a rigid surface, such as wall, the propagation of the wave is obstructed. This results in a rapid increase in pressure against the wall by an amount far greater than the overpressure, this is termed Reflected Overpressure. There are several ways to estimate the peak reflected overpressure. For the range of peak overpressure used for blast resistant building design, reflected pressure will be higher by factor of from 2 to 2.5.

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The shock wave will also generate drag pressure onto the building. Drag pressure is due to air movement associated with the shock front moves at high velocity. For convenience, and without much risk of error, this velocity is generally assumed to be the same as the shock-front velocity. This wind produces drag forces on any obstacle in its path which are combined algebraically with peak overpressure forces. Figure 400-8 illustrates the sequence of events as the shock wave passes over a rectangular enclosed structure. The magnitude of the blast overpressure at a building is a function of the following: Size of the flammable vapor cloud. Material of the cloud. Higher reactive materials include: hydrogen, acetylene, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide. Lower reactive materials include: methane and carbon monoxide. Level of equipment and piping congestion in the vapor cloud. Area of confinement for the vapor cloud. Distance of the building from the Vapor Cloud Explosion.

Use Figure 400-9 as a guideline to determine the design overpressure load if you are considering a blast-resistant building. Figure 400-9 shows the effects of overpressure and duration on a building as a function of distance from source unit and size of the unit. The analysis assumes a typical facility and the blast may be conservative in many cases. However, a site specific hazard assessment can be done by the CRTC Process Risk Team to provide a more accurate determination of the blast loading.

Structural Systems
Blast-resistant buildings should normally be clad with reinforced concrete or other ductile material. Roofs should be of reinforced or prestressed concrete or of composite construction utilizing steel decking and concrete. Framing systems which may be required to support walls or roofs may be of reinforced concrete or structural steel. Where reinforced masonry or prestressed concrete is used, the energy absorption capacity of each structural element up to the point of collapse should exceed twice that required to resist the design blast loading. In view of the very large design loads for blast conditions, interior columns are normally provided when roof spans exceed 30 feet. Equipment and interior partitions can usually be arranged to accommodate these columns without obstructing access within the building.

Structural Design
The intent of the structural design is to accept moderate structural damage to the building while still maintaining protection for personnel and control equipment. Some distortion of the building structural elements and external doors may occur at blast loadings even less than the specified design load. No special provisions need

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Fig. 400-8

Reaction of Rectangular Structure to Explosion Shockwave

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Fig. 400-9

Design Blast Loads for a Building (Side-On Overpressure)

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be made to protect items such as exterior lights, gutters and roof drains, antennas and landscaping. The number of these items should be minimized as they may become dangerous projectiles in the event of a blast. For design purposes, it is assumed the explosion occurs as a surface burst and no reflected loads are imposed on the roof. It is assumed the explosion can be omnidirectional with respect to building orientation. This means that all faces of the structure should be designed for the full reflected overpressure. The assumed explosion locations are taken perpendicular to the center of the building walls. In addition to being subjected to an overpressure condition from a blast, there may be impacts against the building from high velocity debris. The subject of missile impact is not addressed here because typical control house building materials (such as reinforced concrete) offer excellent properties for resisting missile penetration.

Static Load Equivalent of Blast Pressures

Required dynamic resistance in the direction of blast loads shall be calculated in accordance with the procedure outlined in ASCE Manual 42 [11], which takes into account dynamic response of the various structure elements. The equation for this calculation relates the peak blast load (either incident or reflected) to the actual required dynamic resistance, which is actually an equivalent static load. The equation takes into account each elements ductility and fundamental period of vibration in the direction of load. The ratio of blast load duration to period of vibration is also used in the relationship. The required resistance may be as much as twice the peak blast force for a particularly brittle structure subjected to a long duration loading, or just a fraction of the peak force for a ductile structure subjected to a short duration loading. This pseudo-dynamic procedure provides a uniform margin of reserve strength throughout the structure and therefore gives a more uniform factor of safety against collapse for all elements in the structure, a provision not satisfied by using a uniform static load over all the structural elements. The intent is to design a ductile building, with each element capable of carrying the design loading in relation to that elements stiffness. The dynamic material strength capacity of any structural element should be determined according to the plastic design method for structural steel and the ultimate strength method for reinforced concrete as provided by AISC Specification and ACI Standard, respectively. Alternately, a dynamic analysis procedures for the petrochemical facilities is described in ASCE Task Committee Report, Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities. The overall objective of a dynamic blast analysis is to assess the capability of a structure to resist a specified blast load. A resistance function, or applied force versus displacement relationship, is developed based on assumed failure mechanisms, the member configuration and estimated section capacities. The analysis will provide maximum relative deflections of each structural elements, and relative rotation angles at plastic hinge locations. The design can

