The Original Meaning of Dao

'Dao' is a concept which appeared very early on; however, initially it was not a philosophical notion. Originally, 'Dao' Referred to the Way Tread by People The ancient dictionary Explanations to the Chinese Characters1 defines Dao as the way or raod along which one walks. There are many kinds of roads, such as branching roads and roads going in all directions, but only roads leading in a single, definite direction can be called 'Dao'. This original meaning was then extended to include the notions of 'rule' or 'law'. For example, the movement of the heavens follows regular laws, and is thus called the 'Dao (Way) of Heaven' 2. During the Spring and Autumns era, there was the saying 'The Way of Heaven is bright, and as regular as the Sun and Moon'. This meant that the movement of the heavens was very clear and could be observed through the movement of the Sun and Moon. Thus the ancient notion of the Way of Heaven acquired the abstract significance of 'law'. The term 'Dao of Heaven' gradually became a rich concept, until it lost its original meaning and came to designate natural laws and principles. Laozi's Creative Use of the Concept of Dao

Deep elaboration of the concept of Dao began with Laozi 1. Laozi made Dao2 into the core of his philosophical system; hence, his school came to be known as the 'Daoist School' 3. The Laozi was the first book to elaborate on the concept of 'Dao' Laozi, whose surname was Li and whose name was Er, lived during the Spring and Autumns period. He left to posterity a book of approx. 5000 characters, divided into two chapters, which people called the 'Laozi', meaning Venerable Master. After the Tang dynasty, it was called the Perfect Book of Dao and its Virtue4. In this book, Dao is considered as the origin of the world, and hence is regarded as the highest final category. Laozi considered Dao to be an undifferentiated whole which existed prior to the creation of Heaven and Earth: "it is made of undifferentiated substance, and was born before Heaven and Earth". From it are derived Heaven, Earth and all beings. Laozi gave a complete description of the different attributes of Dao. His thought was later greatly elaborated by his successors. From the pre-Qin era onwards, Daoist philosophers engaged in a great many reflections and discussions on Laozi's ideas: over one thousand commentaries were written on the Laozi alone, while even more works were written based on his ideas. Hence, expositions of Dao are rich and varied. The Main Meanings of the Concept Dao

The Meaning of Dao Firstly, Dao is the eternally existing Origin of the world: it knows no limits in space or time. According to Laozi, it is an undifferentiated whole which precedes the existence of Heaven and Earth. It is empty, silent and formless; it grows independently and is inexhaustible; and eternally revolves without ever stopping. It is the Source of all beings. In the Laozi1 it is said:

"There was something undifferentiated and all-embracing, Which existed before Heaven and Earth. Soundless and formless, it depends on nothing external And stays inexhaustible. It operates with a circular motion And remains inextinguishable. It may be considered the mother of all things under heaven" 2. It is so ancient, and so fundamentally different from all other beings, that it does not have a name, and cannot be described in ordinary language. However, in order to describe it, we cannot but give it a name, so it is called 'Dao'3, or also 'Great'4. Another Daoist theorist, Zhuang Zhou, also said in the chapter "The Great Patriarch" of the Book of Master Zhuang5, that "Dao is a reality that can be trusted even though it has neither behaviour nor form; it can be transmitted from heart to heart, but not by words; it can be obtained but not seen. It is its own root, and existed prior to Heaven and Earth. It created the Spirits and Divinities, and gave birth to Heaven and Earth. It is higher than the Supreme Ultimate yet is not high; it is under than the Six Directions6 yet is not deep; it precedes all creation yet is not old; it is farther than the remotest antiquity yet is not distant". The above makes clear that Dao is the origin of all existence; it is both the first and last of all beings, and knows no limits in time. Dao is omnipresent: The above also touches on space: according to Zhuangzi, Dao is also beyond limitations of space. The ancient concept of the Six Directions7 includes the four cardinal directions as well as above and below - in fact encompassing all space. That Dao is 'Under the Six Directions' means that Dao is great beyond all limitations of space. Even earlier, Laozi had said that Dao permeates our surroundings, so that it is impossible to say if it is to our left or to our right. Dao is a continuous and unbroken existence: should you wish to greet it, you would not see its head; should you wish to follow it, you would not find its tail. In a nutshell, Dao is omnipresent, and is not limited to any defined physical space. The substance of Dao is Non-Being Dao is Non-Being8, an existence which follows no laws. Dao's transcendent and unlimited nature sets it apart from all beings possessing form, matter and a specific place in space-time. All concrete beings follow specific laws. Dao, on the other hand, is formless, and is not bound by any concrete laws. It is pure Emptiness9 and Non-Being. The first chapter of the Laozi states that Dao is nameless, and is the Ancestor of Heaven and Earth. This implies that Dao is nameless. The Laozi also states that "You look at it but cannot see it; It is called the imageless. You listen to it but cannot hear it, It is called the soundless. You touch it but cannot find it,

It is called the formless. These three cannot be further inquired into, For they are the inseparable One. The One is not bright when it is up, And not dark when it is down. Infinite and indistinct, it cannot be named, Thus reverting to a state of non-thingness. This is called shape without a shape, Or image without image. It is also called the Vague and the Elusive."10 It is thus clear that Dao is formless and imageless, and cannot be attained by human sense organs. According to Laozi, all creatures emerge from 'Being'11, but 'Being' emerges from 'Non-Being'. This Non-Being refers to Dao. Other Daoist scriptures also often use the terms 'Non-Being', 'Emptiness' and so on to designate Dao. In sum, Dao is nameless, formless, and substanceless; it is Non-Being and Emptiness. This is the substance of Dao. Avatars of Dao The avatars of Dao are the Lordly Spirits and Deities12: Dao is Emptiness and Non-Being, but it also has a divine nature. In a state of dispersion, it is formless and imageless Vital Breath 13, but when these are concentrated, they become Deities. In Daoism, Laozi is one such Deity. According to the Tablet of the Venerable Master's Holy Mother14 of the Eastern Han dynasty, "Laozi is Dao". The Mighty Commonwealth of Orthodox Oneness tradition15 founded by Zhang Daoling also clearly states that Dao is Oneness, which is dispersed as Vital Breath and reunited as the Supreme Venerable Sovereign16. The term 'Supreme Venerable Sovereign' is a respectful title given to Laozi in Daoism. There are three higher deities in Daoism: the Sovereign of the Heavenly Treasure 17, also called the Primeval Lord of Heaven18; the Sovereign of the Numinous Treasure19, also called the Supreme Sovereign of the Great Dao20; and the Sovereign of the Divine Treasure21, also called the Supreme Venerable Sovereign. All are avatars of Dao, that is to say, all are emanations of the Vital Breath of Oneness22. The Birth of the Deities of the Nine Heavens23 describes the emergence of these three deities as follows: the Sovereign of the Heavenly Treasure is the Lordly Spirit of the Great Grotto 24, whose Original Vital Breath25 is the Elder of the Heavenly Treasure26. This Elder27 is the Nine Thousand Nine Hundred and Ninety-Nine Billion Lofty Vital Breaths of the Supreme Jade Void of the Grotto of Chaos28, which collected themselves into the Sovereign of the Heavenly Treasure in the first year of the Dragon Han29 Kalpa (universal cycle extending from the origination of Heaven and Earth till their destruction). The Sovereign of the Numinous Treasure is the Lordly Spirit of Pervasive Mystery30, whose Original Vital Breath is the Elder of the Numinous Treasure 31. This Elder is the Nine Thousand Nine Hundred and Ninety-Nine Billion Mysterious Vital Breaths of the Supreme Purple Void of the Crimson Chaos32, which transmuted themselves into the the Sovereign of the Numinous Treasure at the beginning of the Dragon Han Kalpa. The Sovereign of the Divine Treasure is the Lordly Spirit of Pervasive Spirit 33, whose Original Vital Breath is the Elder of the Divine Treasure34. This Elder is the Nine Thousand Nine Hundred and Ninety-Nine Billion Vital Breaths of the Most High Pristine Void of Quiet Obscurity in Communion with the Origin 35, which became the Sovereign of the Divine Treasure during the Crimson Light 36 Kalpa.

After attaining Dao, Man can become a deity Dao can transmute itself into deities, while Man can Cultivate Dao 37 and Attain Dao38: hence, man can also become a deity. Deities which originated as people are called Immortals 39. All people can Cultivate Dao, and can therefore all potentially become Immortals. In this way, the Daoist pantheon is open and limitless. The Major Functions of Dao

The Principal Functions of Dao Though Dao is Emptiness1 and Non-Being2, it is the origin of the world and is the generator of all movement and evolution in the universe. The Creative Function of the Great Dao The Laozi says: the Dao, though nameless, is the origin of Heaven and Earth; it also has a name, and is the mother of all beings. ("Non-Being is the Origin of Heaven and Earth; Being 3 is the mother of the myriad things."4) It also says that these two (the nameless and the named) are actually the same thing, but when manifested have different names. Together, they can be called the 'Mysterious'5, which is mystery upon mystery, and the gate to all changes. ("These two have the same source but different names, They both may be called mysterious and profound. The mysterious mystery Is the doorway to all subtleties"6). The Sublime Book of the Supreme Venerable Sovereign's Teachings on Eternal Purity and Tranquility7 thus says that the Great Dao is formless, and gives birth to Heaven and Earth. The Dao does not interfere8, but is not inactive9 The creative function of Dao does not express itself by sending down specific orders. It does not interfere, but lets each being follow its won nature and spontaneously grow and develop, from NonBeing to Being and from Being to Non-Being. This is called 'Non-Interference' 10. All beings have an end, and their functions may only express themselves through action. But for this reason, their functions are always limited, and cannot be maintained indefinitely. Laozi said that the great wind cannot blow over the whole sky, and the rain cannot fall the whole night. The actions of Heaven and Earth cannot be maintained forever, much less those of people. The Great Dao is different: it lets the myriad beings to be born and develop, while remaining in a state of Non-Interference - it can never be exhausted. For this reason, Laozi said: Dao does not interfere, but is not inactive. The Great Dao gives birth to all, but never takes possession of them; it accomplishes everything, but claims no credit for itself. Those who study and practise Dao should also follow the Great Dao, and seek after Purity and Tranquility11, and Non-Interference. The law of motion of Dao is movement toward the opposite Laozi's conception of Dao is rich in dialectical thinking. He considered that Dao is in a process of constant cyclical motion, always following the law of return to the opposite. Concepts such as Being and Non-Being, high and low, long and short, before and after are all relative and mutually

generating. Fortune and misfortune depend on each other, each always turning into its opposite. Who can master the turning point of these transformations? Why is Dao never in a normal state? Normality will become abnormality, the good shall turn to evil. These deep thoughts were not only inherited by successive generations of later Daoists, but also had a deep influence on the entire body of Chinese philosophy. On the foundation of Laozi's thought, later Daoist scholars developed concepts such as 'the Dao of Heaven is Return from the Ultimate' 12, which has become a famous maxim regarding the Chinese approach to reality. Related to this, Daoism considers that softness can defeat hardness. Laozi said that softness is an expression of Dao. For example, water is the softest thing under Heaven, but when it attacks hard objects, none can resist it in the end. Therefore the softest thing in the world can circulate freely amidst the hardest things. Self-effacement and softness are the basic principles of Daoist methodology and approach to people and things; they also count among Daoism's unique characteristics. The Significance of Spontaneity

Spontaneity is an attribute of Dao The Laozi1 says that 'Man follows Earth, Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows Dao, Dao follows Spontaneity". Dao is the ultimate existence; no other existence is above it or precedes it. Therefore, it does not follow anything but itself. Though Dao is its own ruler, this does not mean that it intentionally rules other things, but that it respects the natural development of all beings and of the world. According to Heshang Gong's Han dynasty interpretation of 'Dao follows Spontaneity', "the nature of Dao is Spontaneity2; it is ruled by nothing." Opposition between Man and Spontaneity All beings have their own nature, which is spontaneous. Here, the term 'Spontaneous' is equivalent to the commonly used term 'Natural'3. The Perfect Man of Nanhua4 considered that cows and horses originally lived in a state of natural spontaneity, but that when men forced them to wear harnesses, they infringed on the spontaneity of the cows and horses. Man also originally had his own nature, but has been reined in by fame and locked up by fortune, to the point where he has lost his natural spontaneity. Spontaneity and Non-Interference are identical Daoism advocates Purity5, Tranquility6, and Non-Interference7. Dao does not interfere and does not give orders, but spontaneously generates the myriad beings. To achieve Non-Interference and to unite with Dao is to achieve a state of Spontaneity. Chapter 17 of the Laozi states: "The best kind of rulers are those whose existence Is merely known by the people below them. The next-best are those who are loved and praised. The nest-best are those who are feared. The next-best are those who are despised. If trust in others is not sufficient, It will be unrequited. (The best rulers) are cautious, And seldom issue orders. When tasks are accomplished and affairs completed, The common people will say,

"We simply follow the way of spontaneity"8. That is to say, let the common people and the myriad beings be born, grow, develop and change according to their own nature. Let the rulers not interfere, and let the ruled follow their nature. Observing the Way of Heaven and Following its Motion

The concept of <<Dao Follows Spontaneity1>> and the principle of Non-Interference2 do not imply that one should remain inactive, but rather that we should avoid excessive human interference. It does not oppose action in conformity with the Great Dao 3 nor actively Practising4 and Cultivating Dao5. The first sentence of the chapter <<Kaizong Mingyi>> of the Book of Secret Correspondences6 opens with the sentence <<Observe the Way (Dao) of Heaven and Follow its Motions>>. The so-called 'Way of Heaven'7 refers to the basic laws of the entire universe. To 'observe' means to investigate and experience. The purpose of knowing the Way of Heaven is to grasp its laws in order to apply them. This means on the one hand to control external objects and improve oneself, and also to be able to follow the movements of Heaven. This is the basic theoretical foundation of all different Daoist Magical Arts 8 of Cultivating Immortality9. On this basis, Daoist adepts actively attempt to apply the principles of the Great Dao and to experiment with different methods to improve oneself (cultivate an Immortal Body 10 or prolong one's life) and control external objects and spirits (often by dispatching Spirits 11 to effect changes in the myriad beings). These pursuits have left a rich heritage in the history of Chinese technology, hygienics (Nourishing Life12, medicine and pharmacology, much of which has significance as contributions to world civilization. This active pursuit of the Great Dao in order to control external objects also established the unique characteristic of Daoism as rich in practical Daoist Arts 13. Of course, the foundation of Observing the Way of Heaven and Following its Motions is based on Dao and Spontaneity. Any action which does not conform to natural Spontaneity, any form of forced human intervention which goes against natural laws, has no chance of success and can only said to be reckless and wild. The Significance of Virtue

The Daoist concept of 'Virtue'1 is rich in meaning. Generally speaking, Virtue and Dao are reciprocal concepts. In the fifty-first chapter of the Laozi, it is said that "Dao begets all things, and Virtue fosters them." Dao is the fundamental origin of all beings, while Virtue is the reflection of Dao in all beings. Dao is formless and imageless; Virtue, as the manifestation of Dao in all concrete things, is also formless. Therefore Daoists often refer to Dao and Virtue as a single concept, and consider them to be absolutely void and still, and the ultimate abstruse Ancestor of all beings. Virtue is the attainment of Dao As the reflection of Dao in all beings, Virtue can be said to be each concrete being's attainment of Dao. In the Pivotal Meaning of the Daoist Doctrine2 by Meng Anpai of the Tang dynasty, it is said that Virtue is attainment, and is the opposite of loss of Dao. For this reason, Virtue and the sometimes-used concept of 'Dao-Nature'3 are identical. Dao is omnipresent and all creatures have Dao-Nature. In the Book of Master Zhuang4, it is said that Dao is 'omnipresent', and can be found in mole crickets and ants, in bricks and tiles, in stools and urine. Whether it be the most spiritual of men or the most debased of things, everything has Dao. In the Book of Western Ascension5, it is said that "Dao is not only in me; all beings have it". This Dao-Nature reflected by all beings is Virtue.

Virtue is the effect of Dao Virtue is the reflection of Dao, and Dao is the root of Virtue. From this perspective, we can say that the effect of Dao on the nurturing and ordering of all beings is played out through Virtue. Dao is Emptiness6 and governs Non-Being7, while Virtue exists in all concrete things and governs Being 8. Of course, we are here not separating Dao and Virtue into two separate things, but merely reflecting on different situations and functions. Fundamentally speaking, Virtue and Dao are but two aspects of a single category. Hence, the first scroll of the Pivotal Meaning of the Daoist Doctrine quotes Master Xuanqing as saying that "Dao and Virtue are two significances of a single reality. They are one but not one, two but not two." Looking at their functions and effects, they are different and thus two, but as different expressions of the same reality, they are not two. In the same way, they are both one, but owing to their different functions, they are not one. Expression of the Unity of Dao and Virtue

Since Virtue1 is the reflection of Dao2, therefore, in seeking Dao, one must seek harmony with Virtue, so that one's thoughts, words and deeds are all in conformity with Virtue. Dao is expressed as my Virtue Dao is in all beings; and, as far as people are concerned, Virtue is the Dao in oneself. Therefore, Wei Zong of the Song dynasty wrote in the Imperial Commentary to the Book of Western Ascension3 that "no being does not have Dao; in myself, Dao is expressed as my Virtue. All men possess the Virtue of Dao." One's Virtue can only be realized and developed through one's own efforts; hence, one must Cultivate Virtue4 in order to unite with Dao. The presence or absence of Virtue depends on unity with Dao. The Laozi5 says that "the expression of the Great Virtue can be achieved only by conformity with Dao". Cultivating Dao6 and Cultivating Virtue are thus one and the same thing. Another important scripture, the Book of Spontaneity7, says that "to attain Virtue is to obtain Dao-Fruit8". He who incessantly Cultivates Virtue and unites with Dao, initially becomes a virtuous man; after steady progress, he attains to perfection and becomes a Perfect Man 9, what is commonly called a 'Lofty Immortal'10. The man of superior Virtue is not conscious of his Virtue The Laozi states that "The man of superior Virtue is not conscious of his Virtue, And in this way he really possesses Virtue. The man of inferior Virtue never loses sight of his Virtue, and in this way he has no true Virtue." Although this statement seems contradictory, actually, it is not. Those who have a high level of cultivation of Virtue always act spontaneously in a natural state of Dao. They are not attached to Virtue but conform to it spontaneously. But those who are of a low level are always mindful of Virtue and attached to it; consequently, they always seek the outer forms of Virtue and miss its true significance. In capter 51 of the Laozi, it is said that: "all beings venerate Dao and honour Virtue. As for the veneration of Dao and the honouring of Virtue, It is not out of obedience to any orders; It comes spontaneously." 11

The nature of Dao and Virtue is such that in seeking Virtue, one must be spontaneous and not force oneself, nor should one be attached; one cannot merely conform to outward forms, much less flaunt oneself and self-righteously consider oneself to have Virtue. Indifference to fame or gain Since all men inherently possess Virtue, then all men should be virtuous. Why is that not the case? In the course of their life in this world, people are subject to many external stimuli, and their minds come to pursue external glory and splendor. Distracted by fame and wealth, they distance themselves from Virtue. Therefore, Laozi counsels men to eliminate selfish desires, attain one's inner nature, and embrace one's spontaneous Dao. This requires indifference to fame or gain, and to refrain from seeking shelter in material desires. If the mind is free of preconceived ideas, free of pressure, free of confused desires, magnanimous and big-hearted, empty, still and unsullied, then it will be in natural harmony with Dao, and will manifest true Virtue. Virtue is an inner state Virtue exists in all beings, but it is formless and imageless; it cannot be sought after through forms. It is internal. Harmony with Virtue cannot be found through external forms, but must be sought after internally. The Perfect Man of Nanhua12 (Zhuangzi) described many individuals who, though ugly in appearance, were rich in Virtue. Some of them were even lacking arms or legs, and yet, unexpectedly, were revered by the people. The Perfect Man of Nanhua pointed out that as long as one excels in Virtue, people will ignore one's physical infirmities. A highly virtuous person does not flaunt himself; the more he is like this, the more people will be attracted to him. His Virtue will gradually guide and elevate the masses, and purify their customs and habits. Virtuous people do not display their emotions, much less are they tied down by sensual passions. The Perfect Man of Nanhua said: "When I speak of detachment, I mean that one must not harm oneself with positive or negative emotions; one should follow spontaneity without adding to it." This is very different from the attitudes of common people. The Book of Western Ascension13 criticizes those "common people who crave to protect their lives through passion and covetousness", who fill themselves with desire and lust after external things. Such people, the more they distance themselves from Dao, the more they turn their backs on Virtue. Therefore, accomplished Daoists do not care for fame, fortune or sensual pleasure; they devote themselves to "clean their spirit till it is white as snow, and discard vulgar habits". They purify their inner world and clear out all sorts of outer disturbances. Accumulate Merits and Establish Virtue To clear out vulgar attachments during the process of Cultivating Virtue, does not imply that one should ignore society and the sufferings of the people. On the contrary, Daoists do not pursue personal fame and fortune, but care for the collective good of all people, and advocate universal salvation. Daoists must therefore accumulate merits 14 and establish Virtue15. Merit16 and Virtue are actually the same thing. By accumulating Merits one can accumulate Virtue. To tirelessly establish merit is the first stage of Cultivating Virtue. A Daoist saying exhorts one to 'Perform three thousand virtuous deeds and eight hundred meritorious acts'. This shows the importance of demonstrating Meritorious Conduct17 among the people. This type of deed performed for society and for the people, is called 'Merit'18. Daoists do not seek reward for establishing merit among the people, and do not seek to be known for their good deeds; they consider that the Spirits in Heaven and Earth will naturally know. This type of merit is called 'Hidden Virtue' 19 or 'Hidden Merit'20. Daoism advocates to Broadly Accululate Hidden Merits21.

