Sandstone

Sandstones are well known sedimentary rock types. They comprise 10%-20% of Earth's sedimentary rock record.
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Sandstones are described as medium-grained clastic sedimentary rocks, which are

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composed of rounded or angular fragments of sand size particles.

Sandstone are defined by a fine[2]

grained matrix or by cement although matrix and cement may not be present in some sandstones.

Importance
Sandstones are one of the most important sedimentary rocks. They are common in geologic systems of all ages and are widely distributed around the world. Due to their great abundance, much of what we know about the history of the Earth is known by the study of sandstones and their constituents.
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The

textures and structures within the sandstones tell a great deal about ancient environments where the sandstones were once deposited. Petroleum geologists are particularly interested in sandstones because more than half of the world's oil and natural gas reserves are contained within them.
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Components
Framework Grains
Framework grains are silicate grains that are detrital in origin, their purpose is to support the sand.
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Framework grains range in size from 1/16 to 2mm.

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These grains can then be classified into

three different categories based on their mineral composition. Quartz framework grains are the dominate minerals in most sedimentary rocks; this is because they have exceptional physical properties, such as hardness and chemical stability.
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These physical

properties allow the quartz grains to survive multiple recycling events, while also allowing the grains to display some degree of rounding. Quartz grains evolve from plutonic rock, which are felsic in

origin and also from older sandstones that have been recycled. Feldspathic framework grains are the second most abundant mineral in sandstones.
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Feldspar

can be divided into two smaller subdivisions: alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope. the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the chemical composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8, this represents a complete solid solution.
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Below is a description of

Plagioclase feldspar is a complex group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8.
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Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, called lithic fragments or clasts.
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Lithic fragments can be any

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fine-grained or coarse-grained igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary rock.

Although, the
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most common lithic fragment found in sedimentary rocks are clasts of volcanic rocks.

Accessory minerals are minerals that have an average abundance of less than 1-2% in sedimentary rocks.
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Accessory minerals are heavier in density than common rock[1]

forming minerals, such as quartz and feldspar.

Common accessory minerals include:

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micas(muscovite and biotite), olivine, pyroxene, and corundum.

Matrix
Matrix is very fine material, which is present within interstitial pore space between the framework grains.
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The interstitial pore space can be classified into two different varieties.

One is to call the sandstone an arenite, and the other is to call it a wacke. Below is a definition of the differences between the two matrices. Arenites are texturally "clean" sandstones that are free of or have very little matrix. Wackes are texturally "dirty" sandstones that have a significant amount of matrix.
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Cement
Cement is what binds the siliclastic framework grains together. Cement is a secondary mineral that forms after deposition and during burial of the sandstone.
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These cementing materials

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may be either silicate minerals or non-silicate minerals, such as calcite.

Silica cement can consist of either quartz or opal minerals. Quartz is the most common silicate mineral that acts as cement. In sandstone where there is silica cement present the quartz grains are attached to cement, this creates a rim around the quartz grain called overgrowth. The overgrowth retains the same crystallographic continuity of quartz framework grain that is being cemented. Opal cement is found in sandstones that are rich in volcanogenic materials, and very rarely is in other sandstones.
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Calcite cement is the most common carbonate cement. Calcite cement is an assortment of smaller calcite crystals. The cement adheres itself to the framework grains, this adhesion is what causes the framework grains to be adhered together.
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Other minerals that act as cements include: hematite, limonite, feldpsars, anhydrite, gypsum, barite, clay minerals, and zeolite minerals.
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Pore Space

Pore space includes the open spaces within a rock or a soil.

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The pore space in a rock has a

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direct relationship to the porosity and permeability of the rock. The Porosity and permeability is directly influenced by the way the sand grains are packed together.

Porosity is the percentage of bulk volume that is inhabited by interstices within a given rock.
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Porosity is directly influenced by the packing of even-sized spherical grains,

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rearranged from loosely packed to tightest packed in sandstones.

Permeability is the rate in which water flows, and this is measured in gallons per day through a one square foot cross section under a unit hydraulic gradient.
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Hydraulic

gradient is the change in depth of the water table due to the direction of groundwater flow.

Types of sandstone
All sandstone are composed of the same general minerals. These minerals make up the framework components of the sandstones. Such components are quartz, feldspars, and lithic fragments. Matrix may also be present in the interstitial spaces between the framework grains
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. Even though sandstones have very simple compositions, geologists have not been
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able to agree on a specific, right way, to classify sandstones

. Although, most geologists

agree that the use of a triangle Quartz, Feldspar, Lithic Fragment (QFL) chart as the the best way to plot framework grains, they do not agree on how to separate the triangle parts into the single components so that the framework grains can be plotted
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.Therefore, there have been

many published ways to classify sandstones, all of which are similar in their general format. This entry will look in depth at the way Dott classifies sandstones by using a QFL chart.

