CH2104 – Errors Associated with the Measurements of Various Quantities

To work out the % error involved in any measurement;

% Error= (error/value) x 100

The number of justifiable significant figures is determined by the precision of the measurement. The
error always relates to the last significant figure.

Errors Associated with the Measurements of Volume

Beakers/conical flasks – these give a rough indication of volume
e.g. 100±10cm3, i.e. 10% error

Measuring cylinder – more precise than a beaker/conical flask

e.g. 100±1cm3, i.e. 1% error

Volumetric flask/pipette/burette – much more accurate

e.g. 20±0.01cm3

Errors Associated with the Measurement of Mass

There are two types of commonly used electronic balance;
Top-pan balances – quite accurate, weighs to ±0.01g

Analytical balances – very accurate, weigh to ±0.0001g

When to Use Which Piece of Equipment

In synthetic work a top-pan balance should always be used as the extra precision is not required.
In preparative work less accuracy is required and again top-pan balances are used, along with
measuring cylinders.
In analytical work high accuracy is required, pipettes, burettes, volumetric flasks and analytical
balances should be used.

Preparing Solutions for Analysis

-weigh out the required mass on an analytical balance
-transfer to a beaker (recording actual mass used) for dissolution in the minimum required volume
of solvent
-transfer quantitatively to a volumetric flask, washing the beaker into the flask along with any
stirring rods used to ensure all of the dissolved solid is transferred
-make up to the mark with deionised water and with the stopper in place shake vigorously to ensure
homogeneity

Basic Reaction Equations

As a generic example;
mA(x)+nB(y) -> pC(z)
where; A, B, C are the reagents and products
m, n, p are the stoichiometric values
and x, y, z are the states (Solid (s), Aqueous (aq), Liquid (l), gaseous (g))

Balancing Equations
In general the rules regarding balancing equations are quite simple, the aim is to balance the
number of atoms of each element on either side of the equation, the stoichiometric values should
be integral numbers with no fractional values. The simplest option is often to count the number of
atoms on each side and go back and forth attempting to make the values equal, however in some
cases there are tricks to speed the process up.
Acid-Base reactions – first balance the number of hydrogen atoms and then oxygen atoms.

Redox Reactions
These are reactions in which one (or several) reagents are oxidised while one (or several) reagents
are reduced.
The easiest method of remembering which is oxidation and which is reduction is to use the acronym
OILRIG.
Oxidation is loss of electrons
Reduction is gain of electrons
Also important to note is that an oxidising agent is, itself, reduced, whereas a reducing agent is,
itself, oxidised.

Chemical Structures and Names of Compounds

When drawing molecules;
-draw carbon chains as ‘zig-zags’
-miss out the hydrogen atoms as well as the C-H bonds
-only draw in carbon atoms of particular importance or functionality
-to show stereochemistry represent bonds moving towards the reader as a wedge, , and away
from the reader as a dashed wedge,

Some of the most common functional groups;

Carboxylic acid R Aldehyde R

=O =O
HO H
Amine R-NH2 Ketone R
=O
R’
Ester R Alcohol
=O R-OH
O
R’
Amide R Alkyne R-≡-R
=O
N
R’
Alkane R-H Alkene R=R
Nomenclature

Name No. of Carbon Atoms Name No. of Carbon Atoms

Methane 1 Hexane 6
Ethane 2 Heptane 7
Propane 3 Octane 8
Butane 4 Nonane 9
Pentane 5 Decade 10

Naming Organic Compounds

-identify the longest hydrocarbon chain present
-indicate functional groups by prefix or suffix
-indicate position of functional group by number, always using the lowest possible numbers
-number along the hydrocarbon chain

Double Bond Equivalents

A double bond equivalent is a double bond or ring system as a double bond or ring leads to a
decrease in the Carbon-Hydrogen ratio (by removing 2 hydrogens from the empirical formula).
To calculate the number of D.B.E.’s in a given compound;
No. of Hydrogens in Parent Hydrocarbon − No. of Hydrogens in Given Formula
No. of D. B. E Equivalents =
2

Chemical Analysis
There are two forms of chemical analysis;
-gravimetric – dependent upon mass
-titrimetric – dependent upon volume

The burette is filled with a chemical of known concentration, the

titrant, this is fed into the flask containing the analyte, a known
volume of solution or a known mass of a reagent.

The point at which the amount of titrant added to the analyte is

equal is known as the equivalence point.

The end-point is then the point at which the reaction is complete

and is often best detected using the colour change of an indicator
reagent although properties such as conductivity may be used.

There are two types of titration;

-acid-base for which an indicator is generally used
Indicators are compounds which are different colours at different pH levels
i.e. Methyl Orange; red-yellow - colour changes≈3.2-4.4
acid-base
Phenolphthalein; colourless-pink - colour changes≈8.2-10.0
acid-base
-redox titrations are often self-indicating
e.g. MnO4- -> Mn2+
deep purple -> pale pink