Formation of the Daoist Theory of Universal Evolution

Fundamental Difference Between the Daoist Theory of Universal Evolution and the Christian Concept of the Creation by God The question of whether the universe has always existed as it does now is a most interesting, but also most perplexing one. Countless are those who, over the past thousands of years, have deeply pondered over this question and formulated what they considered to be the best answer, some going so far as to elaborate wonderful theories on the subject. Nonetheless, until today no consensus has emerged. Contemporary opinion tends to consider that the universe had a beginning, and that this beginning was a stage in the evolution of the universe -- looking at the universe as a whole, it has neither an absolute beginning nor an absolute end. Daoist Cosmogony has proposed a similar view of the universe for the past two thousand years. This theory of universal evolution is radically different from the Christian theory of the Creation of the universe by God. Daoism considers that universal evolution follows its own laws and is not the product of divine creation. Rather, it is the product of Spontaneous1 evolution under the control of the Great Dao2. The highest divinity of Daoism, the Primeval Lord of Heaven 3, emerged during the evolutionary process, which he helps to push forward according to the circumstances. On the other hand, Christianity considers that God created the world out of absolute nothingness. Initial speculations on the origin of the universe Early on, Laozi had reflected on the origin of the universe. He considered that Heaven and Earth have not existed indefinitely. Dao preceded the formation of Heaven and Earth. The process of the generation of Heaven and Earth by Dao is resumed in the following formula: <<Dao generates One, One generates Two, Two generates Three, Three generates the Myriad Beings.>> In other words, Dao generated the primeval unified whole, which divided into two opposing forces, whose interpenetration generated all beings. The two forces referred to by Laozi as the 'Two' are commonly considered to be designate Heaven and Earth. Later on, other Daoist theorists further reflected on the origin of the world and formulated systematic theories. These were discussed in the scripture The Source of Dao4, which points out that before the formation of Heaven and Earth, there was nothing but limitless dark space, in which nothing existed. There was only Essential Vital Breath5 and Vital Breath of Spirit6 circulating everywhere. These Essential and Spiritual Vital Breaths refer to different functions of Dao, which formed the world and the myriad beings. The complete description of the origin of the universe began in the Wei and Jin dynasties Ge Hong, the famous accomplished Daoist and reputed astronomer of the Jin dynasty, made an important contribution to Daoist Cosmogony. In his Inner Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity7, he considered the concept of 'Mystery'8, and its effect on the formation of Heaven and Earth. In his later years as a hermit on Mt. Luohu, he wrote the important work The Book of Pillow Secrets9 in which he discussed the 'most sublime root' and pointed out that before the formation of the world, the original chaos was like an egg, inside which was Perfect Man Pangu who called himself the King of Primeval Heaven10. As the universal egg grew larger in its initial stages, he grew larger inside it. At the formation of the world, the light elements rose upwards to form Heaven and the heavy elements descended to form Earth, while the King of Primordial Heaven resided on Jade Capital Mountain11 in the centre of Heaven. Later on, other spirits, men and animals were formed. Ge Hong's theory was later developed into a systematic Cosmogony. At about the same time, the Highest Clarity sect12 also reflected on the question of the origin and structure of the universe. Around the end of the Eastern Jin, the grandson of Ge Hong's brother, Ge Caofu, wrote a large

number of scriptures, amongst which the Numinous Treasure's Lofty and Sublime Book of the Limitless Salvation of Mankind13 and other writings fully described the process of the formation of the world. Subsequently, the Book of the Supreme Venerable Sovereign's Opening of the Heavens14 appeared, which also discussed the question of the creation of Heaven and Earth.

The Process of The Creation of the World

Universal Cycles, or Kalpas1 The notion of Universal Cycles is an important concept in Daoist Cosmogony. A single universal Cycle is said to last from Cosmogony till its destruction. The concept of Universal Cycles originated in India. The universe is an endless process of repeating Cycles; each Cycle has a beginning and an end. After the end of a Cycle, the universe falls into darkness and everything in the universe is destroyed. Only the most accomplished of the Immortals2 are able to survive the end-of-cycle apocalypse. At that point, a new Cycle will begin. Major universal Cycles are themselves made up of minor cyles. The major universal Cycles are named 'Dragon Han' 3 , 'Extended Well-Being'4 , 'Crimson Light'5 , etc. ; these Cycles have followed each other in succession since aeons ago. We cannot know how many Cycles there have been in the past. The Appearing of the Crimson Light After the end of a Cycle, the universe plunges into a period of darkness, in which the mighty Diamond Wind6 blows through a world of chaos, a space of infinite emptiness and absolute darkness in which no light, no form, no image is to be found. Even the Vital Breaths of Dao 7 are shrouded in complete darkness. It is then time for the new birth and growth of nature, and the new cycle of Crimson Light will begin. The stage is set for the new life of the universe. This is called "The Appearing of the Crimson Light". The space-time in which we presently live is part of the cycle of Crimson Light. The Root of the World: The Crimson and JadeCharacters At this point, the Vital Breaths of Dao gather together, and an octagonal Book suddenly appears out of the void. Each character in the Book is about 12 feet long, with rays of light streaming forth from the eight corners of the Book. When these rays are seen by the Primeval Lord of Heaven 8 , He knows the time has come to inaugurate a new Cycle. At this point, He places the Jade Characters into the Forges of Heaven, until they begin to emit crimson rays of light. Thus they are called the Crimson Characters. The Crimson and Jade Characters9 are the source of the Heavens, and are called the 'Original Matrix'10 . The Crimson Characters are in fact the Root of the world. Thus the Book of Salvation11 says: "The Crimson Characters of the Grotto of Chaos12 are the Word of Essential Truth arising from the Absolute Void. At the very beginning of the Cycle, it forms the Cosmos and makes the Sun, the Moon and the Stars send forth their light. It is the origin of the Heavens. It has no ancestor; its essence is of Dao." The Emergence of the Thirty-Two Heavens13 out of the Original Matrix The Heavenly Matrix formed out of the Crimson Book of Jade Characters, is called the Original Matrix. It weaves itself in all directions, forming thirty-two heavens. The World is hence created, and

a new Cycle has begun. Taking note, the Primeval Lord of Heaven opens the Perfect Script of the Five Divine Tablets14 , leading to the formation of the various spirits. At the same time, the Lord exercises His power to ensure the long life of the heavens of the new Cycle. Thirty-two heavens are thus created and maintained; if we add the Three Pristine Heavens 15 , there are a total of thirty-five Vital Breaths of Dao. These Energies are derived from the Vital Breath of the Highest Origin 16. Salvation by the inauguration of a new Cycle At the beginning of each Cycle, the Primeval Lord of Heaven reveals Scriptures and teaches the Way, disseminating scriptures on Dao, saving all the people under heaven. Individuals who, owing to spiritual affinity, attain salvation, may join the ranks of the Immortals. These are able to survive the apocalypse at the end of the Cycle, and enjoy eternal life. The Scriptures revealed from within a Sacred Pearl by the Primeval Lord of Heaven at the beginning of the Cycle, are the most mysterious of all Dao Scriptures. The Thirty-Six Heavens

The Skies are Divided into Ten Directions The Thirty-Two Heavens arising out of the Original Matrix1 are located in the four cardinal directions, with eight heavens per cardinal direction. To these four directions can further be added Northeast, Southeast, Southwest and Northwest, as well as above and below. In addition to these Thirty-Two Heavens, there are also four other Heavens. All of these Heavens are distributed among the Eight Directions mentioned above, as well as above and below, for a total of ten directions. Names of the Thirty-Six Heavens We have mentioned that the Original Matrix gave birth to Thirty-Two Heavens. These Heavens are subject to calamities and universal cycles (kalpas); they therefore undergo birth and death. The other four Heavens are not subject to kalpas: they include the Three Pristine Heavens, and the Great Overarching Heaven. In total, there are Thirty-Six Heavens 2. Their names are: The Thirty-Two Heavens: The Taihuang Huangceng Heaven, Taiming Yuwan Heaven, Qingming Hetong Heaven, Xuantai Pingyu Heaven, Yuanming Wenju Heaven, Shangming Qiyao Moyi Heaven, Xuwu Yueheng Heaven, Taiji Mengyi Heaven: the above-mentioned constitute the Eight Heavens of the East. The Ciming Heyang Heaven, Xuanming Gonghua Heaven, Yaoming Zhongpiao Heaven, Zhuluo Huangjia Heaven, Xuming Tangliao Heaven, Guanming Duanjing Heaven, Xuanming Gongqing Heaven, and Taihuan Jiyao Heaven are the Eight Heavens of the South. The Yuanzai Kongshen Heaven, Tai'an Wangya Heaven, Xianding Jifeng Heaven, Sihuang Xiaomang Heaven, Taiji Weng Chongfu Rong Heaven, Wusi Jiangyou Heaven, Shangshe Ruanle Heaven, and Wuji Fangshi Heaven are the Eight Heavens of the West. The Haoting Xiaodu Heaven, Yuantong Yuandong Heaven, Taiwen Hanchong Miaocheng Heaven, Taisu Xiule Jingshang Heaven, Taisu Wushang Changrong Heaven, Taishi Yulong Tengsheng Heaven, Longbian Fandu Heaven, and Taiji Pingyu Jiayi Heaven are the Eight Heavens of the North. The Heavens of the Three Pristine Ones3: the Heaven of Supreme Clarity4; the Heaven of Highest Clarity5; the Heaven of Jade Clarity6.

The Great Overarching Heaven Thirty-five of the Thirty-Six Heavens are part of the Great Overarching Heaven 7. The Great Overarching Heaven is infinite, while other heavens are all finite. It is the highest heaven, transcends all the other heavens, and has no limits. In space, the universe is infinite. The Three Worlds and outside The Thirty-Six Heavens are divided into different worlds. The Three Worlds 8 are the World of Desire9, the World of Form10, and the World of Formlessness11. Altogether 28 heavens are included in the Three Worlds. They are subject to kalpas; those who are born in or enter these heavens do not escape from reincarnation and karma. Outside of the Three Worlds are a further eight heavens. Those who Cultivate Dao and leap out of the Three Worlds can escape from kalpas, karma, and reincarnation. The Three Worlds are the World of Desire, the World of Form, and the World of Formlessness The World of Desire contains six Heavens, from the Taihuang Huangceng Heaven to the Qiyao Moyi Heaven. In this world, there is visible form and desire, men and women have intercourse, and give birth to descendants. The World of Form includes eight Heavens, from the Xuwu Yueheng Heaven to the Wuji Tanshi Heaven. In this world there is form but no desire; there is no sexual intercourse and people are directly born out of Vital Breath. The World of Formlessness is made up of four Heavens, from the Haoting Xiaodu Heaven to the Xiule Zhishang Heaven. In this world there is neither desire nor form; common people cannot see the people in this world, who can be seen only by Perfect Men12. Outside of the Three Worlds, the heavens can be divided into several levels inluding the Four Pure Heavens, the Three Pristine Heavens and the Great Overarching Heaven The Four Pure Heavens13 are also called the Four Heavens of the Seed People 14, from the Taixu Wushang Changrong Heaven to the Taiji Pingyu Jiayi Heaven. They are called the Four Heavens of the Seed People because those who enter this realm have already escaped from the cycle of reincarnations; at the time of a kalpa, they do not die but become the seeds of the people of the next kalpa. The Three Prisitne Heavens are also called the Three Pristine Realms 15, and are governed by the Supreme Venerable Sovereign16. The Great Overarching Heaven is above all other Heavens and englobes the entire universe. It is infinite, and contains the Jade Capital Mountain 17 where the Primeval Lord of Heaven18 resides. Outside of the Three Worlds, evberything is pure Vital Breath of Dao19. All is formless and invisible; it is the abode of the Immortals 20. When they unite together they become forms; when they disperse they become Vital Breath; self-dependent, they wander about unfettered. In the Great Overarching Heaven, all is Pure Vital Breath. The Highest level of Cultivation of Immortality is the level of the Golden Immortality 21 of the Great Overarching Heaven. The Netherworld

The Underworlds

Daoism divides the world into nine levels, which are called the Nine Realms 1. Each Realm can further de divided into four Realms, for a total of Thirty-Six Realms. Each Realm is governed by an Emperor of the Soil2. The names of the Nine Realms are as follows: Realm of Colourful Brilliance3; Realm of Diamond Brilliance4; Realm of Paraffin Brilliance5; Realm of Humid Brilliance6; Realm of Golden Millet Brilliance7; Realm of Diamond and Iron Brilliance8; Realm of Water Brilliance9; Realm of Great Wind Brilliance10; Colourless Diamond-Link Realm of the Pervasive Abyss11. The underworld is dark and obscure. The netherworld cannot be entered by common people, but the soul of the dead must inevitably go there, unless it has become an Immortal. The Chinese call the place wher the sould of the dead go 'Supreme Yin' 12. The underworld is governed by the Five Kings of Hell13, especially by the Spirit of the Eastern Hell of Mt. Tai14. It is also said that the netherworld is governed by the Great Emperor of Fengdu 15. The netherworld is the location of hell, where the souls of sinners are locked up, as well as ghosts and goblins. The Relationship between Vital Breath and Dao

'As the principle controlling the motions of things, Dao corresponds to the contemporary concept of natural law; however, it is also an existing entity made up of Emptiness 1. This Dao entity, which circulates between Heaven and Earth, is Vital Breath 2. Everything in the world is made up of Vital Breath, forming an inseparable whole. Vital Breath is continuous and indivisible, and as such is not equivalent to the Western notion of the particle. It has no inner structure, a characteristic which is called 'the smallest, with nothing inside'. This Vital Breath, which is the unified foundation of everything in the universe, can, just like Dao, be called 'Oneness'. Therefore the concepts of 'Dao', 'Oneness' and 'Vital Breath' are equivalent. In Xiang'er's Commentary on Laozi4, Zhang Daoling says that Oneness is Dao. Oneness is outside Heaven and Earth, but also penetrates Heaven and Earth and circulates throughout the human body. In a state of dispersion, Oneness becomes Vital Breath; in a state of collection, it becomes the Supreme Venerable Sovereign 5. However, although Vital Breath permeates and forms everything, there are nonetheless myriads of differences between the various beings in the universe, showing that there must be different kinds of Vital Breath. This requires further discussion. The Vital Breath which is primordial and linked to the Revered Spirits 67 of the Great Dao is called 'Vital Breath of Dao' In Daoism, the character 'Qi' ('Vital Breath') is often written as a combination of the characters for 'Non-Being'8 -- signifying its substance --and 'Fire' -- signifying its movement, volatility, and sublimity. The term 'Vital Breath of Dao' is habitually written in this manner. The source of the universe is Dao, and Vital Breath of Dao is the initiator of the evolution of the universe. Vital Breath of Dao is also referred to as the Vital Breath of Great Purity 9 or as Pure Vital Breath10. In the Numinous Treasure's Lofty and Sublime Book of the Limitless Salvation of Mankind 11, it is stated that <<All movement is of Pure Vital Breath>>. Li Shaowei of the Tang dynasty explained this sentence as follows: the entire universe is made up of perpetually circulating Pure Vital Breath, enabling billions of worlds of unlimited height to remain suspended in emptiness. This Vital Breath is like wind yet is not wind; like water yet is not water (it enables the world to remain afloat); it binds together the entire universe; it seems like both Being and Non-Being, but it truly does exist. Pure Vital Breath is clear and limpid, and possesses unlimited generative power, enough to bind together trillions of worlds. Sometimes Daoism uses a specific term called 'Diamond Wind' 12 or 'Wind

Brilliance'13, an inexhaustible wind that is not extinguished after each kalpa cycle. It is the Vital Breath of the Primordial Pure Wind14. According to the Lofty and Sublime Book of the Primordial Limitless Salvation of Mankind15, this Vital Breath of Wind Brilliance is stronger than genuine gold; therefore it is called 'Diamond Wind'. It englobes the great earth (the Nine Zones 16) and carries the Nine Heavens, traverses Emptiness, arouses the Essential Vital Breath 17 of the Heavenly Han18, making the Vital Breath of the Hevenly Han rise higher than the void, floating in space without falling down. The Diamond Perfect Vital Breath holds the Heavens afloat. The great Earth is also related to the Diamond Vital Breath. The historical commentators of the scriptures all consider that this Diamond Wind is actually the Vital Breath of Dao. The Vital Breath of Great Purity is the Vital Breath of the original source, the root of Heaven and Earth, and is also the primordial Dao. After the Southern and Northern dynasties, it came to be generally called 'Vital Breath of Dao'. Taking Vital Breath as the original source, it is also called 'Original Vital Breath' 19. Vital Breath of Dao is omnipresent. Sometimes, in order to distinguish it from other forms of Vital Breath, it is called 'Primordial Vital Breath'20. Primordial Vital Breath is the original Vital Breath of humans, which we possess from the time of birth. It constitutes man's true nature, is the origin of life, and is the basis for Cultivating Immortality21. Only after discovering and nurturing the Primordial Vital Breath in one's body, can there be any hope of refining an irreversible Body of Law 22. This Primordial Vital Breath will be further described in our later dicussion of Inner Alchemy 23. Vital Breath is the Unified Foundation of the Universe

'Everything in the universe is made up of Vital Breath 1. It is not only the source of all natural and social phenomena, with or without form, but is also the source of all spiritual phenomena including ghosts and spirits, and the spiritual activities of man. Therefore, in Daoist doctrine, Vital Breath is seen as the source and basic substance of all beings, and is the unified foundation of the universe. In the chapter <<Zhi Beiyou>> of the Perfect Book of Nanhua2, Vital Breath of Oneness3 is said to permeate the entire universe. Original Vital Breath 4 existed before the formation of Heaven and Earth. Wu Jun of the Tang dynasty wrote in Gentleman Zhongxuan's Treatise on the Mysterious Matrix5 that the clearest and lightest of these Vital Breaths float upwards to form Heaven, while the heavy and dense Vital Breaths sink downwards to form Earth; the harmonious and smooth Vital Breaths coagulate to form Man, and dispersed and disorderly Vital Breaths are spread out to form all other beings. All are emanations flowing out of the Vital Breath of Oneness and becoming the myriad categories of beings. Thus, we can see that nothing in the universe is not made up of Vital Breath. Vital Breath of Essential Matter and Vital Breath of Spirit There are different types of Vital Breath. The material essence of Vital Breath is called Essential Vital Breath6 or Essential Matter7. The Book of Master Guan8 states that Essential Matter can form different types of beings. Vital Breath is also called Spirit 9 (see chapters <<neiye>> and <<xinshu>> of the Book of Master Guan). In the Book of Supreme Peace10, it is said that man is made up of three different elements -- Essential Matter, Vital Breath, and Spirit -- which are all different forms of Vital Breath. Vital Breath can also be divided into light and dense, and Proper and Deviant Vital Breaths. Ghosts and Spirits are also emanations of Vital Breath of Oneness, but can be divided into Proper and Deviant types. Proper Vital Breath11 transforms itself into Proper Spirits12, while Deviant Vital Breath13 transforms itself into Malicious Demons14 and Monsters15. Therefore, Daoism advocates purifying Vital Breath, spreading Proper Vital Breath and eliminating Deviant Vital Breath.