Dott (1964) Classification Scheme

Dott's (1964) sandstone classification scheme is one of many classification scheme used by geologists for classifying sandstones. Dott's scheme is a modification of Gilbert's classification of silicate sandstones, and it incorporates R.L. Folk's dual textural and compositional maturity concepts into one classification system.
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The philosophy behind combining Gilbert's

classification scheme and R.L. Folk's classification scheme is that it is better able to "portray the continuous nature of textural variation from mudstone to arenite and from stable to unstable grain composition".
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Dott's classification scheme is based on the mineralogy of

framework grains, and on the type of matrix present in between the framework grains. In this specific classification scheme, Dott has set the boundary between arenite and wackes at 15% matrix. In addition to setting a boundary for what the matrix is, Dott also breaks up the different types framework grains that can be present in a sandstone into three major categories: quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains.
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Visual aids are diagrams that allow geologists to interpret different characteristics about a sandstone. The following QFL chart and the sandstone provenance model correspond with each other therefore, when the QFL chart is plotted those points can the be plotted on the sandstone provenance model. The stage of textural maturity chart illustrates the different stages that a sandstone goes through. A QFL chart is a representation of the framework grains and matrix that is present in a sandstone. This chart is similar to those used in igneous petrology. When plotted correctly, this model of analysis creates for a meaningful quantitative classification of sandstones.
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A sandstone provenance chart allows geologists to visually interpret the different types of places sandstones can originate from.

A stage of textural maturity is a chart that shows the different stages of sandstones. This chart shows the difference between immature, submature, mature, and supermature sandstones. As the sandstone becomes more mature grains become more rounded, and there is less clay that makes up the matrix of the rock.
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Arenites describe sandstone that have less than 15% clay matrix in between the framework grains. Quartz Arenite are sandstones that contain more than 90% of siliceous grains. Grains can include quartz or chert rock fragments.
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Quartz arenites are texturally mature to

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supermature sandstones. They are commonly affiliated with rocks that are deposited in a stable cratonic environment, such as eolian beaches or shelf environments. Quartz

arenites emanate from multiple recycling of quarts grains, generally as sedimentary source rocks and less regularly as first-cycle deposits derived form primary crystalline or metamorphic rocks.
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Feldspathic Arenites are sandstones that contain less than 90% quartz, and more feldspar than unstable lithic fragments, and minor accessory minerals. sandstones are commonly immature or sub-mature. association with cratonic or stable shelf settings. from granitic-type, primary crystalline, rocks. then it is igneous in origin.
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Feldspathic

These sandstones occur in

Feldspathic sandstones are derived

If the sandstone is dominantly plagioclase,

Lithic Arenites are characterized by generally high content of unstable lithic fragments. Examples include volcanic and metamorphic clasts, though stable clasts such as chert are common in lithic arenites.
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This type of rock contains less than 90% quartz grains and

more unstable rock fragments than feldspars. submature texturally.

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They are commonly immature to

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They are associated with with fluvial conglomerates and other . They are emanate under
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fluvial deposits, or in deeper water marine conglomerates.

conditions that produce large volumes of unstable material.

Wacke describes sandstones that contain more than 15% clay matrix in between framework grains. Quartz Wacke are uncommon because quartz arenites are texturally mature to supermature.
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Felspathic Wacke are feldspathic sandstone that contain a matrix that is greater than 15%.
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Lithic Wacke is a sandstone that has a matrix greater than 15%.

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Quartz Arenite Rygel, M.C

Lithic Arenite Rygel, M.C

Lithic Wacke Rygel, M.C

Felspathic Wacke Rygel, M.C

Arkose
Arkose sandstones are classified as feldspar-rich, commonly coarse-grained sandstones which are pink or red. Arkose sandstones are also composed of angular or sub-angular grains that can be either poorly or moderately sorted. Quartz is the most abundant mineral, as in most sandstones, but in arkose sandstones feldspar is the second most abundant, making up at least 25% of the rock. Arkosesandstones closely resemble granites, because they are derived from the rapid disintegration of granite or granite-like rocks. Cement, particularly silica cement, is rare in arkose sandstones while fine-grained rock fragments are often abundant. There is less than 15% matrix, which includes clay minerals, kaolinite, mica, and iron-oxide. .
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Graywacke
Graywacke sandstones have been variously defined, but now generally applied to dark-grey, firmly embedded, coarse grained sandstones. . Graywacke sandstones are composed of poorly sorted angular to sub-angular grains of quartz and feldspar.
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They differ from the

arkose variety in that there are abundances of dark rock and mineral fragments embedded in the clayey matrix. These dark rock fragments are usually metamorphic rock fragments along with an abundance of very fine-grained illite, sericite, and other chloritic minerals. There are

little to no feldspar grains and cement. In graywacke sandstones there is also more than 15% clayey matrix .
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Sandstone depositional environments

Sandstones, being one of the more common sedimentary deposit types, can be found in nearly all environments. The structures within the sandstones yield important information on the process of sandstone deposition. . Arkose or quartz sandstones are most typical of moderate to high-energy marine environments. They can also be found in sand dunes and beaches along the sea shore.these environments can include a fluvial channel and shallow marine environment. . Greywackes reflect an environment in which erosion, transportation, deposition, and burial were so rapid that complete chemical weathering could not take place. This is a typical characteristic of a turbidic marine environment. This is typical of alluvial fans, fluvial, deltiac and less commonly in lucustrine environments. These "muddy" sandstones can also be found in flood planes and the outer shelf where the transporting energy is low to moderate. .
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