CHAPTER 1.

Introduction and motivation

This chapter explores the high demand for huge data rates and broadband transmissions that lead to search for a new generation such as LTE to provide such demand.

1.1 Introduction
Mobile communications has become an everyday commodity. In the last decades, it has evolved from being an expensive technology for a few selected individuals to todays ubiquitous systems used by a majority of the worlds population. The task of developing mobile technologies has also changed, from being a national or regional concern, to becoming an increasingly complex task undertaken by global standards-developing organizations such as the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) and involving thousands of people. Mobile communication technologies are often divided into generations, with 1G being the analog mobile radio systems of the 1980s, 2G the first digital mobile systems, and 3G the first mobile systems handles broadband data. The LongTerm Evolution (LTE) is often called 4G, but many also claim that LTE releas e 10, also referred to as LTE-Advanced, is the true 4G evolution step, with the first release of LTE (release 8) then being labeled as 3.9G. This continuing race of increasing sequence numbers of mobile system generations is in fact just a matter of labels, see Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Evolving of technology to 4G wireless 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 1

1.2 Roadmap toward 4G

1.2.1 GSM and GPRS Networks In the early 1990s, 2G phones deploying Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) technology were introduced. GSM uses digital modulation to improve voice quality but the network offers limited data service. As demand drove uptake of cell phones, 2G carriers continued to improve transmission quality and coverage. The 2G carriers also began to offer additional services, such as paging, faxes, text messages and voicemail. An intermediary phase, 2.5G was introduced in the late 1990s. It uses the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) standard, which delivers packet-switched data capabilities to existing GSM networks. It allows users to send graphics-rich data as packets. The importance for packet-switching increased with the rise of the Internet and the Internet Protocol, or IP. The Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) network is an example of 2.5G mobile technology. The GSM technical specifications define the different elements within the GSM network architecture. The GSM network architecture can be grouped into four main areas as shown in Figure 1.2: Mobile Station (MS) Base-Station Subsystem (BSS) Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

Figure 1.2 Simplified GSM network architecture Mobile Station Mobile stations are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 2

functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly increased. There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the main hardware and the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM contains the information that provides the identity of the user to the network. It contains a variety of information including a number known as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). Base Station Subsystem The Base Station Subsystem section of the GSM network architecture consists of two elements: Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols. Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface. Network Switching Subsystem The GSM network subsystem contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the core network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major elements within the core network include: Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC): The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the MSC. The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or Integrated Services Digital Network, but also provides additional functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks. Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 3

and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is commonly realized as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient. Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its problems. Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel. Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is the point to which a mobile equipement terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the mobile station roaming number from the HLR based on the mobile station international subscriber directory number, the "directory number" of a MS, and routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does not require any linking to an MSC. Short Message Service Gateway (SMS-G): The SMS-G is the term that is used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards. The two gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The Short Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (SMSGMSC) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre (SMS-IWMSC) is used for short messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short Message Service Centre. Operation and Support Subsystem The OSS is an element within the overall GSM network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of base stations increases with the 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 4

scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system. 1.2.2 3G Networks The 3G revolution allowed mobile telephone customers to use audio, graphics and video applications. Over 3G it is possible to watch streaming video and engage in video telephony, although such activities are severely constrained by network bottlenecks and over-usage. One of the main objectives behind 3G was to standardize on a single global network protocol instead of the different standards adopted previously in Europe, the U.S. and other regions. 3G phone speeds deliver up to 2 Mpbs, but only under the best conditions and in stationary mode. Moving at a high speed can drop 3G bandwidth to a mere 145 Kbps. 3G cellular services, also known as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), sustain higher data rates and open the way to Internet style applications. 3G technology supports both packet and circuit switched data transmission, and a single set of standards can be used worldwide with compatibility over a variety of mobile devices. UMTS delivers the first possibility of global roaming, with potential access to the Internet from any location. The UMTS network architecture is required to provide a greater level of performance to that of the original GSM network. However as many networks had migrated through the use of GPRS and EDGE, they already had the ability to carry data. Accordingly many of the elements required for the Wideband CodeDivision Multiple Access WCDMA / UMTS network architecture were seen as a migration. This considerably reduced the cost of implementing the UMTS network as many elements were in place or needed upgrading. UMTS network constituents The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements: User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment (UE) is the name given to what was previous termed the mobile, or cellphone. The new name was chosen because the considerably greater functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything between a mobile phone used for talking to a data terminal attached to a computer with no voice capability. Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS is the equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem or BSS in GSM. It provides and manages the air interface for the overall network. Core Network: The core network provides all the central processing and management for the system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem or NSS. 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 5

The core network is then the overall entity that interfaces to external networks including the public phone network and other cellular telecommunications networks.