Man Can Master Vital Breath

The powers of Vital Breath1 are unlimited. If man wishes to unite with Dao, he must master Vital Breath. Once he has mastered Vital Breath, he not only unites with Dao and attains long life and eternal vision; but also controls immense powers and performs feats that ordinary people cannot accomplish. Basic Method for Mastering Vital Breath In order to master Vital Breath, one must first understand the relationship between Man and Vital Breath. In the Inner Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity2, Ge Hong states that man is in Vital Breath and Vital Breath is in man -- similar to stating that the fish is in water and water is in the fish. The eminent Tang dynasty Daoist Master Sun Simiao said in On Nourishing the Body with Vital Breath and Spirit3 that since the emergence of the universe out of the separation of Original Chaos4 and the creation of Heaven and Earth, Vital Breaths gave birth to men and the myriad beings, and their forms emerged. The duration of man's life is determined by his Spirit 5 and Vital Breath. In the Inscription on Visualizing Spirits and Refining Vital Breath 6, it is said that the body is the habitation of Spirit and Vital Breath. If Spirit and Vital Breath are stored up in abundance, the body will be healthy and energetic. If Spirit and Vital Breath are lost, the body will die. If one wants to preserve one's body, one must first stabilize one's Vital Breath. Vital Breath is the mother of Spirit, Spirit is the son of Vital Breath. If Spirit and Vital Breath can unite, one can attain to immortality. Therefore, a great number of Occult Techniques 7 for Refining Vital Breath8 have developed in Daoism. Details on these techniques can be found in the sections on Nourishing Life and Inner Alchemy. Powers one can acquire after mastering Vital Breath Mastery of the Vital Breath (of Dao) releases powers which are commonly unimaginable. Regarding these powers and their effects, Xiao Yingsou of the Song dynasty once said that if Spirit, Vital Energy and Material Essence9 are merged into one and return to their source and root, all the Spirits inside the person's body will unite together and form his Body of Law 10 (an infant), he can discard and abandon his illusory body which he can leave and enter at leisure, no longer under the control of the creator, but united with Dao, having given birth to a Most Precious Jewel 11. Men can attain this Most Precious Jewel in their bodies, roam about unfettered, enjoy eternal youth, and become as everlasting as Heaven and Earth. He can emit his Perfect Vital Breath 12 onto a stone and the stone will change; he can emit it onto a skeleton and a living body will rise; he can emit it to cure all illnesses; he can emit it to expel Goblins13 and Deviant Vital Breath14, which will naturally disappear; to act on the wind and thunder, and make them tremble; he can also in such manner support all beings and let them live Spontaneously and unhindered; and save ghosts so that they naturally attain salvation. This is called the << Limitless Salvation of mankin 15 >>. (See the Inner Meaning of the Lofty and Sublime Book of Primordial Infinity .16). Therefore, Vital Breath is the foundation of all Daoist Arts17. The Infinite

'The Infinite is Dao, a state more primordial and ultimate than the Supreme Ultimate The Infinite1 is the conception Laozi uses to denote the ultimate of Dao. Chapter 28 of the Laozi

says: "He who knows the white but keeps to the black becomes the model of the world. Being the model of the world, he rests in constant virtue, and he returns to the Infinite". So the original meaning of the Infinite is Dao, the infiniteness of Dao. Daoists after Laozi have all used the term 'the Infinite' to denote this meaning, with only slight differences in emphasis. In the section 'Unfettered Excursion', Zhuangzi says, "beyond the Infinite it is still the Infinite". By this he means that the world is infinite and beyond infinite it is still infinite. The Laozi Zhangju by He Shanggong of the Han Dynasty explains "returning to the Infinite" as longevity. According to Daoism, longevity can only be attained through uniting with Dao. Therefore, it is the same to define the Infinite as Dao or as longevity. Being infinite, Dao existed before Heaven and Earth, has existed for infinite time, and will exist forever. Being infinite space, Dao is not confined to any concrete realm. So "the Infinite" is used to denote Dao. When used in the perspective of universal evolution, the Infinite, in contrast with the Supreme Ultimate2, often means the period when Heaven and Earth were not formed. This period is older and more ultimate than the chaos from which Heaven and Earth directly originated. This period is Dao. Therefore, the Infinite is the origin of the Supreme Ultimate. Daoists all pursue union with Dao. The concrete method of doing so is to return to the original and ultimate state. This is the so-called "Returning to the Infinite"3. Between the Infinite and the formation of Heaven and Earth, there are five stages, which are called the "Five Supremes" The Five Supremes4 refer to the Supreme Change5, the Supreme Origin6, the Supreme Beginning7, the Supreme Simplicity8, and the Supreme Ultimate. They are the five successive stages before Heaven and Earth evolve out of Dao. The 'Supreme Change is the state before Vital Breath 9 appears. (The Explanations of Sexagram qian in Auguries Of I Ching and dthe Liezi both say that "the Supreme Change is the state when Vital Breath is not seen.) Daoist theories about Magic Techniques in the Song dynasty also attached great importance to this stage. The General Discussion of All Daoist Skills10 by Zhang Shanyuan, in Vol. 67 of the Great Collection of Daoist Skills11, says: "The Supreme Change is the primordial infinite void before Yin and Yang divide. At this stage, it is lightless, formless and nameless. Silent and formless, it is called the Supreme Change. The Supreme Change is the origin of deities and the state when Vital Breath has not appeared. The stage after the Supreme Change is the Supreme Origin. Liezi said that the Supreme Origin is the stage when Vital Breath has just appeared. Zhang Shanyuan held that the Supreme Origin is the stage when Vital Breath appears and form has not appeared through the changes of Yin and Yang. The Supreme Origin is the stage when Vital Breath originates, but form has not come into being. After the Supreme Origin is the Supreme Beginning. The Supreme Beginning refers to the beginning of form. However, form here is not visible form, but the state before Heaven and Earth formed. The Explanations of Sexagram qian in Auguries of I Ching defines it as follows: 'the Supreme Beginning is the beginning of form". Zhang Shanyuan says:"The Supreme Beginning is the intercourse of Yin and Yang. The One came into being through the intercourse of Yin and Yang. Form is born through the One. Though there is form, substance is still non-existent. The Supreme Beginning is the stage when form has originated but substance is still non-existent. After the Supreme Beginning is the Supreme Simplicity. Liezi defines the Supreme Simplicity as the beginning of substance. Zhang Shanyuan held that the Supreme Simplicity changes and form comes into being. Substance comes into being after form, but has not attained body. Supreme Simplicity is the beginning of substance without body. After the four stages of Supreme Change, Supreme Origin, Supreme Beginning and Supreme Simplicity, Vital Breath, form and substance all exist but are not divided yet. A state of chaos is thus formed, which is called Chaos 12 by Liezi and Supreme Ultimate in other Daoist texts. Zhang Shanyuan held that Chaos is the body of Dao. Its movement and stillness generate the intercourse and changes of Yin and Yang. The Five Agents 13 and all beings are thus born. This Chaos is called the Supreme Ultimate. It is from the stage of Supreme Ultimate that Heaven and Earth begin to form. The conceptions of the 'Five Supremes' are an exploration and generalization of the states before Heaven and Earth formed. They are important both to Daoist philosophy and to the theories of Daoist Magical Arts.

The Supreme Ultimate and the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate

'The concept of the Supreme Ultimate1 has been used since very early on, appearing in such works as the Book of Master Zhuang2 and the Confucian Commentary to the Book of Changes3. Its use in Cosmogony and methodology is usually based on the latter. In the chapter 'Yixi Cizhuan', it is said that <<The Book of Changes4 contains the Supreme Ultimate, which generates the Two forces5, which generate the Four Images6, which generate the Eight Trigrams7. >> This means that in the process of formation of the hexagrams of the Book of Changes, there was first the Supreme Ultimate, before the milfoil divining stalks were divided. After the divining stalks were divided, the two lines of Yin and Yang were formed, and were called the Two Forces. The two lines can be combined in four different ways, forming the Four Images. By adding one hexagrammatic line to each of the Four Images, the Eight Trigrams are created. Such is the way that the Eight Trigrams are drawn. In the Daoist classics, the Book of Changes is seen as a philosophical book which completely explains the mysteries of Heaven and Earth. The process of formation of the Trigrams is also seen as the process of the creation of the world. The Two Forces generated by the Supreme Ultimate refer to the formation of Heaven and Earth by the Supreme Ultimate -- the Two Forces being Heaven and Earth. The concept of the Supreme Ultimate often appears in association with the science of the Book of Changes. The Daoist Science of Changes8 has its own unique system, in which the concept of Supreme Ultimate plays an important part. It is also the foundation of Daoist theories of Cosmogony, religious cultivation and Magic Arts. Over the course of its long history of cultivation, practise, reflexion and experimentation, Daoism greatly enriched the concept of the Supreme Ultimate, forming a theoretical system with the Supreme Utimate at its core, the most important element of which is the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate9. The Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate was originally transmitted by Chen Bo, who called it the Diagram of the Infinite Chen Bo was an eminent Daoist of the later Five Dynasties and early Song. He was an exceptional personage who greatly contributed to Inner Alchemy10 and the Science of Changes. According to historical records, Chen Bo taught the Diagram of Anterior Heaven11, the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate, the River Chart12 and the Writ of the Luo River13 to his disciple Zhong Fang. Zhong Fang then taught them to Mu Xiu, Li Gai and others; later, Mu Xiu transmitted the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate to Zhou Dunyi, who wrote the Illustrated Explanation of the Supreme Ultimate 14 to explain it. The Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate (Taiji symbol) commonly used nowadays is the one taught by Zhou Dunyi. Principal Significance of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate The Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate was originally called the Diagram of the Infinite15. When it came to be called the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate, it was identical with the original diagram, but the method of reading it was different. The two diagrams are illustrated below:

The illustration to the left is the Illustration of the Infinite which includes many principles of Cultivation and Refinement16 of Inner Alchemy. It is to be read from the bottom to the top. The circle at the very bottom is called the Gate of the Mysterious Female 17, which is the starting point of Alchemical Cultivation and Refinement. It refers to the Elixir Field 18 and Gate of Life19 in the human body, situated in between the two kidneys. This is the place where the body's Original Vital Breath 20 is stored, and in which all Inner Alchemy takes root. In the vocabulary of Inner Alchemy, it is also called 'obtaining the aperture'21. The second circle represents the Refinement of Material Essence into Vital Breath22, and the Refinement of Vital Breath into Spirit 23. Here the Original Vital Breath of the first circle is transformed and refined; Post-Existent 24 Material Essence25 is transformed into PreExistent26 Vital Breath27, which is once again transformed into Pre-Existent Spirit. This level of skill is called Self-Refinement28, and consists mainly in making post-existent Yin substance appear as preexistent Spirit. The third level of the diagram shows the integration of the Vital Breaths of the Five Agents29 and Five Viscera -- the liver (wood), the heart (fire), the spleen (earth), the lungs (metal), and the kidneys (water). This is called 'The Five Vital Breaths Turn to the Origin' 30, 'Harmonization of the Five Vital Breaths'31, or simply 'Harmonization'32. The next level is formed out of the two trigrams Kan33 and Li 34 , and is called 'Taking from Kan to Put into Li'35. Once one has reached this state, one now keeps to the essence of the body; the Elixir is Refined to maturity. This is called 'to Obtain the Elixir Drug'36. The middle line of the Kan trigram is Yang and stands for substance; the middle line of the Li trigram is Yin and stands for emptiness. These two lines represent the interchange of the kidney's water and the heart's fire. When the Yang line of the Kan trigram is inserted into the Li trigram, one obtains the Qian37 trigram made up of three Yang lines, signifying the tranformation of man into a pure Yang body. The topmost circle is called 'Refining the Spirit to Return to Emptiness' 38, a return to the Infinite39. This means that after Obtaining the Elixir, one turns back to the Infinite, which is the Great Dao of Emptiness. After accomplishing the process of Inner Alchemy, one discards the Sacred Embryo 40 which has been Refined and becomes an Immortal41 -- this is called to 'Emerge from the Womb to Seek Immortality'42. As for the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate, it should be read from top to bottom. Why can the

same diagram be read in two opposite directions? Daoism considers that if we follow the order of the creation of the myriad beings by the Great Dao, we should begin with the separation of the Supreme Ultimate into Yin and Yang. However, Inner Alchemy follows the opposite direction in order to return to the Great Dao, unite with Dao, and spontaneously become an Immortal. Therefore, although two opposite directions are taken, the path followed is the same. Zhou Dunyi explains the secret of the Supreme Ultimate in the Illustrated Explanation to the Supreme Ultimate Zhou Dunyi's text is very short, but is an excellent synopsis. The first sentence of his explanation goes <<from the Infinite to the Supreme Ultimate>>, meaning that the Supreme Ultimate is born out of the Infinite. However, the famous Neo-Confucian philosopher of the Southern Song, Zhu Xi, removed the character 'Zi' ('from') from the original Chinese text in his commentary to the Illustrated Explanation to the Supreme Ultimate, changing the first sentence's meaning into <<the Infinite is the Supreme Ultimate>> , in order to argue that it has no higher source. This does not conform to Chen Bo's original meaning as passed down in the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate, and obliterates its original Daoist meaning. In addition, Zhu Xi modified the original Diagram. Below is the original text of Zhou Dunyi: 'The Supreme Ultimate is born of the Infinite. The Supreme Ultimate moves and produces Yang. When the movement has reached its limit, rest ensues. Resting, the Supreme Ultimate produces the Yin. When the rest has reached its limit, there is a return to motion. Motion and rest alternate, each being the root of the other. Yin and Yang take up their appointed functions, and so the Two Forces are established. Yang is transformed by reacting with Yin, and so Water, Fire, Wood, Metal and Earth (the Five Agents) are produced. Then the Five Vital Breaths diffuse harmoniously, and the Four Seasons proceed on their course. The Five Agents, when united, form Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang, when united, form the Supreme Ultimate. The Supreme Ultimate has its root in the Infinite. As soon as the Five Agents are formed, they have each their specific nature. The perfection of the Infinite, and the essence of the Two (Forces) and the Five (Agents), unite with one another in marvellous ways, and consolidations ensue. The Dao of the Heavens produces maleness, and the Dao of Earth produces femaleness. The Two Vital Breaths (of maleness and femaleness), reacting with and influencing each other, change and bring the myriad beings into being. Generation follows generation, and there is no end to their changes and transformations. It is man alone, however, who receives the finest essence and is the most spiritual of beings. After his bodily form has been produced, his spirit develops consciousness; when his agents are stimulated and move, there develops the distinction between good and evil, and the myriad phenomena of conduct appear. The sages ordered their lives by the Mean, by the Correct, by Love and Righteousness. They adopted ataraxy as their dominant attitude, and set up the highest possible standards for mankind. Thus it was that 'the Virtue of the sages was in harmony with that of Heaven and Earth, their brightness was one with that of the Sun and Moon, their actions were one with the Four Seasons, and their control over fortune and misfortune was one with that of the gods and spirits'. The good fortune of the noble man lies in cultivating these virtues; the bad fortune of the ignoble man lies in proceeding contrary to them. Therefore it is said, 'In representing the Dao of Heaven one uses the terms Yin and Yang, and in representing the Dao of Earth one uses the terms Soft and Hard, while in representing the Dao of Man, one uses the terms Love and Righteousness'. And it is also said, 'if one traces things back to their beginnings, and follows them to their ends, one will understand all that can be said about life and death. Great is the Book of Changes! Of all truths it is the most perfect!" 43. Zhou Dunyi's Illustrated Explanation to the Supreme Ultimate explains the Diagram of the Supreme

Ultimate in succinct language, and basically conforms with Daoist thought. The second half is much inspired from Confucian ideals of benevolence and righteousness, but generally speaking, Daoism does not oppose these ideals. The first half clearly expresses Daoist principles. Therefore, Daoists since the Song have agreed with Zhou Dunyi's perspective. For example, Xiao Yingsou of the Southern Song incorporated his ideas into his work The Inner Meaning of the Lofty and Sublime Book of Primordial Infinity44. Later, the 43rd generation Celestial Master Zhang Yu also accepted his diagram and explanations. An even more succint depiction of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate This depiction uses a curved line to divide a circle, as shown below:

In this diagram, a curved line divides the circle into two halves, one white and the other black. The white represents Yang and the black represents Yin. There is a black dot in the white part and a white dot in the black part, signifying that there is Yin in Yang and there is Yang in Yin. If the two halves are separated they resemble two fishes; therefore the diagram is popularly called the 'YinYang Fishes'45. This diagram is closely related to Zhou Dunyi's Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate described above, of which it is an even more clear and concise representation. It deeply and visually indicates that everything in the universe forms a unified whole made up of the two opposite and complementary forces of Yin and Yang. If one cuts this circle in half with a straight line through its centre, both halves will always contain both Yin and Yang elements, showing that none of its components can ever be independent and free of internal tension. Sometimes, people wil also depict this circle surrounded by the Sixty-Four Hexagrams, showing that the Supreme Ultimate is the initiator of all movements in the universe. Yin-Yang and the Five Agents

'Yin and Yang refer to the two opposite but complementary forces exercised by all things in the universe. From the previous articles, it is clear that Yin and Yang are already implied by the concept of Vital Breath1. The Vital Breath of Oneness2 circulates; the Infinite3 is the Supreme Ultimate4; the movement and stillness of the Supreme Ultimate give birth to Yin and Yang, which in turn generate the motions and changes of everything in the universe. The Five Agents 5 are categories referring to the fundamental ingredients of the universe. They are named after wood, fire, earth, metal and water, but do not simply refer to these five concrete substances. Rather, they represent a basic framework or mental model by which all phenomena can be classified into five types. The Five Agents are the basic ingredients of the universe.

Yin-Yang is intrinsic to the universe The source of Yang is Dao. The Laozi states that Dao gave birth to the primordial organic unity, from which are derived the two opposite forces, which interpenetrate each other, giving birth to the myriad beings. The backside of all beings is Yin while their front side is Yang; the Vital Breaths of Yin and Yang cross-penetrate until they reach a harmonious state. (<<Dao generates One, One generates Two, Two generates Three, Three generates the myriad beings. The myriad beings turn their backs to Yin and embrace Yang. The Vital Breaths neutralize each other, creating harmony.>>) The generation of Yin and Yang by Dao creates the most fundamental forces of the universe, which are both in opposition and in unity. These Vital Breaths are both mutually opposite and mutually generating. At the same time, they are intrinsic to every thing. Ying-Yang's unity in opposition expresses itself in countless ways. Speaking of the human species, there are male and female; the human person has a spiritual (yang) and a material (yin) dimension; Spirit 6 can also be divided into Yin Spirit and Yang Spirit; and the same goes for Vital Breaths. As for Heaven and Earth, Heaven is Yang and Earth is Yin; mountains are Yang and waters are Yin, etc. Mountains, water, grass, wood, earth, stones, ghosts, spirits, and so on all contain Yin and Yang aspects. The rich meaning of the Five Agents The Five Agents are a fundamental classification system for all things. The relationships between the Five Agents represent the basic relationships between all things. The Five Agents are wood, fire, earth, metal and water, each having manifold meanings, which it would be impossible to fully enumerate. Below, we shall give a brief list of those most commonly used in Daoist religious practise and scriptures: Five Agents: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water Five Directions: East, South, Centre, West, North Five Colours: Green, Red, Yellow, White, Black Five Flavours: Sour, Bitter, Sweet, Acrid, Salty Five Planets: Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, Venus, Mercury Five Viscera: Liver, Heart, Spleen, Lung, Kidney Mutual generation and mutual control of the Five Agents The relationships between the Five Agents are characterized by mutual generation 7 and mutual control8. Mutual generation means that each Agent gives birth to another Agent according to a specific order. The order of mutual generation is an endless cycle. Mutual control means that each Agent restricts another Agent according to a different order. The cycle of control is also an endless one: each controlling Agent is also under the control of another Agent in a different situation. The order of mutual generation is as follows: Wood generates Fire; Fire generates Earth; Earth generates Metal; Metal generates Water; Water generates Wood. The order of mutual control is as follows:

Wood overcomes Earth; Earth overcomes Water; Water overcomes Fire; Fire overcomes Metal; Metal overcomes Wood. If the Five Agents are enumerated in the order of Wood-Fire-Earth-Metal-Water, then in the cycle of mutual generation each Agent generates the next Agent down the list; while in the cycle of control each Agent overcomes the second Agent down the list. Yin-Yang and the Five Agents are mutually related conceptual systems. The relationship between Yin-Yang and the Five Agents is discussed in article 2.3.2.2, in relation to the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate9. The Supreme Ultimate gives birth to Yin and Yang, which, through their intercourse and transformations, give birth to the Five Agents. This process is described in detail in the chapter 'On Yin-Yang and the Five Agents' in the scripture Seven Slips of a Cloudy Satchel10. The author of this text says that Yin-Yang develops from the 'Younger' 11 to the 'Elder'12 (In the Science of Changes13, Yin-Yang is divided into Elder Yang, Elder Yin, Younger Yang and Younger Yin), and generates the Five Agents. The Younger Yang generates Wood; the Elder Yang generates Fire; the Younger Yin generates Metal; and the Elder Yin generates Water. Yin and Yang interpenetrate harmoniously, forming a husband-and-wife couple. The Agent 'Earth' is not mentioned, because it is not restricted to a single place. Rather, it harmoniousy interpenetrates with the other Four Agents. Yin-Yang generates the Five Agents, each of which, in turn, has Yin and Yang aspects. For example, the Agent Fire is expressed in man as his Spirit, which can be divided into Yin Spirit and Yang Spirit, and hence Yin Fire and Yang Fire. Earth expresses itself as man's consciousness. But consciousness can be divided into correct knowledge and confused thoughts. Correct knowledge is Original Spirit14, and is also called the male (Yang) Earth, while the confused thoughts are called female (Yin) Earth. The latter must be eliminated; therefore one must undergo the process of Self-Refinement. When Daoists practise Breathing Arts and apply Magic Arts, they always follow the principles of YinYang and of the Five Agents. This type of application is integrated into the concrete methods of Refining Skills15 and Practising Arts. Yin-Yang and the Five Agents

'The theory of the Five Agents1 originated in the Book of Documents2, while the theory of Yin-Yang first appeared in the Book of Changes3 and was widespread among the Yin-Yang Naturalists4 of the Spring and Autumn Warring States period. We will first discuss the Five Agents: The <<Inner Chapter of the Great Norm>> of the Book of Documents states that when the King of Wu defeated the Shang kingdom, the eminent Shang statesman Qizi offered him a general plan of government in nine points called the 'Nine Fields of the Great Norm'; the first of which was called the 'Five Agents': the first being Water, the second Fire, the third Wood, the fourth Metal, the fifth Earth. The text then describes the nature of each Agent: 1. 'Water' seeps downward: rain, mountain springs and rivers all flow downwards, moistening and penetrating the soil, allowing for the birth of the myriad beings. 2. 'Fire' flares upward: fire flames upward, creating scalding heat, such as a volcano which explodes and creates earth, and such as the small fires made by the people as a daily necessity.