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proceed to determine the adequacy of the member through the application of the acceptance criteria. Consult references [11], [13], and [14] for the detailed design procedure. The CRTC Civil and Structural Team can provide guidance on blast resistance design and analysis of the structural system.

Load Combinations
The required dynamic resistance to blast loads should be combined with other loads as follows: U = D+L+R where: U = total required structural resistance D = dead loads, or their related internal moments and forces L = applicable live loads, or their related internal moments and forces R = required dynamic resistance to blast loads (or rebound) Required rebound resistance, such as for roofs, should normally be considered in combination with dead loads only. Resistance to blast loads should not be considered in combination with wind or earthquake. Rectangular box-shaped buildings should be designed for blast pressures given in the guidelines below. Vertical Exterior Walls Roofs Structural Framing Each wall should be designed for the peak reflected pressure Flat roof slabs and beams should be designed for the incident overpressure The main structural framing should be designed for the blast pressure on any one wall in accordance with the loading criteria for vertical exterior walls, together with roof loading

Foundations
It is generally not necessary to increase the size of the foundation in order to limit the soil bearing pressure in the vertical or lateral direction for blast loading. The very high bearing pressures which may be generated can be accepted because of the high strength of soils under rapid loading and the high inertial effects when soils are accelerated. In general, dynamic soil bearing pressures are between 1.5 and 3.0 times greater than the allowable soil bearing pressure for operating loads. Pile-supported buildings should be designed structurally to transmit the vertical loads to the underlying soils using the ultimate strength of the pile. For timber piles, the ultimate strength may be computed by multiplying the cross section area of the

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pile at the butt by the dynamic compressive strength, which is taken as twice the normal static ultimate compressive strength. It is not necessary to increase the pile penetration into the supporting soils in order to provide the required frictional resistance or end bearing pressure for blast loading.

Blast-Resistant Doors
At least two independent means of exit should be provided. The exterior doors should be located remote from each other and at opposite walls of the building. Doors should open outward and should be supported on all edges by the door frames. Doors should preferably be flush with the outside of the building, or not recessed more than 18 inches into the building. Doors, latches, and hinge mechanisms should be designed to be tight and remain operable after being subjected to the blast design loads. Doors should be constructed of steel plates on both faces, internally reinforced, and generally having the appearance of conventional flush metal doors. Glass viewing ports, provided for routine entrance/exit doors, should not be larger than 1 square foot. Glazing should be, as a minimum, double laminated clear safety glass with energy absorption capacity, prior to collapse, of more than twice that required to resist the design blast loading. See Standard Drawing GF-R 1077, Details of Blast-Resistant Doors, included in the Standard Drawings section of this manual.

Windows and Other Openings

Blast-resistant buildings should be constructed without windows. Openings such as vent intakes and fume hoods should be designed for blast effects. Such openings should by location, by use of blast attenuators or by other means, prevent entry of shock waves and debris into personnel and critical equipment areas. Such openings should be kept to a minimum. Equipment, such as air conditioners, cooling towers, etc., should not be placed on the roof of control houses. Internal fixtures, such as lights, ceilings, ventilating ducts, and interior walls, should be designed and installed so that they will not fall if the building is subjected to the design blast loading specified.

440 Safety Storage Buildings

There may be requirements for temporary storage of chemical and hazardous materials on a Company site. This raises concern about: Spill containment Fire protection Security Safeguards for personnel

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Meeting regulatory standards

Such storage facilities are usually not very large in size and can be built on-site with concrete or masonry construction. An alternative is to purchase special prefabricated units for chemical and hazardous material storage. These units are available with the following features: Spill containment sub-floor Forced air ventilation system Controlled environment (heating/cooling) Electrical system to meet specified classification Single unit capacity up to 10 tons of material (drums, boxes and cans); units are available in sizes up to 9 feet by 22 feet Integral dry chemical or water fire protection system.