Figure 1.3 UMTS Network Architecture Overview User Equipment The UE is a major element of the overall UMTS network architecture. It forms the final interface with the user. In view of the far greater number of applications and facilities that it can perform, the decision was made to call it user equipment rather than a mobile. However it is essentially the handset (in the broadest terminology), although having access to much higher speed data communications, it can be much more versatile, containing many more applications. It consists of a variety of different elements including RF circuitry, processing, antenna, battery, etc. UMTS Radio Network Subsystem This is the section of the UMTS/WCDMA network that interfaces to both the UE and the core network. The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio Network Subsystem is known as the Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN). The Radio Network Subsystem comprises two main components: Radio Network Controller (RNC): This element of the radio network subsystem controls the NodeBs that are connected to it. The RNC undertakes the radio resource management and some of the mobility management functions, although not all. It is also the point at which the data encryption/decryption is performed to protect the user data from eavesdropping. 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 6

NodeB: NodeB is the term used within UMTS to denote the base station transceiver. It contains the transmitter and receiver to communicate with the UEs within the cell.

Figure 1.4 UMTS RNS architecture In order to facilitate effective handover between NodeBs under the control of different RNCs, the RNC not only communicates with the Core Network, but also with neighboring RNCs. UMTS Core Network The UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM with further elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS. In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core network may be split into two different areas: Circuit switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the GSM network entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent channel for the duration of the call. Packet switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry packet data. This enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and data is carried as packets which are routed according to their destination.

4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 7

Some network elements, particularly those that are associated with registration are shared by both domains and operate in the same way that they did with GSM.

Figure 1.5 UMTS Core Network Circuit switched elements The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following network entities: Mobile switching center (MSC): This is essentially the same as that within GSM, and it manages the circuit switched calls under way. Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is effectively the interface to the external networks. Packet switched elements The packet switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following network entities: Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): As the name implies, this entity was first developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the UMTS network architecture. The SGSN provides a number of functions within the UMTS network architecture. Mobility management: When a UE attaches to the Packet Switched domain of the UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates mobility management information based on the mobile's current location. Session management: The SGSN manages the data sessions providing the required quality of service and also managing what are termed the packet data protocol contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data is sent.

4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 8

Interaction with other areas of the network: The SGSN is able to manage its elements within the network only by communicating with other areas of the network, e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas. Billing: The SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring the flow of user data across the GPRS network. Call detail records are generated by the SGSN before being transferred to the charging entities (Charging Gateway Function, CGF). Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Like the SGSN, this entity was also first introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is the central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handles interworking between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet switched networks, and can be considered as a very sophisticated router. In operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active and then forwards the data to the SGSN serving the particular UE. Shared elements The shared elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following network entities: Home location register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the UMTS network is able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a user switches on their UE, it registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which NodeB it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the UE is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position with their current or last known location on the network. Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given UE equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each UE has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Authentication Center (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's USIM card. 1.2.3 High-Speed 4G Mobile Networks The fourth generation of mobile telephony has been developed with the aim of providing transmission rates up to 150 Mbps (3000Mbps in LTE release 10) while simultaneously accommodating Quality of Service (QoS) features. QoS will allow you and your telephone carrier to prioritize traffic according to the type of 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 9

application using your bandwidth and adjust between your different telephone needs at a moment's notice. Only now are we beginning to see the potential of 4G applications. They are expected to include high-performance streaming of multimedia content. The deployment of 4G networks will also improve video conferencing functionality. It is also anticipated that 4G networks will deliver wider bandwidth to vehicles and devices moving at high speeds within the network area. The 4G system architecture offers many advantages over previous topologies and systems used for cellular core networks. As a result it is anticipated that it will be wide adopted by the cellular operators. A detailed study of this architecture is developed in chapter 3. To resume, a briefly comparison between different generation of mobile technology is illustrated in Table 1.1. Technology / Features
Start / Deployment Data Bandwidth Standards