3. 'Wood' distinguishes right and wrong: trees grow straight and not crooked, symbolizing the distinction between truth and falsity. By observing wood, the people can distinguish right and wrong.

4. 'Metal' transforms: in ancient times, 'metal' referred to copper, which was used to make tools and implements, through a process of constant refinement and improvement. 5. 'Earth' provides harvests: it generates various farm products used to nourish people. The 'Great Norm' continues by enumerating the flavours associated with each Agent: 1. Downward seeping (water) is associated with saltiness (which enters the kidneys). 2. Upward flaring (fire) is associated with bitterness (which enters the heart). 3. Straightness (wood) is associated with sourness (which enters the liver). 4. Transformation (metal) is associated with acridity (which enters the lungs). 5. Harvesting (earth) is associated with sweetness (which enters the spleen). The pre-Qin Daoists and Yin-Yang Naturalists also recognized that the Five Agents were the basic elements of nature, and described the movements of the Five Agents in terms of mutual generation 5 and mutual control6, to which they also added temporal cycles. They came to be called the YinYang and Five-Agent Naturalists7, whose leading figure at the end of the Zhou dynasty was Zou Yanchang. At the beginning of the Han dynasty, the Confucians based themselves on natural phenomena to describe the mutual generation and control of the Five Agents as follows: Mutual control of the Five Agents: Metal overcomes wood: wood cannot resist the metal axe. Wood overcomes earth: the roots of trees hold soil together. Earth overcomes water: earth sinks in water; earth dykes hold water back. Water overcomes fire: it can extinguish fire. Fire overcomes metal: it can transform copper into tools. Mutual generation of the Five Agents: Metal generates water: A copper mirror can condense water vapour, turning it into dew-drops. Water generates wood: plants and trees need water to grow. Wood generates fire: one burns wood to make fire. Fire generates earth: when volcanoes erupt, new soil emerges. Earth generates metal: all metal is extracted from earth. The phenomena described above are influenced by changes in time. There are differences between each year, each month, each day and each hour; therefore, Yin-Yang (representing time phases) was integrated with the Five Phases. As early as 3000 years ago, Chinese astronomers ascertained the movement of Jupiter and

determined the exact times of the winter and summer solstices, from which they were able to fix the times of the seasons and of the Celestial Stems and Earthly Branches 8. Each year at the winter solstice during the eleventh month of the lunal calendar (when the sun shines directly above the tropic of Capricorn), the sun begins to move northward, the days become gradually longer and the nights shorter: this is called the Emergence of Yang 9. Each year at the summer solstice during the sixth month of the lunar calendar (when the sun shines directly above the tropic of Cancer), the sun begins to move southward, the days gradually become shorter and the nights gradually become longer: this is called the Emergence of Yin 10. The year is thus divided into to halves. From the winter solstice to the moment preceding the summer solstice is Yang; from the summer solstice to the moment preceding the winter solstice is Yin. The day is also divided: daytime is Yang and nighttime is Yin -- before noon is Yang and before midnight is Yin. In terms of time, Yin and Yang are opposite to each other; we can even go so far as to say that matter is made from the opposition between Yin and Yang. As matter is created from the mutual generation and control of the Five Agents, therefore Yin-Yang and the Five Agents constitute a unified whole. Yin-Yang and the Five Agents are the basic elements which make up nature; holding the investigation of nature as their goal, Daoists related the Five Agents and Yin-Yang to all matter, beginning with the Five Agents in the human body. The Yin-Yang Naturalists considered 'Man' to be born out of the combination of the most sublime essences of the natural world, and therefore related parts of the body to elements of nature: Man has hair and nature has grass; man has two eyes and nature has the sun and moon; breathing is related to wind; tears are related to rain; bones to mountains; blood vessels to rivers, etc. This was called the Oneness of Heaven and Man11, a principle advocated by the Confucians of the early Han dynasty. Daoism adopted this theory, using the Confucian Yin-Yang arts as the root of Refining Elixirs 12 and Refining Vital Breath13 At the time, Chinese medicine was affiliated to the Confucian Arts 14 and marginally concerned with Yin-Yang and the Five Agents. However, the most accomplished in the study of Yin-Yang and the Five Agents were the Daoists. Therefore, Chinese medical theory takes Yin-Yang and the Five Agents as its core, and uses much Daoist terminology in its texts. Students of Chinese medicine thus know that the Five Viscera are Yang: the liver is Wood; the kidneys are Water; the lungs are Metal; the heart is Fire; the spleen is Earth. The six intestines are Yin: the gallblader is associated with the liver; the urinary bladder is associared with the kidneys; the great intestine is associated with the lung; the small intestine is associated with the heart; the stomach is associated with the spleen. The visvera and intestines are thus linked; and interact on each other. The Six Intestines also include the Triple Warmer 15, which is not related to the Five Viscera. According to the theory of mutual control of the Five Agents, the liver (wood) overcomes the spleen

(earth); the kidneys (water) overcome the heart (fire); the lungs (metal) overcome the liver (wood); the heart (fire) overcomes the lungs (metal); the kidneys (water) overcome the heart (fire). Chinese medicine bases its treatments on the above theory. For example, a stomach pain may be due to excessive strength of the liver, owing to wood overcoming earth (the spleen). Therefore, threatment of stomach pains often uses medicine to regularize the liver, as opposed to pain-killers. Daoist Vital Breath Refinement and Elixir Refinement stress the interactions between the heart and the kidneys, calling it the intersection between water and fire, or the intersection between Kan and Li. Wei Boyang, in his Three Ways Unified and Normalized of the Book of Changes16, integrated the Eight Trigrams17 of the Book of Changes to Yin-Yang and Five Agents theory. >From then on, YinYang, the Five Elements and the Eight Trigrams became a unified whole. Related to the Eight Trigrams, the Supreme Ultimate18 is depicted with Yin-Yang on the inside and the Eight Trigrams on the outside, according to the eight directions as follows:

Kan19 ( water) north; Zhen21 ( thunder) east; Xun23 ( Kun (

25

Li20 ( Dui22 ( Qian24 ( Gen (

26

fire) south; lake) west; sky) northwest; mountain) northeast.

wind) southeast; earth) southwest;

Geomancers combine the Eight Trigrams and eight directions with the Twenty-Eight Constellations, the Twenty-Four Energy Nodes27 and the Sixty-Four Hexagrams (doubled trigrams) to form the geomancer's compass which can ascertain good and bad fortune. Astrologers use the Five Agents and Eight Trigrams to establish horoscopes. Diviners use the Five Agents and Eight Trigrams to predict the future. All use Daoist theories as the basis for their works. Daoism worships a multitude of spirits; popular almanachs and manuals of Chinese medicine are based on the principles of Yin-Yang, Five Phases and Eight Trigrams. They have penetrated the common peoples' lives, who use them every day without knowing it. Sayings such as 'fire in the heart' to explain insomnia, 'kidney water defienciency' to explain neurasthenia, are commonly used by people of all ages. However, they do not know that these ideas are derived from Daoism. Daoism completely penetrates our lives - a fact that is worth taking note of. Daoist Immortalism: Immortality Can be Sought After and Learned

The pantheon of Daoist Immortals: Daoism is a polytheistic religion. Its divinities form a pantheon of Immortals1 divided into three levels. The first level is comprised of the Lordly Spririts of Anterior Heaven2; they are the Perfect Spirits of Anterior Heaven3 which have existed since before Heaven and Earth divided. They include the Three Pristine Ones4, the Three Heavenly Officials5, the Four Heavenly Ministers6, the Stellar Sovereigns of the Five Planets and Seven Stars 7, the Four Numinous Animals and Twenty-Eight Constellations8, etc. The second level is comprised of Perfect Immortals9 who have attained Dao after the creation of Heaven and Earth. Called the Divinities of Posterior Heaven10, they were originally common people who have become Immortals after Cultivating Dao. They include the Three Mao Perfect Sovereign Brothers 11, the Eight Immortals12, etc. The third level is made up of divinities of popular religion which are recognized by Daoism, such

as the Door Spirits13, the Spirits of Wealth14, the Kitchen Spirit15, the Earth Spirits16, the Motherly Matriarch17, Emperor Guan18, the Saintly Founder-King of Zhang19, the Water-Margin Lady20, etc. Looking at the functions and spiritual attributes of the three levels of divinities, we can see that they form a structure analogous to the administrative systems prevalent in human society. Among them, the Perfect Sages of Anterior Heaven occupy the highest position, and are omnipresent and omnipotent. On the other hand, the popular divinities can only influence one aspect of peoples' lives, and therefore their position is low. In the Great Law of the Numinous Treasure of the Highest Clarity21 of the Southern Song dynasty, a list of 360 Immortals for Ritual Offerings is given, in which the Immortals are divided into 11 ranks. Although Daoism is polytheist, it nevertheless has a certain inner unity, as all divinities are manifestations of 'Dao', and possess Dao-Nature 22. Daoist Immortals are all made of 'Vital Breath', i.e., they are emanations of Vital Breath 23. The Book of Pervasive Divinity24 states: 'The Great Dao sends down Spirits, and attends to all. Some have a name but no style; some have a style but no surname; and some have a rank but no name. Each has specific attributes and is all are different. Thus the true Spirits are all created by Dao". Immortality can be sought after and learned: The Tang dynasty high Daoist priest Pan Shizheng of the Highest Clarity sect25 once said: "The Sage26 is he who is awakened to the Mysteries. All has form, and everything has Dao-Nature. In attaining to Dao, there are differences in depth of awareness. He who remains within the vulgar world and does not commune with Perfection, does not attain to Dao. He who is aware of the near but not of the distant, is not called a Sage." Since everything has Dao-Nature, all Daoist Immortals and adepts share the common essential chracteristics of Dao and Vital Breath. Immortals are concerned for the lives of men, and hence often enter this world to guide men and save those who have a predestined affinity. Some of the Immortals of Anterior Heaven were thus awakened to Dao and refined to perfection by divine guidance. Those who are not predestined to meet a Perfect Immortal may accumulate Virtues, perform good deeds, and assiduously Cultivate and Refine 27 until they become enlightened and attain Dao, reaching the stage where 'the body is united with Dao and cannot but remain with it, and the mind is united with Dao and cannot but commune with it." Then one enters the realm of Immortals who no longer undergoe birth or death, are unharmed by water or fire, and can come and go at will. Therefore, Daoist adepts can pray to Immortals and interact with them, and receive their protection and enlightenment; they can also study and cultivate Dao by themselves until they enter the ranks of the Immortals.

The Primeval Lord of Heaven

Origin of the Primeval Lord of Heaven As one of the Three Pristine Ones1, the Primeval Lord of Heaven2 is one of the highest divinities of Daoism. He was born from the Vital Breath3 of Spontaneity4 in the Anterior Supreme Non-Being5. Initially, he was called the Primeval King of Heaven6. The Book of Pillow Secrets7 by Ge Hong of the Eastern Jin dynasty says: "In the great chaos before Yin and Yang divided, no form existed. Without Heaven and Earth, and the sun and moon, it was like a choatic and blackist-yellow 8 egg. But already, Perfect Man Pangu, as the essence of the universe, called himself the Primeval King of Heaven and existed freely there. After creating Heaven and Earth by dividing them, the Primeval King of Heaven discarded his body and traveled with his brilliant spirit throught the heavens. Seeing the Holy Maiden of Supreme Origin9 and loving her purity, he transformed into blue light and entered her mouth. Carried by the Holy Maiden for twelve years, he was born out of her back. Whether moving on still, speaking or silent, he was always surrounded by colorful clouds. Because

in his former life he was Pangu and the Primeval King of Heave, he was called the Primeval Lord of Heaven. The Comprehensive Mirro of the Perfect Immortals Who Embodied the Dao 10 explained his name as follows: "(the character) Yuan means origin; (the character) Shi means the beginning. The Original Vital Breath11, transforming into the man who created the world, becomes Pangu; transforming into the patriarch who rules Heaven, he becomes the Primeval Lord of Heaven. Living in the highest abode of Heaven: The Chart of the ranks of the Perfect Souls12 by Tao Hongjing, an imminent Daoist of the Qi and Liang dynasties, says that the place where the spirits dwell is the Triple Origin Palace of Jade Clarity 13. The Primeval Lord of Heaven lives in the middle position of the upper first rank, i.e., in the Jade Clarity Realm 14. Living higher than the other thirtyfive heavens, the Primeval Lord of Heaven occupies the highest position in Heaven. In the Jade Clarity Realm, there are pavilions of purple clouds and mansions of green clouds. All the immortals duly go to the Jade Clarity Realm to pay respect to the Primeval Lord of Heaven. Salvation with the Secret Dao: The History of the Sui dynasty says the Primeval Lord of Heaven exists eternally. Every time Heaven and Earth come into being, he inaugurates the new kalpa and saves people by teaching them the secret Dao." All those he saves are upper-ranked immortals, such as the Supreme Venerable sovereign15, the Supreme Elder16, the Imperial Man of Inborn Perfection17, and the Heavenly Emperors of the Five Directions18 as well as the Immortal Officials.19"

Worship: In most Daoist temples, there is a Hall of the Three Pristine Ones, where the middle position is occupied by the sculpture of the Primeval Lord of Heaven with a Pearl of Original Chaos20 in his hand. In large-scale Daoist rituals, the names or the sculptures of the Three Pristine Ones are also worshiped, with the Primeval Lord of Heaven in the middle position. The holy birthday of the Primeval Lord of Heaven is the first days of the Lunar Year, but some folk people also worship him on the inter solstice. The Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure

Origin of the Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure The Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure1 is one of the Three Pristine Ones2, the highest divinities of Daoism. Formerly, he was called the 'Lofty Saint of Highest Clarity, Supreme Jade Emperor and Sovereign of the Great Dao'3. In the Chart of the Ranks of the Perfect Souls4, he was in the middle position of the second rank, second only to the Primeval Lord of Heaven4, who is in the middle of the first rank. He was called the 'Supreme Sovereign of the Great Dao' 5 in the Tang Dynasty, until the Song Dynasty when he was called 'Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure' 6 or 'Sovereign of the Numinous Treasure'7. According to the Great Grotto Book of Pervasive Perfection8 cited in Seven Slips of a Cloudy Satchel9,"the essence of vital breath of the jade morning and purple clouds of best auspices, which were brilliant like jade and glorious like gold, combined with the Original Spirit and dwelt in the mother's womb, and were transformed into a man." This was the Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure. According to the Brief Account of the Numinous Treasure10, the Supreme Sovereign of the Great Dao dwelt in the womb of Hongshi in Nunayu Country in the west, and meditated in the jade womb mansion for 3700 years. Then he was born at the side of Danxuan Hill, Mt. Fuluo, and was named Qidu and nicknamed Shangkaiyuan. When grown up, he was awakened to Dao and perfection and, wishing to be enlightened, he sat under a dead mulberry tree and meditated. After 100 days, the Primeval Lord of Heaven descended and taught him ten subtle scriptures of the Great Vehicle Law of the Numinous Treasure."

Administering and Assisting the High Immortals The Lofty Saint of Highest Clarity, Supreme Jade Emperor and Sovereign of the Great Dao, was an assistant of the Primeval Lord of Heaven. Since receiving the scriptures and laws, he lived in the Highest Clarity Realm11, the second highest position among the 36 heavens. As the ruler of the Sun Palace of Stamen Pearls12, he governs the Seven Purple Chambers of Light 13 which are guarded by Golden Lads and Jade Maidens, each numbering 300,000. For him, the ten thousand Spirits pay respect, the Five Virtes hold talismans, the higher perfected ones attend the morning rites, and the heavenly emperors hold charts. Salvation by the Numinous Treasure According to the Pervasive Mystery's Book of Original Deeds14, the Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure saves people by using the Laws of the Numinous Treasure. During the 9900 billion eons from original creation to the first year of the Crimson Light Cycle 15, the people he saved are as numerous as grains of sand and dust. Whenever an inquisitive man with affinities raises questions, the Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure teaches kindly and generously. He has 36 transformations and 72 apparitions, and can correspond immediately to the wishes of the people in tens of thousands of places. Worship in Temples In the Halls of the Three Pristine Ones16 of Daoist temples, the Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure always appears to the left of the Primeval Lord of Heaven, with an S-Shaped Ornamental Object17 in his hand. In large-scale Daoist rituals, the Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure also appears to the left of the Primeval Lord of Heaven. The divine birthday of the Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure is the summer solstice, in the middle of the fifth lunar month. The Heavenly Lord of the Numinous Treasure is the major divinity of folk worship ritual during the summer solstice. The Heavenly Lord of Dao and its Virtue

Origin of the Heavenly Lord of Dao and its Virtue The Heavenly Lord of Dao and its Virtue1 is one the Three Pristine Ones2, the highest divinities of Daoism. He is Laozi, and has also been called the Supreme Venerable Sovereign 3 since the Northern Wei Dynasty. According to the biographies of Laozi collected by Ge Hong in the Biographies of the Immortals4, Laozi is said to have been born before Heaven and Earth, after 72 years' stay in his mother's womb. He was born under a plum tree with the ability to speak, and took his surname "Li" after the tree. According to the Inscription in Honor of Laozi5 written by Bian Shao, prime Minister of Chen, in the eighth year of the Yanxi Era of the Eastern Han dynasty, Laozi "came out of the Vital Breath of Chaos, and is as eternal as the three lights of the Sun, Moon and Stars." "As the incarnation of Dao, he shelters and saves people." The Chart of the Ranks of the Perfected Souls6 places the Supreme Venerable Sovereign of Supreme Clarity in the middle of the fourth rank, in the Supreme Ultimate Palace7 of the Supreme Clarity Realm8, which is the 34th and third highest of the 36 heavens. The chapter 'Buddhist and Daoist Records' in the History of the Wei Dynasty says that the Supreme Venerable Sovereign "dwells above in the Jade Capital 9, as the ancestor of the divine kings, and dwells below in the Purple Subtlety 10, as the Lord of the flying Immortals." The royal family of the Tang dynasty, taking Laozi as its ancestor, worshipped him and

honored him with many noble titles. Emperor Gao honored him as "Supreme Emperor of the Mysterious Origin"11 ; Emperor Xuan honored him as "Great Sage Ancestor and Great Heavenly Emperor of the Mysterious Origin of the Golden Palace of the Great Lofty Dao" 12. Avatar of Dao The Seven Slips of a Cloudy Satchel13 says, "Laozi is the Venerable Sovereign and avatar of Dao. He is the Ancestor of Original Vital Breath14 and the Root of Heaven and Earth. Coming out of Spontaneity15, the subtle origin of the great Dao is born from non-birth, precedes the unprecedented, is formed from the Empty Grotto 16, and creates and nourishes Heaven and Earth. He is called the highest true perfect Dao, numinous and subtle beyond name. Therefore he says: "Born before the formless, originated before supreme origin, fully grown at the supreme beginning, I travel at the origin of Supreme Simplicity 17. Going inside and out of emptiness, I enter and leave the obscure mystery. I watched chaos before its division, witnessed Yin and Yang before their separation, pace the wilderness of the universe, and experience the creation of all things. So the Venerable Sovereign is the original Vital Breath of perfect Dao and creator of Spontaneity." The Teacher of Sages Since the union of Fuxi with Shen Nong, the Supreme Venerable Sovereign has repeatedly incarnated himself in the world. He was the Master of the Mysterious Middle 18 in the time of the Upper Three August Ones, Imperial Sovereign of the Golden Palace in the time of Lower Three August Ones, Yuhuazi in the time of Fuxi, and Nine-Soul Laozi in the time of Shen Nong. He was Guangshouzi in the time of Zhurong, Guangchengzi in the time of the Yellow Emperor, and Chijingzi in the time of Zhuanxu. He was Lutuzi in the time of Emperor Ku, Wuchengzi in the time of Yao, and Yinshouzi in the time of Shun. He was Zhenxingzi in the time of Yu of the Xia Dynasty, Xizezi in the time of Tang of the Yin Dynasty, and Master Wenyi in the time of King Wen. He is the teacher of generations of sages. Worship in Temples In the Halls of the Three Pristine Ones of Daoist temples, the Supreme Venerable Sovereign always appears to the right of the Primeval Lord of Heaven 19, as a white-haired and white-bearded elder man with a feather fan in his hand. In large-scale Daoist rituals, the Supreme Venerable Sovereign also appears to the right of the Primeval Lord of Heaven. The holy birthday of the Supreme Venerable Sovereign or Heavenly Lord of Dao and Its Virtue, is the 15th of the second lunar month. Daoism, regarding the Supreme Venerable Sovereign as its ancestor, holds a holy birthday celebration and Luck and Longevity prayer rituals on this day. The Great Jade Emperor