Information on these prefabricated units may be obtained from: Safety Storage, Inc. 2301 Bert Drive Hollister, CA 95023 (408) 252-2750

450 Model Specifications and Standard Drawings

451 Model Specification
CIV-MS-4796, Pre-Engineered Metal Buildings, with Data Guide CIV-DG-4796 and Data Sheet CIV-DS-4796 are included in the specification section of this manual. This model specification gives the requirements for the purchase of prefabricated, pre-engineered metal buildings, and includes structural design, vendors responsibilities, structural steel fabrication, and such items as roof and wall panels, fasteners, flashing and trim, accessories, and drawings and data requirements. CIV-MS-943, Concrete Block Construction (Hollow Unit Masonry), is included in the specification section of this manual. It covers the materials to be used and the procedures followed in building concrete block masonry walls.

452 Standard Drawing

Standard Drawing GF-R 1077, Details of Blast-Resistant Doors, is included in the Standard Drawings and Forms Section of this manual.

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460 References
General
1. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials. The purpose of this code is to provide minimum standards controlling the design, construction, materials, use, and occupancy of buildings. 2. Recommended Design Practices Manual, Metal Building Manufacturers Association (MBMA). The purpose of this manual is to establish standard practices among the manufacturers of pre-engineered buildings to achieve maximum economy of design within the limits of good engineering practice. 3. Sweets Catalog File, McGraw-Hill. Lists manufacturers data on products for general building construction. Includes a separate volume on Selection Data which provides general technical information and checklists that relate to all building systems and components. 4. Manual of Steel Construction. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Manual includes the dimensions and properties of standard structural members for design and detailing. Includes sections on beam, column, and connection designs. Includes AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings. 5. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. American Concrete Institute Publication. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI Standard 318) provides the minimum requirements for reinforced concrete design or construction that is regulated by a general building code; includes analysis and design, development of reinforcement, and reinforcement details. Building Code Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures (ACI 531) provides minimum requirements for materials, analysis, and design of structures which are built using concrete masonry units. Specification for Concrete Masonry Construction (ACI 531.1) provides a reference standard specification which may be cited in specific project specifications. 6. American Society of Civil Engineers 7-93, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 1994. Provides requirements to govern assumptions for dead, live, and other loads in the design of structures. 7. ASTM Standards in Building Codes. American Society for Testing Materials. Provides standard specifications, test methods, and definitions for structural steel shapes and plates, cement, concrete, reinforcement, and other materials used for buildings and structures.

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8.

Structural Engineering Handbook. Gaylord, Edwin H., Jr. and Charles N. Gaylord (Editors). An all-inclusive handbook that includes information on structural analysis, steel, and reinforced concrete design.

9.

Architectural Graphic Standards. The American Institute of Architects. From general planning to detailed design. This is a valuable source of information on building construction and details.

Blast-Resistant Design
10. Introduction to Structural Dynamics, John M. Biggs. Includes a chapter devoted to blast-resistant design. Includes design tables and curves and examples for calculating the approximate effective fundamental period for structural elements. 11. Design of Structures to Resist Nuclear Weapons Effects, American Society of Civil Engineers, Manual No. 42, 1961. Includes chapters on choice of structural system, dynamic strength of materials, dynamic analysis, and design procedures all relating to blast-resistant design. 12. Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities, ASCE Task Committee on Blast Resistant Design, American Society of Civil Engineers, (1997). Includes general guidelines in the structural design of blast resistant petrochemical facilities, types of construction, dynamic material strengths, allowable response criteria, analysis methods, and design procedures. Three example calculations are included. 13. An Engineering Approach to Blast-Resistant Design, Nathan M. Newmark, Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 121, 1956. Includes the fundamental work to develop the empirical equation used to determine the equivalent static load for blast pressure. 14. Nuclear Safety Structures Code, ACI 349, Appendix C, Special Provisions for Impulsive and Impactive Effects. Includes recommendations to assure ductility in the design of concrete structural elements under impulsive loads. Also recommends allowable dynamic strength increases and permissible ductility ratios.

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