1G
1970/ 1984 1.9 kbps AMPS Analog cellular technology

2G
1980/ 1991 14.4 kbps TDMA CDMA GSM Digital cellular technology Digital voice, Short messaging TDMA, CDMA

2.5G
1985/ 1999 14.4 kbps GPRS EDGE 1xRTT Digital cellular technology

3G
1990/ 2002 2 Mbps WCDMA CDMA-2000 Broad bandwidth CDMA, IP technology Integrated high quality audio, video and data CDMA Packet except circuit for air interface Packet network Horizontal

4G
2000/ 2009 200 Mbps Single unified standard Unified IP and seamless combination of broadband, LAN/WAN/PAN and WLAN Dynamic information access, wearable devices CDMA

Technology

Service

Mobile telephony (voice) FDMA

Higher capacity, Packetized data TDMA, CDMA Circuit for access network & air interface; Packet for core network and data PSTN, Packet network Horizontal

Multiplexing

Switching

Circuit

Circuit

All packet

Core Network Handoff

PSTN Horizontal

PSTN Horizontal

Internet Horizontal and Vertical

Table 1.1 comparison between different generations of mobile technology 4G is now being deployed and is the way forwards for high speed cellular services. There has been a rapid increase in the use of data carried by cellular services, and this increase will only become larger in what has been termed the "data explosion", as illustrated in Figure 1.6 [1]. 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 10

25

20

15 Gbytes Demand 10 Capacity

0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Figure 1.6 Mobile broadband Demand versus Capacity To cater for this and the increased demands for increased data transmission speeds and lower latency, further development of cellular technology have been required.

1.3 Motivation for LTE (4G)

Building on the technical foundations of the 3GPP family of cellular systems that embraces GSM, GPRS and EDGE as well as WCDMA and now HSPA [2], the 4G wireless system is expected to provide a comprehensive IP solution where multimedia applications and services can be delivered to the user on an Anytime, Anywhere basis with a satisfactory high data rate, premium quality and high security, which is not achievable using the 3G wireless infrastructure. LTE can be seen for provide a further evolution of functionality, increased speeds and improved performance as seen in Table 1.2 [3]. WCDMA (UMTS) Max downlink speed Max uplink speed Latency round trip time approx 384 kbps 128 kbps 150 ms HSPA HSDPA / HSUPA 14 Mbps 5.7 Mbps 100 ms

HSPA+

LTE

28 Mbps 11 Mbps 50ms (max)

100Mbps 50 Mbps ~10 ms

Table 1.2 Evolution to LTE 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 11

The evolution of 3G systems into 4G is driven by the creation and development of new services for mobile devices, and is enabled by advancement of the technology available for mobile systems. There has also been an evolution of the environment in which mobile systems are deployed and operated, in terms of competition between mobile operators, challenges from other mobile technologies, and new regulation of spectrum use and market aspects of mobile systems. The rapid evolution of the technology used in telecommunication systems, consumer electronics, and specifically mobile devices has been remarkable in the last 20 years. High-resolution color displays and megapixel camera sensors are also coming into all types of mobile devices. Combined with a high-speed internet backbone often based on optical fiber networks, we see that a range of technology enablers are in place to go hand-in-hand with advancement in mobile communications technology such as LTE. LTE as an Applications Enabler To support user-determined, always-on, on-demand, intelligent and limitless access to mobile broadband applications the architecture of next-generation mobile broadband networks must support a lower cost per Megabyte, as well as being highly scalable and flexible to support unpredictable user requirements. Furthermore, the network must support access to multiple types of content by many different types of device simultaneously. Key to achieving these objectives is reducing network latency to support high data rate symmetrical user applications (from kbit/s for 2G, to Mbit/s for 3G and getting close to Gbit/s for 4G), as well as improving network efficiency so that the right amount of bandwidth is allocated to the right application at the right time (see Figure 1.7) [4].

50% >>> 50% 10 X

2-3 X

Cost/Mbyte

Peak Through 3 G 3.5G LTE

Latency

Figure 1.7 Expected performance for LTE After this brief introduction to LTE wireless technology, in the next chapter we will discover the main LTE parameters. 4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 12

CHAPTER

4G-LTE Technology | Concept & Services 13