Origin of the Jade Emperor The Great Jade Emperor1 is often simply called the 'Jade Emperor', as well as the 'Most Venerable Jade Emperor of the Heavenly Golden Palace'2 and 'Lofty Jade Emperor of the Mysterious Heaven"3. In the Song Dynasty, Emperor Zhen honored him with the holy title 'Supreme Jade Emperor, Creator of Heaven, Holder of Talismans, Imperial Timesetter, Container of Perfection, and Embodiment of Dao"4. Emperor Hui honored him as 'Supreme Highest Jade Emperor of the Heavens, Creator of Heaven, Holder of Talismans, Jade Timesetter, Container of Perfection, and

Embodiment of Dao'5. His complete name in Daoist scriptures is 'Most Venerable Highest Jade Emperor of All-Embracing Sublime Spontaneous Existence of the Heavenly Golden Palace" 6. According to the Original Deeds of the Lofty Jade Emperor7, the Great Jade Emperor is the son of the King of the Pure Blissful Kingdom of Lofty Heavenly Lights and Ornaments 8 and of the Empress of Precious Moonlight9. At birth, the precious light of his glorious flames filled the country. He was smart and wise when young, and kind and benevolent when grown up. He devoted the entire state treasury to all sentient beings, the poor and suffering, the deserted and single, the hungry and disabled. After the death of the King of Pure Bliss 10, he ruled ably as crown prince and told his ministers that, feeling merciful for all sentient beings, he would abandon the throne and cultivate Dao on the Mountain of Universal Light and Fragrant Rocks 11. After 3200 aeons, he attained to the station of Golden Immortality12 and was called 'Emperor of Spontaneous Enlightenment" 13. After another billion aeons, he ascended to the station of Jade Emperor. Emperor of Ten Thousand Spirits The Jade Emperor is the emperor of all heavens, king of all Immortals, lord of saints, the highest divinity of the ten thousand spirits in the three realms and of all Immortals of the Three Grottoes 14. He has the power to order the Immortals of the Nine Heavens and to invoke the spirits of the four seas and five sacred mountains. All the spirits follow and attend to him in queue, just like the emperor and his ministers in the human world. A poem of Bai Juyi says: "Immortals such as Anqi and Xianmen attend to him in queue like ministers. To his holy majesty I look up and bow to pay my sincere respect." In Charge of the Dao of Heaven The Jade Emperor is an avatar of the Three Pristine Ones 14. The relationship between them is like Emptiness15 preceding Subtle Being16, Infinity17 preceding the Supreme Ultimate18, NonInterference19 preceding Interfering Action20. Therefore, the Jade Emperor is the master of the three fundamentals in charge of the pivot of Heaven, Earth and Man. The Jade Emperor sends the Great Emperor of the North Pole Star of Purple Subtlety21 to administer the longitudes and latitudes of Heaven and Earth; the Great Emperor of the Highest Palace of Polaris 22 to administer the Three Powers of Heaven, Earth, and Man and to control wars; and the Imperial God of Earth 23 to administer births, land, and rivers. In general, all things, Heaven, Earth, Yin and Yang, and creation, are in the charge of the Jade Emperor. Worship in Temples The holy birthday of the Jade Emperor is the 9th of the first month of the lunar calendar. On this day, Daoist temples hold a Golden Register Ritual Offering 24 called 'Jade Emperor Ritual'25. The attendants, Daoist or laymen, worship the Jade Emperor with the "Offering to Heaven" 26 rite, to pray for Luck and Longevity. Folk people in Taiwan and Fujian, calling the Jade Emperor "Grandpa Heaven"27, worship him on the 9th of the first lunar month. All members of the family, after fasting and bathing, burn incense, prostrate, offer food, and recite scriptures. In some places, operas are performed to please the deity. In north China, sacrifices to the Jade Emperor were held in the past, where an image of the Jade Emperor was paraded around the village. The 25th of the twelfth month is the legendary day when the Jade Emperor descends and inspects the human world; folk people and temples all welcome and see off the Jade Emperor by burning incense and reciting scriptures. The Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery

Origin of the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery The Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery 1 is also called 'Heavenly Lord of Salvation from Misery in Response to Cries for Help'2, and 'Heavenly Lord of Salvation from Misery in the Ten Directions"3. According to the Book of Protection and Salvation from Misery by the Supreme Oneness4, the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery is the Great Benevolent One of the Heavenly Court's Eastern World of Eternal Happiness 5. He appears everywhere, in the Heavenly Palace6, in the human world, and in hell, among devils as the powerful governor. The Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery can transform in response to the kinds of subjects to be saved, into immortal lads and jade maidens, imperial sovereigns and saints, heavenly lords and perfected ones, diamond warriors and divine kings, devil kings and powerful guardians, celestial masters and Daoists, imperial men and venerable sovereigns, heavenly heelers and officials, men and women, civil and military officials, teachers of law and of meditation, masters of wind and of rain. He is all-powerful. "This sage is called the Supreme Oneness Spirit of Luck7 in Heaven, the Great Benevolent One8 in the world, the Imperial Sovereign of Sunshine9 in hell, the Brilliant Lion King10 among heretics, and the Imperial Sovereign of the Pervasive Abyss11 in the water realm." Functions and Temple Worship: According to the Supreme Appeal of the Three Grottoes12, there are nine Heavenly Lords: the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery, the Heavenly Lord of Salvation from Misery in the Ten Directions, the Heavenly Lord Who Saves Sinners from the Ninth Hell 13, the Heavenly Lord of Salvation from the Zhuling Star 14, the Heavenly Lord of Elixirs Refined by Fire15, the Heavenly Lord of the Great Bridge of Salvation 16, the Heavenly Lord of the Golden Palace Avatar17, the Heavenly Lord of Unfettered Bliss 18, and the Heavenly Lord of Precious Glorious Perfection19. The Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery is the first and chief among them. His role is "to save sentient beings with highest holiness and benevolence, extreme kindness and love, by riding the immortal cart of nine masters and shining forth the auspicious lights of the hundred treasures." According to legends, a man in distress need only recite the name of the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery, and he will get help and relief in response to his cry for help. As for those who have accumulated merits perfectly, the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery will descend on his immortal cart of nine masters and, shining forth the auspicious lights of the hundred treasures, lead them to ascend to Immortality. Daoist temples generally have a Hall of Supreme Oneness20 where a sculpture or image of the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness is worshipped. He always appears as a Heavenly Lord riding on a lion. Only on the Festivals of the Three Origins, or during Yellow Register Rituals of Salvation, is the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery worshipped. Since the Song and Yuan dynasties, many Daoist rituals take the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery as the major divinity, such as the Precious Repentance for Salvation from the Blood Lake Hell Told by the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery 21, Refinement and Salvation of the Numinous Treasure22, and the Lantern Ritual for Salvation from the Ninth Hell23. In such rituals, besides guiding the sentient beings, the Heavenly Lord of Supreme Oneness and Salvation from Misery is also in charge of Refining the souls of the dead with water and fire, purifying the Blood Lake Hell, saving the souls of sinners from hell, and so on. The Three Emperor-Officials: The Emperors of Heaven, of Earth, and of Water

Origin of the Three Great Emperor-Officials The Three Great Emperor-Officials1 are the Heavenly Official2, the Earthly Official3 and the Water Official4. In early ancient China, rituals of sacrifice to Heaven, Earth and Water were commonly performed. The Records of Rites5 says: "The sacrifice for Heaven is burned with wood; the sacrifice for the mountain is raised to the mountain peak; the sacrifice for the river is sunken in the water; and the sacrifice for earth is buried." However, it was the exclusive right of emperors to sacrifice to heaven, earth and rivers, while the common people only sacrificed to their ancestors. In the eastern Han dynasty, when Zhang Daoling founded the Celestial Masters Tradition 6, he instated a method for Daoists to pray for healing by sacrificing to Heaven, Earth and Water, and by presenting Handwritten Repentances to the Three Heavenly Officials 7. "One is placed on the top of the mountain to offer to heaven; one is buried into the earth; and one is sunken into water." In the Southern and Northern dynasties, the Three Officials were combined with the Spirits of the Three Origins (higher, middle and lower)8. The Heavenly Official Who Confers Blessings The Heavenly Official, also known as 'Higher Origin First-Class Heavenly Official Who Confers Blessings'9 or 'Great Emperor of Purple Subtlety'10, belongs to the Jade Clarity Realm11. The Heavenly Official, a condensation of green, yellow, and white Vital Breaths 12 of the Original Chaos, is in charge of the emperors of all the heavens. Every 15th day of the first month of the lunar calendar, he descends to the human world and inspects and decides the sins and blessings of men, and thus is called the Heavenly Official Who Confers Blessings 13. The Earthly Official Who Absolves Sins The Earthly Official, also known as the 'Earthly Official of Middle Origin and Second-Rank Absolver of Sins'14 or 'Great Emperor of Pristine Emptiness"15, belongs to the Highest Clarity Realm16. The Earthly Official, a condensation of Numinous Vital Breath of the Original Grotto of Chaos 17 and of Essence of Extreme Yellow, is in charge of the Five Emperors of the Five Sacred Mountains and of the Earthly Immortals of all places. Every 15th of the seven month of the lunar calendar, he comes to the human world, inspects the sins of men and absolves them. The Water Official Who Eliminates Misfortunes The Water Official, also known as the 'Water Official of Lower Origin and Third-Rank Eliminator of Misfortunes'18 or 'Great Emperor of Pervasive Yin"19, belongs to the Jade Clarity Realm20. The Water Official, a condensation of Vital Breath of Winds and Lakes and of Essence of the Dawn of Greatness, is in charge of the immortals residing in water. Every 15th of the tenth month of the lunar calendar, he comes to the human world to inspect sins and good fortune, and eliminates the misfortunes of men. Worship in Temples On 15th of the first month, the 15th of the seventh month and the 15th of the tenth month, the birthdays of the Three Officials of Heaven, Earth and Water, Daoists go to temples and burn

incense to offer sacrifices. Also, Golden Register Rituals 21 and Yellow Register Rituals22 are held to pray for fortune and eliminate misfortune. The Four Heavenly Ministers

Origin of the Four Heavenly Ministers The Four Heavenly Ministers1, including the Great Jade Emperor2, the Middle Heaven Great Emperor of the North Pole Star of Purple Subtlety3, the Great Heavenly Emperor of the Highest Palace of Polaris4 and the Imperial God of Earth5, are four deities in charge of all things in Heaven and Earth under the Three Pristine Ones6. The Great Jade Emperor is the master of the ten thousand spirits. The Middle Heaven Great Emperor of the North Pole Star of Purple Subtlety, as the Stellar Sovereign7 of the Purple Subtlety Constellation, is situated in Middle Heaven 8 and is the master of all the stars. The Great Heavenly Emperor of the Highest Palace of Polaris, which is composed of four stars left of the Imperial Polar Constellation, is located at the Pole Star as the pivot of heaven. The Imperial God of Earth is the center of Heaven and Earth; it had a a male form before the Tang dynasty and acquired a female form during Wu Zetian's reign. Queen Pan of the Song Emperor Zhenzong built a temple on Mt Song for the worship of the Great Holy Earth Queen of Mysterious Heaven9. Emperor Hui, in the seventh year of the Zhenghe Era, honored the spirit with the title "Imperial Earth Queen Who Receives and Follows Heavenly Laws and Promotes Kind Virtue"10. Since then, the Earth Goddess has always been depicted as a female. Since the Song dynasty, owing to the promotion of the Jade Emperor in position and function in the Daoist pantheon, he is often classified in some Daoist scriptures outside of the Four Heavenly Ministers, which are then listed as the Heavenly Emperors of the four poles of the cardinal directions. They are called the North Pole Emperor of Purple Subtlety 11, the South Pole Emperor of Longevity12, the Heavenly Emperor of the Supreme Ultimate13, and the East Pole Emperor of Blue Essence 14. Contemporary Daoism has returned to the pre-Song identification of the Four Heavenly Ministers. Functions The Great Jade Emperor, subordinate only to the Three Pristine Ones, is in charge of the Dao of heaven. The Middle Heaven Great Emperor of the North Pole Star of Purple Subtlety assists the Jade Emperor in administering the longitudes and latitudes of Heaven and Earth, the sun, the moon and stars, as well as the climate of the four seasons. He is honored as the "master of all stars, assistant sovereign of the three realms, correspondent with the Original Vital Breath and inferior only to Great Heaven." The Great Heavenly Emperor of the Highest Palace of Polaris is in charge of the Three Powers15 of Heaven, Earth and Man, and of wars in the human world. The Imperial Goddess of Earth is in charge of births, land, rivers, and mountains. The Heavenly Emperors of the four poles also have their respective functions. The North Pole Emperor of Purple Subtlety is in charge of all stars; the South Pole Emperor of Longevity is in charge of all spirits; the Heavenly Emperor of the Supreme Ultimate is in charge of the longevity of all spirits; and the East Pole Emperor of Blue Essence is in charge of the salvation of all sentient beings. Worship in Temples Besides Halls of the Three Pristine Ones16, Daoist temples often have a Hall of the Four Heavenly Ministers17, for the worship of the Four Heavenly Ministers. In large-scale Daoist rituals, besides the Three Pristine Ones, the Four Heavenly Ministers are also

worshipped. Daoist Books say that they are "lined up respectively and honored respectively." Each of the Four Heavenly Ministers has his own divine birthday: The Great Jade Emperor on the 9th of the first lunar month, the Middle Heaven Great Emperor of the North Pole Star of Purple Subtlety on the the 27th of the tenth month, the Great Heavenly Emperor of the Highest Palace of Polaris on the 2nd of the second month, and the Imperial Earth Goddess on the 18th of the third month. Many Daoists go to temples to burn incense on these days. The Emperors of the Soil

Origin of the Emperors of the Soil The Emperors of the Soil1 are the earth spirits of Daoism. Ancient China had a God of Earth 2, who was the Earth Spirit in charge of Yin-Yang and creation, as well as of the mountains and rivers. The Goddess of Earth3, whose divine title is "Imperial Earth Queen Who Receives and Follows Heavenly Laws and Promotes Kind Virtue"4, is one of the Four Heavenly Ministers, second in rank only to the Three Pristine Ones5. During the Southern and Northern dynasties, as the Daoist theory of the creation of the universe developed, distinctions were made between the heavenly realms where the Immortals live. The Chapter 'Three Worlds' of the Essential Secrets of the Most High6 by Yu Wenyong of the Northen Zhou, divides Heaven into 28 heavens and Three Worlds 7 (World of Desire8, World of Form9, and World of Formlessness10). Adding the Four Pure Heavens11 lying above the World of Formlessness, there are 32 heavens in total. The Book of Salvation12 also describes the theory of the 32 heavens, allocating eight to each of the four directions. A commentary by Yan Dong of the Northern Qi dynasty says: "It totals 32 heavens with eight in each direction and three heavens covering it." In the Tang Dynasty, it was thought that there was an AllEmbracing Heaven13 covering the Three Pristine Ones, and thus totaling 36 heavens. Each of the Thirty-Six Heavens has its emperor. According to the theory of Correspondence between Heaven and Earth, Daoism holds that, under the 36 heavens and emperors, there are 36 earth-realms, each with an Emperor of the Soil. Therefore, the Emperors of the Soil are the spirits in charge of the earth realms in all directions. According to the Fasting Rituals of the River Chart of the Numinous Treasure of Pervasive Mystery, for Honouring the Thirty-Six Emperors of the Soil 14, "By the pervasive divine law, 36 altars are set to symbolize the Thirty-Six Heavens; lanterns and incense are lit and burnt to correspond to the Thirty-Six Earthly Realms." Distinctions and Names Four Emperors of the Soil are allocated to each of Nine Realms 15, each with its own name, for a total of 36 Emperors of the Soil. According to the Fasting Rituals of the River Chart of the Numinous Treasure of Pervasive Mystery, for Honouring the Thirty-Six Emperors of the Soil , "The first Realm is the Realm of Colourful Humid Brilliance16. The first Emperor of the Soil is named Xiaojingchun and surnamed Qin; the second Emperor of the Soil is named Changshangwen and surnamed Huang; the third Emperor of the Soil is named Xuanwenji and surnamed Qing; the fourth Emperor of the Soil is named Zhongzhenhuang and surnamed Fei. The second Realm is the Realm of Diamond Brilliance17. The fifth Emperor of the Soil is named Shenwenguang and surnamed Wu; the sixth Emperor of the Soil is named Huangmusheng and surnamed Yu; the seventh Emperor of the Soil is named Qiandewei and surnamed Xuan; the eighth Emperor of the Soil is named Huangming and surnamed Chang. The third Realm is the Realm of Paraffin Brilliance 18. The ninth Emperor of the Soil is named Weishen and surnamed Zhang; the tenth Emperor of the Soil is named Boshangren and surnamed Zhou; the eleventh Emperor of the Soil is named Mingchezi and surnamed Zhu; the twelfth Emperor of the Soil is named Wenjingshi and surnamed Yu. The fourth Realm is the Realm of Humid Brilliance19. The thirteen Emperor of the Soil is named Yunzigao and surnamed Jia; the fourteenth Emperor of the Soil is named Bowuyuan and surnamed Xie; the fifteenth Emperor of the Soil is named Wenzhentai and surnamed Ji; the sixteenth Emperor of the

Soil is named Jizhengfang and surnamed Xing. The fifth Realm is the Realm of Golden Millet Brilliance20. The seventeenth Emperor of the Soil is named Yanqiming and surnamed Hua; the eighteenth Emperor of the Soil is named Lingworong and surnamed Huang; the nineteenth Emperor of the Soil is named Tanwuyuan and surnamed Yun; the twentieth Emperor of the Soil is named Tongbaguang and surnamed Jiang. The sixth Realm is the Realm of Diamond and Iron Brilliance 21. The twenty-first Emperor of the Soil is named Shangshaojun and surnamed Li; the twenty-second Earth Emperor is named Lailian and surnamed Fan; the twenty-third Emperor of the Soil is named Lijiyuan and surnamed Zhang; the twenty-fourth Emperor of the Soil is named Sinurong and surnamed Wang. The seventh Realm is the Realm of Water Brilliance 22. The twenty-fifth Emperor of the Soil is named Chushengying and surnamed Tang; the twenty-sixth Emperor of the Soil is named Zhengfatu and surnamed Wu; the twenty-seventh Emperor of the Soil is named Gaowenche and surnamed Han; the twenty-eighth Emperor of the Soil is named Zhonglongshou and surnamed Jing. The eighth Realm is the Realm of Great Wind Brilliance 23. The 29th Emperor of the Soil is named Xuanshengguang and surnamed Ge; the 30th Emperor of the Soil is named Maoyunchang and surnamed Hua; the thirty-first Emperor of the Soil is named Zhendongxuan and surnamed Yang; the 32nd Emperor of the Soil is named Shangjingyuan and surname Zhou. The ninth Realm is the Colourless Diamond-Link Realm of the Pervasive Abyss24. The 33rd Emperor of the Soil is named Wuxhangxuan and surnamed Ji; the 34th Emperor of the Soil is named Lingyuanhao and surnamed Ling; the 35th Emperor of the Soil is named Shangboxuan and surnamed Zhao; the 36th Emperor of the Soil is named Lewubo and surnamed Nong. The Great Yellow Register Ritual Offering of the Most High25 by Jiang Shuyu of the Southern Song dynasty lists the names of the Emperors of the Soil preceded by the names of the "Imperial Goddess of the Earth" before each. This shows that in the Southern Song, Daoism regarded the Emperors of the Soil as subordinate spirits to the Imperial Goddesses of Earth, with the task of mastering Yin and Yang, eliminating darkness, and elevating divinity. Worship in Temples In big Daoist temples, images or divine seats, often of the Imperial Queen of Earth but seldom of the 36 Emperors of the Soil, are set in the Hall of the Four Heavenly Ministers 26. However, in largescale Daoist rituals, divine seats are often set for the 36 Heavenly Emperors and the 36 Emperors of the Soil. Since the Tang dynasty, with the spread of geomancy, Daoist adherents, during the construction of houses, bridges and roads, often hold rituals to respect the Emperors of the Soil and to pray for good luck and the good functioning of the bridge or house. The Queen Mother of the West

Origin of the Queen Mother of the West The Queen Mother of the West1 is popularly called Auntie Queen Mother2, Granny of the West3, Queen Mother4, Golden Mother4 and Golden Mother Primordial Sovereign 5. Her complete names are 'Nine-Soul Supreme Perfect Golden Mother and Primordial Sovereign of the Jade Tortoise Platform'6, 'Nine-Phoenix Supreme Perfect Queen Mother of the West of the Jade Tortoise Platform'7, and 'Primordial Sovereign Golden Mother of the Supreme Numinous White Rays of the Tortoise Platform"8. The name 'Queen Mother of the West' was first seen in the Book of Mountains and Seas9. West is the direction, and Queen Mother the name of the deity. The Queen Mother of the West is a condensation of the Subtlest Vital Breath of the Western Essence from the Vital Breath of Dao of the Original Chaos. The deity, surnamed Hou, is allocated the Western direction. The Intimate Biography of the Wu Emperor of the Han Dynasty says that 'when she entered a hall, the Queen Mother of the West wore bright gold ornaments, numinous cloud ribbons, a shadowcutting sword, a supreme flower hair bun, a hat of supreme perfection, and black-brimmed phoenixpatterned shoes. She looked about thirty and was extremely beautiful." The Wu Emperor of Han

accepted her instruction and orders with great respect. The figure of a human boy with tiger teeth and a cat's tail, mentioned in the Book of Mountains and Seas, was an envoy of the Queen Mother of the West and of the White Tiger spirit of the West, but was not the Queen Mother of the West herself. Mistress of Female Immortals As the ancestor of Female Immortals9, the Queen Mother of the West lives in the Kunlun Mountains, in a city of one thousand miles with twelve jade mansions, green light halls, nine-storey primordial chambers, and purple and green elixir chambers. To the left is the Jade Lake, and to the right are the Green Mountains. According to the Jottings of Rarities and Miscellaneous Stories10, there are peach trees by the Jade Lake which "bear fruit once every 3000 years". All women who have attained immortality in the three realms and ten directions, in Heaven or in the human world, are under the rule of the Queen Mother of the West. Nourishing All Things The Primordial Lord of Heaven11 granted the Queen Mother of the West the Register of the Tortoise Mountain's Nine Rays of the Original Unity of Heaven12, in order to command all spirits and perfected saints, and put her in charge of the attendants of all heavens and the inspection of higher saints. The Queen Mother of the West and the Grandpa King of the East 13 are parents of the Yin and Yang Vital Breaths of Dao14. They administer the two Vital Breaths together and nourish all things in Heaven and Earth. When the Yellow Emperor battled with the cruel Chiyou, who could cause wind and rain and puff out fog and smoke, the Queen Mother of the West sent the Mysterious Maiden of the Nine Heavens15 to teach the Yellow Emperor the Strategy of the Three Palaces, Five Agents and Yin and Yang16, the Dipper Steps of Hidden Time and the Six Rens of Supreme Oneness17, and the Writ of the Five Talismans and Five Victories of the Numinous Treasure 18. Then the Yellow Emperor defeated Chiyou at middle Ji. After Yu Shun succeeded to the throne, the Queen Mother of the West sent envoys to grant him a white jade ring and a map, and Shun thus expanded the Yellow Emperor's nine prefectures to twelve perfectures. Worship in Temples Owing to the story of the Queen Mother of the West giving Emperor Wu big 3000-year peaches recorded in the Intimate Biography of Emperor Wu, the Queen Mother of the West's Peach Banquet19 is well-known and popular among the people. The Queen Mother of the West, always seen as a symbol of longevity for Daoists and ordinary people, is the major divinity of the Golden Register Ritual for Prolonging Life20. On the Queen Mother of the West's holy birthday, the 3rd day of the 3rd lunar month or the 18th of the 7th month, Daoists, especially women, gather in temples to hold birthday celebration rituals for the Queen Mother of the West and to pray for their own health and longevity. The Thunder Patriarch

Origin of the Thunder Patriarch The Thunder Patriarch1 is also called the 'Heavenly Lord of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates from the Origin of the Nine Heavens' 2, or the 'Perfect King of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates with the Origin of the Nine Heavens' 3. He is,

according to the Jade Book of Thunderbolts from the Mystery Capital of Jade Clarity and Great Purity of the Star of Purple Subtlety in the Nine Heavens of the Most High 4, the avatar of the Perfect King of Jade Clarity5 and the ninth son of the Primeval Lord of Heaven 6. He is also said to be the Thunder Spirit7, a deity in charge of thunder and rain, who is the immortalized Yellow Emperor with the title 'Thunder Patriarch'. The Thunder Patriarch lives in the Jade Mansion of Divine Heaven 8, in the midst of the Pure Vital Breath of the Azure Heaven 9, 2300 miles from the Thunder City10. The 81 zhang-high Thunder City is the place where the Heavenly Court administers thunders, to the left of which is the Jade Pivot Five Thunder Agency11 and to the right of which is the Jade Mansion Five Thunder Agency12. In front of the Heavenly Lord, there are thirty-six thunder drums in the charge of thrity-six spirits. When it is time for thunders, the Thunder Patriarch beats the drum once; and Grandpa Thunder13 and the Master of Thunder14 throw out thunderbolts. The thirty-six spirits of the Thunder Agency are all meritorious ministers of the time. The Romance of the Gods 15, a fiction of the Ming Dynasty, calls Wenzhong the 'Heavenly Lord of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates with the Origin of the Nine Heavens", who leads twenty-four Law-Protecting Heavenly Sovereigns Who Bring Wind and Rain16. Among them are Deng Yuanzhong the Great Spirit of Statutes and Ordinances17, who is often worshipped in temples, Xi Huan the Heavenly Sovereign of Silver Teeth and Shiny Eyes18 , Zhang Jie the Flying Messenger19, Supreme Commander Gou Zhang the Left Demon Suppressor20, Supreme Commander Bi Huan the Right Demon Suppressor21, Heavenly Sovereign Tao Rong, Heavenly Sovereign Pang Hong, Heavenly Sovereign Qin Wan, Heavenly Sovereign Zhao Jiang, Heavenly Sovereign Dong Quan, Heavenly Sovereign Yuan Jiao, etc. Functions In ancient times Grandpa Thunder and the Thunder Spirit had already been worshipped. But it was at the end of the Northern Song that the Thunder Agency 22, in the charge of the Heavenly Lord of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates with the Origin of the Nine Heavens, was incorporated into the Daoist divinity system. In the northern Song, Daoist sects such as the Divine Heaven Tradition23 and the Pristine Subtlety Tradition24, emphasized Thunder Skills25. Thus, the functions of thunder expanded from providing rain to announcing fortune or misfortune, and even to conferring life or death after the inspection and evaluation of people. The J ade Pivot Precious Book of the Heavenly Lord of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates with the Origin of the Nine Heavens26 says that "those who are not pious to their parents, teachers and kings" will be killed by the Five Thunders Inspection and Execution Agency. The impious are killed first in the spirit and then in the body, and even beaten into pieces by thunderbolts. Worship in Temples According to the 'Records of Rites" in the History of the Ming Dynasty27, 'the Heavenly Lord of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates with the Origin of the Nine Heavens is in charge of the five thunders. The 24th day of the sixth lunar month is considered by Daoists as the day of his manifestation. So, on this day every year, officials are sent to the Temple of Numinous Manifestation28 to offer sacrifices." Major temples all worship the Thunder Patriarch. Every 24th day of the sixth lunar month, many Daoist believers burn incense in temples to pray for gook luck. Large-sized rituals of the Orthodox Oneness sect 29 often assign a Divine Seat for the Thunder Patriarch and invoke the Heavenly Sovereigns of the Thunder Agency. The Great Perfect Warrior Emperor

Origin of the Great Perfect Warrior Emperor

The Great Perfect Warrior Emperor1 is also called the Mysterious Warrior Spirit2 and the Highest Emperor of the Mysterious Northern Heaven3. According to the Supreme Venerable Sovereign's Sublime Book of Divine Incantations Telling the Story of the Great Sage and Perfect Warrior of the Mysterious Northern Heaven4, he was the 82nd avatar of the Supreme Venerable Sovereign 5. As a son of the King of Pure Bliss6 and of the Queen of Virtuous Victory 7, he was born in the Heavenly Palace of Non-Desire in the All-Embracing Realm. The queen dreamed that she had swallowed the sun, and was found pregnant after awaking. She gave birth to a baby after 14 months pregnancy. Grown up, the prince left his home and his parents to cultivate Dao on Mt Wudang, and attained immortality after 42 years. He ascended to Heaven in full daylight. He was given the title 'Supreme Mystery" and ordered to guard the north by the Jade Emperor 8. The Mysterious Warrior" was originally the collective name of the northern seven of the 28 constellations. In the section 'Distant Excursion" of the Elogies of the Chu9, Qu Yuan sings "to invoke the Mysterious Warrior and fly towards it". The Mysterious Warrior constellation is shaped like a tortoise and a snake, so the commentary says: "The Mysterious Warrior is the tortoise-and-snake. It is called mysterious (dark) because its position is to the north; it is called warrior because it has scales and an armament on its body." In the Kaibao Era of the Northern Song dynasty, the Mysterious Warrior Spirit descended on Zhongnan Mountain. In the seventh year of the Dazhong Xiangfu Era of Emperor Zhen (AD 1014), he was given the title 'Perfect Sovereign Who Aids the Sagely and Protects the Virtuous" 10. Afterwards, the name 'Mysterious Warrior' was changed to 'Perfect Warrior' 11, to avoid using the the character 'Xuan' (mysterious, dark) which appeared in the name of the royal ancestor, Zhao Xuanlang. Emperors Zhen, Hui and Qin of Song dynasties all honoured him with titles. In the seventh year of the Dade Era of the Yuan Dynasty (AD 1303), he was honoured as 'Original, Holy, Kind and August Holy Emperor of the Mysterious Northern Heaven" 12. Emperor Cheng of the Ming dynasty worshiped the Perfect Warrior, and so Perfect Warrior Temples were built in the imperial offices at all levels such as agencies, bureaus, ministries, and the treasury. In the tenth year of the Yongle Era, Marquis Zhangxin was ordered to build a complex of temples on Mt Wudang with 200,000 soldiers, and promoted the worship of the Great Perfect Warrior Emperor to the highest peak. The Big Dipper Who Decrees Death13 'Mysterious Warrior" is the general name of the seven northern constellations, among which is the Dipper constellation. Daoism, saying that "the Southern Dipper decrees life and the Northern decrees death", attaches much importance to the worship of the Dipper stars. From entering the womb, a man's destiny is transferred from the Southern Dipper to the Northern Dipper. Therefore, he who prays for longevity must worship the Great Perfect Warrior Emperor. Essence of Water The Sage Protecting Mantra14 calls the Perfect Warrior the "essence of water who is the transformation of Supreme Yin. It corresponds to the Xuwei Constellation and is shaped like a combination of a tortoise and a snake. Omnipresent in all directions, its power frightens all the spirits." Belonging to water, the Perfect Warrior can administer the rivers and fire, and thus eliminate relevant disasters. This is the reason why many Perfect Warrior Temples were built in the palaces of the Ming Dynasty. Worship in Temples The 3rd day of the 3rd month of the lunar calendar is the divine birthday of the Perfect warrior. On

that day, birthday celebration ritual offerings are held in all places, among which the worship on Mt Wudang is the most flourishing. Imperial Sovereign Wenchang

Origin of Imperial Sovereign Wenchang Imperial Sovereign Wenchang1 was originally the collective name for the six stars of the Wenchang constellation, which is said to lie before or to the left of the Qui star of the Dipper. Each of the six stars has its own name: Highest General2, Assistant General2, Noble Premier3, Controller of Destinies4, Controller of the Middle5, and Controller of Wealth6. Wenchang was given the title of 'Imperial Sovereign'or 'Imperial Sovereign of Zitong" 8 during the reign of Emperor Ren (AD 1316). In the third year of the Yanyou Era of Emperor Ren of the Yuan Dynasty, the Zitong Spirit was honoured with the title "Imperial Sovereign Wenchang, Promoter of Benevolence and Controller of Wealth Who Serves the Origin and Initiates Salvation" 9; the Wenchang and Zitong spirits were thus combined into one. According to the 'Record of Rites' of the History of the Ming Dynasty, 'the Imperial Sovereign of Zitong, whose surname was Zhang and whose name was Yazi, and who lived on Mt Qiqu, died in war as a minister of the Jin dynasty. People built a monumental shrine for him." Zhang Yazi, or Zhang Yu, rising up against an invasion by King Pu Jian of the early Qin (AD 374), made himself King of Shu (ancient Sichuan) and died in war. In memory of Zhang Yu, people built a shrine at Mt Qiqu in Zitong County, and honored him as the Dragon King of Thunder Lake 10. Later, Zhang Yu's Shrine was combined with the shrine of Yazi, the Zitong spirit. So he came to be called Zhang Yazi. Emperor Xuan of the Tang dynasty, passing by the mountain, was touched by his heroism, honored him as Premier, and offered grand sacrifices for him. Emperor Xi of the Tang, passing by the mountain in refuge, also worshipped the Zitong Spirit, offered him a royal sword in person, and honored him as Salvation King. Many emperors of the Song dynasty gave him lofty titles, such as 'Heroic and Brave King'11 conferred by Emperor Zhen, 'Pious Benevolent Heroic King"12 conferred by Emperor Guang, and 'Divine and Saintly Heroic Pious King" 13 conferred by Emperor Li. In the third year of the Yanyou Era of Emperor Ren of the Yuan dynasty (AD 1316), Zhang Yazi was given the title 'Imperial Sovereign Wenchang, Promoter of Benevolence and Controller of Wealth Who Serves the Origin and Initiates Salvation' Thereafter, Zhang Yazi, the Zitong Spirit, was called Imperial Sovereign. Loyal to his Master and Parents Besides his merit of loyalty to his master and to the people manifested in his death in war, Zhang Yazi was very loyal to his mother. According to the Book of Transformations of the Imperial Sovereign of Zitong, "as a young man, he sucked the wound of his sick mother and cut off his own leg flesh at midnight, as medicine to cure his mother. Later, when there was a vicious plague among the people, he dreamed of a spirit giving him the Immortals' Book of the Great Grotto14 and Magical Registers15 to eliminate the plague. He practiced them and succeeded. Therefore, Imperial Sovereign Wenchang is seen as a model for filial piety and benevolence. The Book of Hidden Virtues of Imperial Sovereign Wenchang16, composed in the Song and Yuan dynasties, gives many examples of people getting good rewards for their good deeds, in order to expound the karmic concept of the 'near fruit of one's actions come to oneself, the farther fruit go to one's offspring". Controller of the Destinies of Civil Officials According to the Book of Hidden Virtues of Imperial Sovereign Wenchang , Imperial Sovereign Wenchang was incarnated as a high official in the human world 73 times. As an honest and clean

official, he was never cruel to people. Instead, he "helped people in need, forgave others' mistakes, was merciful to the orphans, and moved the heavens with many merits." Therefore, the Heavenly Emperor ordered Imperial Sovereign Wenchang to be in charge of the list of names of would-be officials. All appointments and promotions of officials through examinations and recommendations were in the charge of Imperial Sovereign Whenchang. Worship in Temples Since the Yuan and Ming dynasties, with the development of the imperial examination system, worship of Imperial Sovereign Whenchang spread widely. Temples, Pavilions, and Shrines of Wenchang were built everywhere. The Wenchang Temple on Mt Qiqu is the biggest among them. Images or divine seats of Wenchang were also erected in some schools. The worship of Wenchang was always prosperous, for he was in charge of officials' destinies. The 3rd day of the second lunar month was the birthday of Wenchang, when local governments and intellectuals worshipped Wenchang in temples and wrote poems or essays in celebration. The Stellar Sovereign of the Five Planets and Seven Stars

Origin of the Stellar Sovereigns of the Five Planets and Seven Stars The Stellar Sovereigns of the Five Planets and Seven Stars 1 are seven Daoist deities. The Five Planets are the Year Star (Jupiter)1, the Sparkling Deluder (Mars)2, the Grand White Star (Venus)3, the Chronographic Star (Mercury)4, and the Quelling Star (Saturn)5. Together with the sun and moon, they are called the Seven Stars. Daoism worships the Seven Stars as spirits and calls them Stellar Sovereigns. In early ancient times, people began to worship the sun, moon and stars. In the Han Dynasties, Esoteric Speculations6 used to foretell the outcomes of human affairs. Daoism regards the sun as Essence of Yang7 and calls it, in a male image, 'Bright, Red and Glorious Supreme Yang Sovereign of the Sun Palace'8, or 'Immortal King of Filial Piety and Supreme Yang Sovereign of the Sun Palace"9. Daoism regards the moon as Essence of Yin10, and calls it, in a female image, 'Supreme Yin Primordial Sovereign and Holy Queen of the Yellow Colour, White Light and Original Essence of the Moon Palace" 11, or 'Bright Queen of Filial Piety and Supreme Yin Sovereign of the Moon Palace"12. According to the section 'On Stars'of the Seven Slips of a Cloudy Satchel13, each of the Five Planets has its own name and style: in the East, the Perfect Imperial Sovereign of the Year Star14 (or Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Wood) 15 is named Chenglan and styled Qingning. In the South, the Perfect Imperial Sovereign of the Sparkling Deluder 16 (or Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Fire)17 is named Haokong Weichun and styled Sanrong. In the West, the Perfect Imperial Sovereign of the Grand White Star 18(or Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Metal)19 is named Haokong Debiao. In the North, the Perfect Imperial Sovereign of the Chronographic Star 20(or Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Water)21 is named Qiyuan and styled Jiyuan. In the Centre, the Perfect Imperial Sovereign of the Quelling Star22(or Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Earth)23 is named Cangmu and styled Danyan. Nourishing All Things According to the Book of the Mysterious Gate and Precious Sea24, the "Essence of Yang is the sun, and Yin the moon. Sharing the essence of the sun and moon are the stars. Together, they nourish the twelve thousand things by the perfect Dao. Even the beasts and grass are also nourished by their Secret Dao and Essential Virtue." This means that the Five Planets and Seven Stars are the embodiment of Dao. Heaven and Earth depend on the Perfect Vital Breath of the sun, moon and stars to nourish all things.

Individual Functions of Each Star The Secretly Transmitted Supreme Pervasive Perfect Book of the Five Planets 25 expounds in detail the functions of the Five Planets. In the East, the Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Wood "is in charge of the birth of all things. It changes depression into stimulation. People who are fortunate and lucky should promote kindness and entice it." To the South, the Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Fire "is in charge of the growth of all things. It lightens the dark and obscure. People who are unfortunate and unlucky or suffering from illness and troubles should promote kindness and entice it." To the West, the Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Metal "is in charge of the ending of all things. It reaps the fruits. People involved in many legal cases should promote kindness and entice it." To the North, the Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Water "is in charge of the moistening and dredging of all things. People suffering from many robberies by bad luck should promote kindness and entice it." In the Centre, the Perfect Sovereign of the Virtue of Earth "is in charge of the breeding of all things in the four seasons. It reaps the fruits. People suffering from legal cases and worries due to bad luck should promote kindness and entice it." As for the sun and moon, according to the Supreme Pervasive Divine Book of the Sun, Moon and Five Planets in Chaos and Eternity 26, whoever meets the Sun Sovereign27 will "obtain the Herb of Immortality28"; and whoever meets the Moon Sovereign29 will "obtain whatever he wants and acquire the arts of immortality". Worship in Temples Daoist temples usually have halls especially dedicated to the worship of the stars, and sometimes only for the Five Planets and Seven Stars. In large-scale Daoist rituals, Divine Seats are often set for the Stellar Sovereigns of Five Planets and Seven Stars. The sovereigns are invoked in relevant rituals. Daoist adepts, during the construction of houses, bridges and roads, often worship the Stellar Spirits to pray for good luck and longevity, and eliminate misfortunes and illness. The Four Numinous Animals and Twenty-Eight Constellations

Origin of the The Four Numinous Animals and Twenty-Eight Constellations The Four Numinous Animals1 or Four Images2 refer to the figures formed by the stars in the four cardinal directions, i.e. the Blue Dragon3 in the East, the White Tiger4 in the West, the Red Phoenix5 in the South and the Black Warrior6 in the North. According to the Yellow Charts of the Three Regions7, "the Blue Dragon, the White Tiger, the Red Phoenix and the Black Warrior are the Four Numinous Animals of Heaven which control the four directions". The Twenty-Eight Constellations 8 are the ancient astronomers' distinctions and signs of the fixed star areas which the sun and moon pass by. According to the Book of Auguries Examination of the Numinous Animals in the Book of Documents9, "The seven constellations of the East -- Jiao, Kang, Di, Fang, Xin, Wei, and Qi -- are like a dragon and are thus called the Blue Dragon of the Left. The seven constellations of the South -- Jing, Gui, Liu, Xing, Zhang, Yi, and Zhen -- are like a bird and are thus called the Red Phoenix of the Front. The seven constellations of the West -- Qui, Lou, Wei, Mao, Bi, Zi, and Shen -- are like a tiger, and are thus called the White Tiger of the Right. The seven constellations of the north -- Dou, Niu, Nu, Xu, Wei, Shi, and Bi, are like a tortoise-and-snake, and are thus called the Black Warrior of the Rear." Each of the 28 Stellar Officials has its own name, function, and colour of dress. For example, the Stellar Spirit of Jiao, whose surname is Bin and whose name is Yuansheng, wears a green and black shirt. The Stellar Spirit of Kang, whose surname is Fu and whose name is Sima, is horse-headed and red-bodied and wears a red silk shirt and a sword.

Daoist Guardians In the Daoist pantheon, the The Four Numinous Animals and Twenty-Eight Constellations always play the role of guardians of greater divinities. According to the Inner Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity10, "Among the guardians of Supreme Venerable Sovereign 11, there are 12 Blue Dragons to the left, 26 White Tigers to the right, 24 Red Phoenixes in front and 72 Black Warriors in the rear. According to the Secret Formula for Prolonging Life from the Seven-Origin Purple Court of the Big Dipper12, for a Daoist performing magic skills, "To his left is the Blue Dragon named Mengzhang. To his right is the White Tiger named Jianbing. To his front is the Red Phoenix named Lingguang. To his rear is the Black Warrior named Zhiming. The Four Numinous Animals, holding pennants and symbols, bearing bells and drums, guard the surroundings." The Four Numinous Animals are the law-protecting guardian spirits. Among them, the Black Warrior was specially worshiped since the Ming and honored with other titles, such as"Highest Emperor of of the Mysterious Northern Heaven"13 and"Perfect Warrior Emperor"14. Worship in Temples Daoist temples often worship The Four Numinous Animals at the two sides of the Hall of Numinous Officials of the Mountain Gate15. The Four Numinous Animals, dressed as heavenly generals, must guard the Daoist Gate. Daoist adepts, when burning incense, often start by worshiping Numinous Official Wang and the Four Numinous Animals at the Mountain Gate. In large-scale Daoist rituals, Divine Seats are often set for the the Four Numinous Animals and Twenty-Eight Constellations. Often, the Four Numinous Animals and Twenty-Eight Constellations are invoked to protect the law during rituals. The Big Dipper

Origin of the Big Dipper The Big Dipper1 is the mother of the stars of the Dipper. Her complete name is 'Nine-Spirited Supreme Subtle Grandma Primordial Sovereign of the Night Rays and Golden Essence of the White Jade Tortoise Platform"2. She is also called 'Pure Vital Breath Sovereign of the Big Dipper of Middle Heaven"3, 'Primordial Queen of Supreme Simplicity, Purple Rays, Bright Wisdom and Kind Benevolence, and Heavenly Lord of Golden Perfected Holy Virtue" 4. She is also called 'Great Perfect Queen of Moonlight"5 and 'Great Heavenly Healer Sage and Eastern Imperial Sovereign of Benevolent Salvation"6. She is usually simply called the 'Big Dipper", or 'Primordial Sovereign of the Big Dipper"7. As the governor of the Pavilion of Heavenly Treasure 8, the Big Dipper, "as the mother of the Dipper Stars, produces the brilliant eyes of all the heavens. She, with the Dipper as her terrestrial spirit and water celestial spirit, is in charge of life." Functions According to the Fundamental Destiny Life-Prolonging Heart Scripture of the Great Sagely Primordial Sovereign of the Supreme, Mysterious and Numinous Big Dipper 9, the Big Dipper, "with her great merit of medicine and healing, manages and harmonizes the five agents, balances the Vital Breaths10 of Yin and Yang, dissolves the stagnant and eliminates the evil and dark. Under her mercy, those who miss the time of salvation catch up with the time of salvation. In charge of the safety of pregnancy and birth, as well as the healing of diseases, she takes the important role of

Heavenly Healer11". "Seated on her precious throne, the Big Dipper peacefully cultivates divine perfection, refines celestial and terrestrial spirits, concentrates Vital Breath with an empty mind, and enters the Mystery of Mysteries. Breathing the numinous wind, gathering the purple void energy, she has attained the mysterious and numinous Sublime Dao, and releases infinite subtle rays penetrating the Pool of Essence12. Nine golden lotuses, as incarnations of the rays, give out greater and greater light after seven days in the pood. The light rises to the Nine-Essence Heavens 13 and transforms into the Nine Great Treasure Pavilions." In the pavilions, the Nine Perfect Vital Breaths concentrate and manifest themselves as the Nine Emperors of the Dao Body: the first is the Heavenly Emperor14, the second is Purple Subtlety15, the third is the Lusty Wolf16, the fourth is the Giant Gate17, the fifth is the Store of Wealth18, the sixth is the Civil Chief19, the seventh is the Pure and Chaste20, the eighth is the Military Chief, the ninth is the Troop Destroyer 21. The Nine Emperors of the Dao Body22 are the Nine Stellar Sovereigns of the Dipper. According to the Seven Slips of a Cloudy Satchel23, "the Nine Stars are the numinous root of the Nine Heavens, the bright bridge of the sun and moon, and the ancestral abyss of all things. Therefore, Heaven has nine Vital Breaths corresponding with the Nine Stars as their numinous pivot; the Earth has Nine Prefectures with the Nine Stars as their spiritual master; Man has Nine Apertures with the Nine Stars as their Mansion of Destiny. The Nine Palaces of Yin and Yang refer to the Nine Stars for their doors; the Five Sacred Mountains and Four Holy Rivers24 correspond with the Nine Stars as their abyss and mansion." The Big Dipper, as the mother of nine stars, is in charge of the production and life of Heaven, Earth and all things. Worship in Temples There are Big Dipper Halls in most major Daoist temples. The Divine image always appears as a female spirit with three eyes, four heads and eight arms. The holy birthday of the Big Dipper is the 20th of the sixth lunar month, or the 9th of the ninth lunar month. On that day, Daoist adepts often hold rituals to pray for longevity and for giving birth to sons. The Sixty Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthy Branches

It takes the Year Star1 (Jupiter) twelve times as long as the Earth to rotate around the sun once. Therefore, the Yellow Emperor ordered Danao to create Jiazi, the time system. One earth year, i.e. 1/12 of the Jupiter year, is represented by one of the twelve Terrestrial Branches 2 (Zi, Chou, Yin, Mao, Chen, Si, Wu, Wei, Shen, You, Xu, Hai). From Zi to Hai, they comprise a short cycle. But it was considered too short, and hence someone added the ten Celestial Trunks 3 (Jia, Yi, Bing, Ding, Wu, Ji, Geng, Xin, Ren, Gui) to combine with the twelve Terrestrial Branches. From Jiazi to Guihai, they comprise a long cycle of sixty years. Moving in cycles, this system is used to note the time, such as Jiazi year, Yichou year, Bingyin year, etc. For example, this year is Wuyin, and then next year will be Jimao. They are called the The Sixty Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthly Branches4, or the Sixty Original Years5. Each of the spirits has its own name. In AD 1109, the Auspicious and Holy Empress Dowager of Emperor Zhang of the Jin Dynasty was very ill. She prayed to the Original Year Spirit Dingmao, and recovered her health. So she built a hall for the worship of Original Year Spirit Dingmao in Beijing. The spirit was called "Auspicious Star"6, for people thought that praying to it could bring good "auspices" to a year. The 8th of the first lunar month is the "Auspicious Star Festival", which has remained popular for 800 years now. The Auspicious and Holy Temple was built by imperial order in the White Cloud Temple in Beijing during the Yongle Era of the Ming dynasty. Wang Changyue, the seventh-generation patriarch of Dragon Gate Sect7 of the Complete Perfection Tradition8, renamed it as the 'Original Year Hall' in the early Qing Dynasty. The Sixty Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthly Branches are

worshiped in the hall. Civil or military, they are varied in facial expressions. Some hold spears or swords and some hold musical instruments or tablets. They play their own respective roles and take turns controlling the luck of people in a year. The spirit in charge is called the Supreme Year Spirit on Duty9, and later has been called the Great General10 by Daoism until today. On the 8th of the first lunar month, rituals are held to worship the The Sixty Daily Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthly Branches. In the middle of the sacred altar, three platforms are set for incense and lanterns. With the seven aiding lanterns in the left and right, altogether 13 lanterns, with 108 lantern flowers, are burnt. Daoists kneel down and recite the Book of the Dipper11 and the Mandate of the Auspicious Star12. For Daoists, it can help cultivate the body and mind. For laymen, it can help pray for longevity and luck. So, they prostrate whole-heartedly before the Original Year Spirit of the Fundamental Destiny. (The divine statues of the Sixty Daily Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthly Branches are sculptured after the images in the Portraits of Daoist Immortals13, and worshiped in the Fung Ying Sien Koon Daoist temple, Hong Kong.) The Sixty Daily Spirits of the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches

Origin The Sixty Daily Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthly Branches 1 were called 'Year Spirits'2 or 'Supreme Year Star3 in ancient times. According to the 'Fongxiangshi' section of the 'Chunguan' chapter of the Rites of the Zhou4, Fongxiangshi is in charge of the "twelve years, twelve months, twelve hours, ten days and Twenty-Eight Constellations." According to the commentary by Zhengxuan, "the Year, or Supreme year, is the star which the Dipper handle points to in the month when the sun reaches the same palace." Therefore, the Year Spirit was a supposition by ancient Chinese astronomers for the need to observe the movement of heavenly bodies and of Earth. A cycle of Twelve Terrestrial Branches5 (Zi, Chou, Yin, Mao, Chen, Si, Wu, Wei, Shen, You, Xu, Hai), correlated with Ten Celestial Trunks6 (Jia, Yi, Bing, Ding, Wu, Ji, Geng, Xin, Ren, Gui), forms sixty units to mark the year, month, day and hour. Daoism, inheriting this ancient astronomical system, suggested that the sixty units each have a Year Spirit, who is called the Supreme Year Star on Duty7, or Year Sovereign8. Each one has its own name, for example, General Jinbian of the Supreme Year Jiazi, General Chencai of the Supreme Year Yichou, etc. The names of The Sixty Daily Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthly Branches in Daoist Books are different from those in the White Cloud Temple in Beijing, and need further examination. Functions The Supreme Year Star on Duty is in charge of people's luck or misfortune during the year. It "leads the spirits, decides the directions, runs the order of time, and takes responsibility for the years." State touring and inspecting, building or developing frontiers, and people building houses or walls, must avoid the Supreme Year Star. According to the General Meaning of Months9, the "Supreme Year is the venerable spirit in charge of the year. Both auspicious and sad affairs mustn't offense it. It should be cautiously avoided, especially for the direction of buildings." According to Daoist books, Supreme Year Stars are in the charge of General Commander Yin, the Supreme Year Star Who Governs Thunder10. As the youngest son of King Zhou of the Shang dynasty, he suffered the disaster of the state. After Fox-Fairy11 Daji murdered his mother, Perfect Man Shen adopted him. He learned Daoist Skills and attained the fruit of divinity. Upright and benevolent by nature, he often exorcises devils for the people. Knowing his merits, the Heavenly Court appointed him as 'Supreme Year Star Who Governs Thunder' to govern the Office for Eliminating Vices 12 of the Terrestrial Agency. As the deity in charge of the luck and misfortunes of man, he eliminates the evil and

rewards the kind. The Sixty Daily Spirits of the Celestial Trunks and Earthly Branches are under his administration. Worship Many major temples have a Hall of Stellar Spirits 13 for the worship of the Sixty Daily Spirits of the Heavenly Stars and Earthly Branches. Every Spring Festival, Daoist adepts burn incense and make offerings for the spirit of the Fundamental Destiny. Especially on the Year of Fundamental Destiny 14 (the year of the same Celestial Trunk and Terrestrial Branch as one's birth-year), they must worship their own Year Spirit and pray for health and good luck. The Year of Fundamental Destiny is said to be the "threshold year", so one must be cautious to avoid errors in conduct, as if one were avoiding tripping when passing through the house threshold. The Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East

Origin of the Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East The Sacred Mountain of the East refers to Mt. Tai in present-day Shandong Province. The Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East1 is its mountain spirit. According to the Comprehensive Collection of Investigations into the Divinities of the Three Doctrines since their Origin 2, The Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East is the son of Immortal Milun and of Gold-Wheel King Shaohaishi, the ninth-generation descendant of Pangu. At first he was named Jinhongshi and was ordained as Supreme Year Spirit3 at time of Fuxishi for his merits on Changbai Mountain. In the time of Shen Nong, he was appointed General Governor of Heavenly Talismans 4 and named Official Sovereign5. In the time of Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty, he was honored as the Supreme Commander of Mt Tai. In second year of the Chuigong Era of Empress Wu of the Tang dynasty (AD 686), he was honored as Middle Heaven King of the Divine Mountain 6. In the first year of the Wansui Tongtian Era of Empress Wu, he was honored as Sovereign Equal to Heaven 7. In the 13th year of the Kaiyuan Era of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty (AD 725), he was honored as King Equal to Heaven. In the first year of the Dazhongzangfu Era of Emperor Zhenzong of the Song dynasty, he was honored as "Benevolent Saintly King of the Sacred Mountain of the East Who is Equal to Heaven"8. People have worshipped the Mt Tai Spirit since the time of the Three Sage Kings. In ancient days, the people lived in the middle and lower realms of the Yellow River, and the king "worshipped the Earth Spirit and the Five Sacred Mountains with blood." Mt Tai was the first of the Five Sacred Mountains9 and revered as the Ancestral Mountain10. According to Confucius, as cited in the Comprehensive Explanations to Customs11, "There have been 72 kings who worshiped Heaven at Mt Tai and Earth at Mt Liangfu." Kings who have accumulated merits worship Heaven and Earth to report their merits to Heaven. Since the Han and Wei dynasties, Daoism has inherited the ancient system of worshiping the Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East. Way to Immortality The ancient people considered Mt Tai as the way to heaven and "equal to heaven" in height. For the purpose of worshipping at Mt Tai, people built altars at the summit to requite the merit of Heaven. Practitioners consider worshiping at Mt Tai a way to securing immortality. Souls Returning to the Sacred Mountain of the East

Mt Tai lies in the East, where all things begin at the intercourse of Yin and Yang. The born is doomed to die, and so the Mt Tai Spirit knows the length of man's life. According to a lengend cited in the Comprehensive Explanations to Customs12, "There are a Gold Box and a Jade Book in which are recorded the length of each man's life." On the unearthed Tomb-Quelling Talismans of the Han dynasty, one finds the inscription "belonging to Mt Tai after death." Since the Han and Wei dynasties, the Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East has been in charge of men's life, death and longevity. According to Vol. 22 of the Seven Slips of a Cloudy Satchel13, "The Mt Tai Sovereign, as the general of ghosts, leads 5900 spirits and is in charge of life and death." Therefore, temples of the Sacred Mountain of the East have 72 or 75 offices in charge of the Life Registers14 of men and immortals, such as the Office of Quick Rewards15, the Office of Luck and Longevity16, etc. Worship in Temples The divine birthday of the Great Eamperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East is the 28th of the third lunar month. Temples worshiping the Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East hold celebrations and large-scale rituals for praying for longevity. After the death of relatives, people hold Yellow Register Rituals(16) for the early salvation in Heaven of the souls of the dead. The Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud

Origins of the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud: The Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud, also known as the Heavenly Immortal Jade Maiden of East Mt Tai, is commonly called the "Mt Tai Granny". Opinions vary on her origins. One version says that she is the daughter of the Spirit of Mt Tai, and another version says that she was originally a Heavenly Immortal and a Divine Maiden. According to the Investigations on the Jade Maidens quoted in the Biographies of the Jade Maidens written by Wang Zhigang of the Ming dynasty, the Yellow Emperor sent seven Jade Maidens to build the Daiyue Temple on Mt Tai. These seven Fairies, wearing high hats and robes made of feather, burnt incense and held Ritual Offerings to welcome the Perfect Man of the Western Kunlun Mountains. Only one of them, the Primordial Lady of the Emereald Cloud, Cultivated and attained Dao. But another version says that she was formerly the daughter of mortals. It is said that during the reign of emperor Ming of the Han dynasty, Shi Shoudao, a noble man of Fengfu county of the Prefecture of Sunning in the Kingdom of Xinui, and his wife Mrs Jin, gave birth to their dignified and intelligent daughter Yuye. She understood human relations at the age of three, studied Daoist Skills at seven, and once presented herself to the Queen Mother of the West. When she was fourteen, she entered Tiankong Mountain, i.e., Mt Tai for Cultivation and Refinement in Huanghua Grotto, i.e., the Stone Chamber of the Mountain Peak. Three years later when she succeeded in Refining Elixirs, the original Essential Matter was brought into existence and the light was given off. Hence she filled Mt Tai with her soul, and became the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud, the Goddess of Mt Tai. It is recorded that there is a goddess on Mt Tai in the books Jottings of Rarities and Miscellaneous Stories and Investigations into the Divine of the Jin dynasty. But it was during the reign of emperor Zhen of the Northern Song dynasty that the Goddess of Mt Tai received her title. According to Casual Chats in the Pine Hut, there were carved Golden Boys and Jade Maidens on the mountain before the reign of emperor Rensheng of the Han dynasty. But during the Five Dynasties, the hall collapsed and the statues fell, the statue of the boy breaking to pieces and the statue of the maiden sinking into a pool. Later, emperor Zhen of the Song dynasty went to the east to hold sacrificial rites, and when he returned, he stayed in the imperial tent. When he washed his hands in the pool, a stone statue emerged, which, after being taken out of water and washed, was found to be the statue of the Jade Maiden. So the emperor ordered officials concerned to build a shrine to worship her, named her Daughter of the Saintly

Emperor, granted her the title "Heavenly Immortal Jade Maiden and Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud". The shrine was called the Shrine of Revelation of Truth, which should be regarded as the origin of today's Shrine of the Emerald Cloud on the summit of Mt Tai. It was extended into a temple during the years of Chenghua of the Ming dynasty. Its name was changed into the Temple of Numinous Correspondence during the years of Hongzhi, and later changed again to the Shrine of the Emerald Cloud. Influence on the people: The Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud, who was ordained as Immortal Perfect Woman, commanded the heavenly generals and divine soldiers in the mansion of Mt Tai to inspect all the virtuous and evil deeds and life and death in the human world by order of the Jade Emperor. She had vast magic powers, cured the sick and saved patients, and protected all the affairs of farming, trade, travel and marriage. It is said among the people that one of the statues of the maids of the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud holds an infant in her arms. It indicates that the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud protects the health and safety of women and children in secret, so as to make the barren become pregnant and the pregnant have a natural delivery. Worship: Since the Ming and Qing dynasties and up to this day, the popular worship of the Granny of Mt Tai has always been quite prosperous. The birthday of the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud is on the 18th day of the fourth lunar month, around which spring has come and the flowers are in blossom in the area of Mt Tai. Pilgrims who ascend to the top of the mountain to burn incense and offer sacrifices to the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud, and devotees who make and redeem vows crowd every place from the foot to the top of the mountain. There are many temples in the north where the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud is enshrined. It is said in the District Gazetteer of Wanping and other sources that in old days, the temple fair to celebrate the divine birth of the Primordial Lady of the Emerald Cloud was held from the tenth to the eighteenth day of the fourth lunar month in the area of the High Bridge and Miaofeng Mountain in Wanping, Beijing. Throngs of visitors went there in an endless stream, and "women of the whole city went to resort to her and prayed that they would bear children". The Five Supreme Commanders of the Thunder Agency

Origins of the Five Supreme Commanders of the Thunder Agency: The Five Supreme Commanders of the Thunder Agency1 refer to the five supreme commanders of the Thunder Agency2 under the administration of the Heavenly Lord of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates With the Origin of the Nine Heavens 3. There are many supreme commanders in the Thunder Agency. Some say that there are 36 drums in the Thunder Agency and one supreme commander keeps each of them, so there are 36 supreme commanders. Others say that there are 24 Heavenly Sovereigns4 who summon clouds and rain and guard the teachings, and hence 24 supreme commanders. The Five Supreme Commanders of the Thunder Agency are the five ones frequently seen in Daoist scriptures and books, most widespread among the people, and whose portraits are set up to be enshrined in some Daoist temples, namely the five supreme commanders Deng, Bi, Liu, Xin and Pang. Chief Supreme Commander Deng:

Deng is the chief one among the five supreme commanders. His given name is Zhong. It is said that he "has bright silver teeth", and "is surrounded by fire". He is called in the Supplementary Records of the Listener5 as "General Deng of Heavenly Origin who Interrogates and Summons Demons 6". The Remaining Stories about Cauldron-Casting7 quotes the Personal Records of the District of Changshu8, calling him "Supreme Commander Deng, Great Spirit in Charge of Laws and Decrees 9", which indicates that he is in charge of laws and decrees, and of the interrogation and summoning of the Thunder Agency. Supreme Commander Bi, the Thunder Spirit: Supreme Commander Bi was formerly called Tianhua. According to the Comprehensive Collection of Investigations into the Divinities of the Three Doctrines since their Origin 10, Tianhua was originally a Thunder Spirit11, who was concealed underground and reincarnated in the fields, and after being nourished by the breath of stalactites for 1,000 years, he was given his birth. At the moment he was born, there was a bolt from the blue in the daytime, the flame lit up the sky, a sudden gale struck and a heavy shower suddenly fell. Surrounded by large serpents, he was fed by bees. Getting older, he was given the name Tian (field) for he was born in the fields, and the name Bi, for the characters Bi and Hua are alike. He Cultivated and Refined 12 himself under the Lulu Cliff. When Nuna failed to patch the holes in the sky, Supreme Commander Bi assisted the Spirits of Fire and Water13, and shouted between heaven and earth so as to block the holes in the sky. Later, he refined the battle formation of fire, hail, wind and thunder of five colors, helped the Yellow Emperor 14 kill Chiyou, and became the master of dragons. The Jade Emperor appointed him Supreme Commander Bi of the Thunder Agency, ordered him to be in charge of the twelve Thunder Courts 15 and to assist the Highest Emperor of the Mysterious Heaven 16 in killing the gods of plague and using spirits. He controlled the dryness and wetness of Heaven and Earth, checked the activities of demons, and attacked those who were not benevolent or upright. Supreme Commander Liu who is in charge of affairs: Heavenly sovereign Liu had the given name Hou and lived in the Jin dynasty. He was born in a fishing boat on the Minjiang River, and did not drown when falling into the middle of the river during his childhood. Due to poverty, he was sent to be the page boy of Perfect Man Luo. Since he had a good command of the gestures of the Five Thunders, he was able to summon wind and rain, and responded immediately after being asked, and benefited the people and the country. One year when the eastern capital suffered severe droughts, the emperor prayed in the Shrine of Heavenly Sovereign Liu, and a heavy rain fell as expected. That autumn had a good harvest. The emperor named him the Perfect Sovereign of Creation and Benevolence 17, and the Jade Emperor18 ordered him to be in charge of various kinds of affairs of the prince palace of the Thunder Agency. Supreme Commander Xin of the Thunder Fast: Supreme Commander Xin was formerly named Xin Xing and styled Zhenyu, who was a native of Yongzhou. According to the Comprehensive Collection of Investigations into the Divinities of the Three Doctrines since their Origin, there was a Mountain of Divine Thunder19 in the area of Yongzhou. Xin Xing's mother was scared to death by the thunderbolt on the Mountain of Divine Thunder, and Xin Xing held his mother's corpse, weeping. Moved by his extreme filial piety, the Thunder Spirit transformed into a Daoist priest and offered his apology, and presented to him twelve fire elixirs for him to eat. Then Xin changed his form, his head changed into that of a monster, his

mouth into a beak, his shoulders into wings, with a dagger in his left hand and a mallet in the right and five drugs under his feet. The Jade Emperor appointed him Supreme Commander, who, together with the Supreme Commander Bi, "was responsible for affairs in the five directions, travelling back and forth in the heavens, and eliminating the evil demons and ghosts in the nether world and this world". It is said that the 15th day of the sixth lunar month is the divine birthday of Supreme Commander Xin. On that day, the Daoist priests worshiping the Thunder Sprits abstain from eating meat. This is known as the "Thunder Fast" 20, in order to pray for the blessings of gods. Supreme Commander Pang with a Golden Sword: Supreme Commander Pang was formerly named Pang Qiao and styled Changqing. According to the Comprehensive Collection of Investigations into the Divinities of the Three Doctrines since their Origin, he was born in a poor family who had been ferrymen for generations. Yet Pang Qiao was kind in heart and actions. He was never impartial to those who traveled by ferry and helped people in emergency and difficulty. Hearing of his extreme filial piety and absolute sincerity, the Jade Emperor appointed him Supreme Commander of the Vital Breath of Chaos. With a golden sword in hand, he was devoted to his duty of guarding the gate of heaven, in order to vanquish the demons in the nether world and exterminate the old evils, and never failed. Worship: The Hall of Heavenly Generals21 is always founded in some large Daoist temples to enshrine the Supreme Commanders of the Thunder Agency or some other heavenly generals. The titles and number of the supreme commanders who are worshiped may vary due to the differences in the local cultural and historical background of the Daoist priests in different places. But it is common to take the Supreme Commanders of the Thunder Agency as the gods guarding the teachings and relieving the distressed to pray to. The Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning

Origins of the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning: The Father of Thunder, the spirit in charge of thunder, is called Father for it is masculine, and can also be called the Master of Thunder or the Thunder Spirit. The Mother of Lightning, the spirit in charge of lightning, is called Mother for it is feminine, and can also be called the Sacred Mother of Golden Light or Lady Lightning. The worship of thunder and lightening originated in ancient times. Far-off Journey by Qu Yuan of the Warring States contains the following sentence: "the left is guarded by the Master of Rain and the right by the Father of Thunder." Also, his Encountering Sorrow says, "the phoenix warns me, and the Master of Thunder tells me what I don't possess. I order Fenglong to ride clouds in search of the imperial concubine Mi". According to the annotation of Wang Yi of the Han dynasty, Fenglong "is also called the Master of Thunder". Records about the Father of Thunder are numerous in the Book of Mountains and Seas, where the Father of Thunder is claimed to have "a dragon's body, a human's head, and a protruding belly", so it must be in the shape of a beast. But the Father of Thunder of the Han dynasty recounted by Wang Chong of the Han dynasty in his Judgements on Opinions "appears like a strong man, and is called the Father of Thunder. He is made to hold a string of drugs in his left hand and push a drumstick with his right hand as if beating drugs. It implies that the rumble of thunder is the sound of drugs knocking each other." The Father of Thunder had a human form. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern dynasties, the Father of Thunder changed into the shape of a beast again. Investigations into the Divine says that the Father of Thunder "has red complexion and mirror-like eyes, his hair and horn are three-foot long, and he has a form like the six domestic animals and rhesus monkeys". The post

of lightning was held by the Father of Thunder in ancient times, and the title of Father of Lightning did not appear until the Han dynasty. During the Tang and Song dynasties, the Spirit of Lightning turned into the Mother of Lightning. Cui Zhiyuan of the Tang dynasty says, "the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning are ordered to open the way facing the sky to foreign countries". Su Shi of the Song dynasty wrote a line, saying, "command the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning". After the Song and Yuan dynasties, the Mother of Lightning took a name. According to Remaining Stories about Cauldron-Casting, "the Envoy Mother of Lightning Xiu is named Wenying". The Records of Carriages and Dresses in the History of the Yuan Dynasty mentions that in the army, there was "the flag of the Mother of Lightning" on which the spirit was portrayed in the form of a woman who was "dressed in reddish garment, crimson skirt and white trousers, both of her hands giving off light". Both the novels Journey to the West and Journey to the North of the Ming dynasty mentioned the Mother of Lightning, calling her "the Sacred Mother of Golden Light" or "Lady Zhupei". Functions: The functions of the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning were formerly to administer thunder and lightning. But since the pre-Qin days and the two Han dynasties, the populace has given thunder and lightning the meaning of "punishing evil-doers and advocating good-doers". Basic Annals of the Yin Dynasty in the Records of the Historian says, "Wuyi ruled with disregard for principles and was struck to death by thunder". The section "Fabrications about Thunder" in Wang Chong's Judgements on Opinions says, "In mid summer, the swift thunder and lightning break trees, destroy houses and kill people sometimes", and "they kill people who are claimed to have hidden misdeeds. Heaven strikes and kills those who give people something dirty to eat or drink. The rumbling sound is the voice of Heaven that flares up, just like human's resounding sighs". Thunder and lighting indicate righting wrongs in accordance with Heaven's decree, punishing hidden misdeeds, and striking the ruffians to death. In many of the rites for praying for rain or snow that are recorded in his Great Collection of Daoist Skills, Du Guangting, an eminent Daoist priest of the Tang and Five Dynasties, took the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning to be the major spirits to whom people offer sacrifices. The Daoist priests of the Divine Heaven sect and the Pristine Subtlety sect after the Northern Song dynasty applied Thunder Skills. A Collection of Daoist Skills says that the basis of Thunder Skills is the "Vital Breath", and "as for the skills of Dao, the motionless skill refers to the intercourse of dragon and tiger, while the moving skill refers to the rumbling of the thunderbolt". As a divinity subordinate to the Heavenly Lord of Universal Transformation Whose Voice of Thunder Resonates With the Origin of the Nine Heavens (i.e. the Thunder Patriarch), the Father of Thunder was ordered to be in charge of receiving and sending off, summoning, assigning and discharging thunder in the application of the skills. Worship: The Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning are always enshrined in some large Daoist temples. The statue of the Father of Thunder looks like a strong man, who exposes chest and stomach, grows two wings on his back, has three eyes in the forehead, and whose complexion is as red as a monkey, jaw long and sharp, and feet like hawk's claws. He holds an iron sickle in the left hand and an iron beetle in the right, and looks as if he is going to strike. A string of five drugs hang from the top of his hand to the sides around his body. He crosses his legs with a drug under his left foot. He is called the Father of Thunder and the Heavenly Sovereign Jiang. The statue of the Mother of Lightning appears like a woman, and looks elegant with mirrors in both her hands, and is called the Mother of Lightning and the Heavenly Sovereign Xiu. The divine birthday of the Father of Thunder is the 24th day of the sixth lunar month. Generally speaking, Daoist believers worship the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning only when they pray for rain and snow and few

worship them specially. But the spirit tablets for the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning are still set up in large-scale Daoist rituals of fasts and offerings. The Dragon King

Origins of the Dragon King1: The Dragon is one of the four spirits of ancient Chinese mythology. The section "On the Dragon King2" in the Book of Divine Incantations of the Supreme Pervasive Abyss3 lists the names of the "Dragon Kings of the Five Emperors4" which each correspond to one direction, the "Dragon Kings of the Four Seas5" which each correspond to one sea, and the Fifty-Four Dragon Kings and Sixty-Two Divine Dragon Kings6 which are distinguished according to all things in Heaven and on Earth. During the reign of Emperor Xuan of the Tang dynasty, a shrine was set up in Longchi by imperial order and the position of Altar Official7 was established for offering sacrifices to the Dragon King, following the rites for worshiping the Master of Rain 8. The first emperor of the Song dynasty continued to follow the Tang dynasty rules for offering sacrifice to the Five Dragons. In the second year of Daguan during the reign of emperor Hui of the Song dynasty (AD 1108), the ranks of kings and nobility were conferred upon the Five Dragons9. The Green Dragon Spirit10 was titled the King of Extensive Benevolence11, the Red Dragon Spirit12 was titled the King of Kind Beneficence13, the Yellow Dragon Spirit14 was titled the King of Trustful Correspondence15, the White Dragon Spirit16 was titled the King of Righteous Salvation17, and the Black Dragon Spirit18 was titled the King of Numinous Beneficence19. In the second year of Tongzhi of the Qing dynasty (AD 1863), the Dragon Spirit of Canals20 was titled the "Dragon King Spirit who Prolongs Protection, Reveals Correspondence, and Divides Water"21, and the governor-general of river courses was ordered to offer sacrifice to him regularly. Functions: Thus the functions of the Dragon King are to conjure up clouds and rain, rid people of scorching weather and worries, and it became a popular belief among the people that the Dragon King regulates rivers and watercourses. The section "On the Dragon King" in the Book of Divine Incantations of the Supreme Pervasive Abyss says, "when the fields of the country are arid and produce no food crops, and no one can find a solution", the Primeval Lord of Heaven 22 comes to the country on clouds in five colours and preaches the Orthodox Law, and delivers all living creatures from torment with aid of the Dragon Kings of various heavens, and so timely torrential rain falls to moisten the fields. Worship: All kinds of literary records and the folklores of various places have different statements about the divine birthday of the Dragon King. In old days, the temples enshrining the Dragon King were as common as those enshrining the City God23 and the Earth Spirit. Whenever the weather was unfavorable, if there was a long drought or if it kept raining for a long time, the populace would go to the Dragon King Temple to burn incense and make vows in order to pray for good weather and for the Dragon King to bring the rivers under control.

The Master of Rain

Origins of the Master of Rain: The Master of Rain1 is the Rain Spirit2, who is also called Pingyi or Xuanming. The Rain Spirit of ancient China has an early origin. The "Great Master of Sacrificial Rites 3" in the Rites of the Zhou4 mentions "burning firewood to worship the Controller of the Center 5, the Controller of Destinies6, the Master of Wind7 and the Master of Rain". Zheng Xuan made a commentary on it, saying, "the Master of Rain is the Constellation Bi8". He means, "when the moon is far away from the Constellation Bi, it rains in torrents. So the Master of Rain is the Constellation Bi". Cai Yong of the Eastern Han dynasty says in his Independent Judgement9, "the Spirit of the Master of Rain10 is the Constellation Bi. It conjures up rain when its image appears in the sky." Constellation Bi is one of the Seven Western Constellations11 of the 28 constellations. Here the Master of Rain is regarded to be a constellation. The Rain Spirit may also be conceived in a human form. Qu Yuan's Questions on Heaven12 says, "it rains at Ping's command". Wang Yi of the Han dynasty annotated it, saying, "Ping is Pingyi, the name of the Master of Rain". The Comprehensive Explanations to Customs 13 says, "according Zuo's Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals14, the son of Gonggong is the Master Xuanming", and "Zichan, the Senior Official 15 of Zheng, averted disasters by praying to Xuanming". Xuanming is in fact the Master of Rain. The Jin dynasty Investigations into the Divine 16 says, "Chisongzi is the Master of Rain during the time of the Holy Farmer 17". The Comprehensive Collection of Investigations into the Divinities of the Three Doctrines since their Origin 18 took the Master of Rain to be a divine bird, saying, "the Master of Rain is Shangyang, and Shangyang is a divine bird with a single claw. It can become big or small and make seas dry when it sucks. It is the Spirit of the Master of Rain". After the Tang and Song dynasties, the worship of the Dragon King 19 born out of Buddhism gradually began to replace the Master of Rain. Functions: In the name 'Master of Rain', "Master" refers to a spirit. According to the section Sacrificial Rites20 of the Comprehensive Explanations to Customs, "master means multitude. Water is extensive in the soil. Thunder shakes ten thousand li, and even reaches the Supreme Mountain 21, and so does the wind. But rain is different. It may rain everywhere under heaven within a morning. Rain's merits are so extensive and great that only rain is titled Master". Because the rain moistens the land, "brings birth to everything, and does meritorious deeds to human beings, kings offer sacrifice to it in order to repay its contribution". Worship: The worship of the Master of Rain was already classified as one of the country's sacrificial rites during the Qin and Han dynasties. The Important Documents of the Tang22 says that the worship of the Master of Rain was promoted to a sacrificial rite of the middle rank, and "an altar must be set up in each prefecture" so that the rites could be held simultaneously with kings' sacrificial rites. Some Daoist temples also set up halls to enshrine the Earl of Wind 23, the Master of Rain, the Father of Thunder24 and the Mother of Lightning25. The statue of the Master of Rain is always a black-bearded robust man with a jar in his left hand where there is a dragon, whose right hand seems to be sprinkling water. He is called the Master of Rain and the Heavenly Sovereign Chen. His divine birthday is on the 20th day of the 11th lunar month. But now the sacrificial rites particularly held for the Master of Rain are rarely seen because the worship of the Master of Rain has gradually been replaced by that of the Dragon King in modern times. The spirit tablet of the Master of Rain is

merely set up at large-scale Daoist rituals of Fasts and Offerings 26, for the Master of Rain to be worshiped along with other spirits. The Earl of Wind

Origins of the Earl of Wind: The Earl of Wind is the wind spirit, who is also called the Master of Wind, Feilian, Jibo, and so on. The worship of the Earl of Wind in ancient China has an early origin. The section The Great Master of Sacrifial Rites in the Rites of the Zhou mentions "burning firewood to worship the Controller of the Center, the Controller of Destinies, the Master of Wind, and the Master of Rain". Zheng Xuan made a commentary on it, saying, "the Master of Wind is the Constellation Ji". He means, "when the moon is far away from the Constellation Ji, it raises sand. From this we know that the Master of Wind is the Constellation Ji". Cai Yong of the Eastern Han dynasty says in his Judgements on Opinions, "the spirit of the Earl of Wind is the Constellation Ji. It conjures up wind when its image appears in the sky". The Constellation Ji is one of the seven Eastern Constellations of the 28 constellations. Here the Wind Spirit is seen as a constellation. The Earl of Wind was also called Feilian in the area of Chu. There is a line in Qu Yuan's Encountering Sorrow, which says: "Wangshu is going in front of me, while Feilian is tailing behind me". Jinzhuo annotates Feilian as having "a deer's body, a sparrow's head, a horn, a snake's tail and a leopard's stripes". Guo You annotates it to be "the name of a beast with long hairs and wings". Here the Wind Spirit is taken to have an animal form. After the Tang and Song dynasties, the Earl of Wind was once called "Auntie Wind", "Auntie Feng", and "the Wind Queen", so it was sometimes regarded as a goddess. But the most common version is the one that takes the Constellation Ji to be the Earl of Wind. Functions: The functions of the Earl of Wind are to "govern the rising and fading of wind in the eight directions and master the symptoms of clouds of the five colors". Wind is a major factor of weather. It concerns benefiting seasons and breeding the world. The section Sacrificial Rites of the Comprehensive Explanations to Customs says that the Earl of Wind "shakes with thunder and moistens with rain so as to give birth to everything. It does meritorious deeds to human beings, so kings offer sacrifice to it in order to repay its contribution". Worship: The worship of the Earl of Wind was already classified as one of the country's sacrificial rites during the Qin and Han dynasties. Important Documents of the Tang says that the worship of the Earl of Wind was promoted to be a sacrificial rite of the middle rank, and it was required that "an altar be set up in each prefecture" so that the rites could be held simultaneously with kings' sacrificial rites. Some Daoist temples also set up halls to enshrine the Earl of Wind, the Master of Rain, the Father of Thunder and the Mother of Lightning. The statue of the Earl of Wind is always a white-haired elderly man with a wheel in his left hand and a fan in his right hand that seems to be fanning. He is called the Earl of Wind and Heavenly Sovereign Fang. The divine birthday of the Earl of Wind is the fifth day of the 10th lunar month. Among common Daoists, only those whose life and jobs are closely connected with the Earl of Wind offer sacrifices to him alone, while most Daoists worship him only at large-scale Daoist rites of Fasts and Offerings.