Laboratory Manual for EAS 361 Engineering Fluid Mechanics

Fall 2004

Department of Mechanical Engineering Portland State University P.O. Box 751 Portland, Oregon 97207 www.me.pdx.edu
November 16, 2004

Preface
The Laboratory for EAS 361, Engineering Fluid Mechanics complements the learning experience of the lecture. Laboratory exercises provide opportunities for direct study of uid behavior. All of the laboratory experiments reinforce material presented during lecture. Some of the experiments will also expose material that is not presented during lecture. You are responsible for the union of the laboratory and lecture experience, not their intersection. Use the laboratory as a chance to enhance your understanding of uid statics and dynamics. The following Learning Objectives for the laboratory will guide you in taking an active role in your education. 1. Gain familiarity with physical manifestations of uid mechanics. You will perform experiments dealing with the basic uid properties: viscosity and pressure; static uid forces; dynamic uid forces; the relation between pressure and velocity in a owing uid.

These experiments will give you rst-hand experience with uid behavior. As a result of performing these experiments you should be able to recognize the eects of uid pressure and viscosity, to relate measurements of pressure to hydrostatic force in a stationary uid, and to relate measurements of pressure to velocity in a moving uid. In addition to learning about uid behavior, you should be able to recognize the physical equipment in the laboratory and explain the basic operating principles of the equipment. You should learn how to operate the equipment properly and safely. 2. Develop and reinforce measurement skills. You should know how to read gages, manometers, owmeters, spring scales, and balance scales. You should be able to time events with a stopwatch. You should strive to measure quantities with the maximum precision of the instruments provided in the laboratory. 3. Develop and reinforce skills in documenting observations. You should develop good habits in the organization and recording of raw data in a notebook, and take care to document the data such that it can be analyzed at a later time. You should sketch the physical apparatus used in each experiment. In doing so, pay special attention to the specic mechanical and operational details that enable the apparatus to achieve the purpose for which it was designed. You should be able to list and describe the steps used to obtain the desired measurements. You should be able to identify whether any actions were taken to improve the outcome of the experiment. Likewise, you should be able to identify any actions that may have contributed to undesirable outcomes 4. Develop skills at writing laboratory reports. You will create reports to document your measurements in the laboratory. You will use a writing style and format that is common to technical documentation used in Civil and Mechanical Engineering. Your reports should be complete, yet concise. By writing the report, you should develop a clear understanding of the laboratory exercise, and communicate that understanding in your written words.

ii

Contents
1 Viscosity Measurement 2 Calibration of Pressure Gages 3 Hydrostatic Force on a Submerged Surface 4 Impact of a Jet 5 Bernoulli Equation 6 Flow Meters A Report Writing 1 5 9 15 21 27 31

iii

Experiment 1

Viscosity Measurement
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the viscosity of a glycerin-water mixture with a Thomas-Stormer viscometer.

Apparatus
Figure 1.1 is a schematic of the viscometer. A weight, W , is used to drive a rotor that is partially submerged in a sample of liquid. The torque exerted by viscous shear on the rotor is balanced by the work input of the falling weight. The experiment involves measurement of the time it takes for a known number of revolutions of the rotor.

2rs

Spindle

rr Rotor Fixed cylinder

Figure 1.1: Thomas-Stormer viscometer. 1

EXPERIMENT 1. VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT

Theory
The operation of the viscometer relies on a linear velocity prole in the gap between the rotor and the xed cylinder. If the velocity prole is linear the viscous shear stress on the surface of the rotor can be written = k (1.1) where is the viscous shear stress, is the uid viscosity, k is a constant that depends only on the geometry of the viscometer, and is the angular velocity of the rotor. Given the shear stress from Equation (1.1), the torque exerted by the rotor on the uid is Tf = ( A)rr (1.2)

where A is the wetted surface area of the rotor, and rr is the radius of the rotor. The area, A, accounts for the inner and outer surfaces of the rotor. Since the uid is in contact with both surfaces rr is an eective radius. Neglecting any friction in the pulleys and bearings, the power dissipated by viscous stresses in the uid, Pf , is equal to the power input of the falling weight, Pw . Pf = Pw = Tf = W V (1.3)

where W is the magnitude of the weight, and V is the velocity of the falling weight. Combining Equations (1.1) through (1.3) gives k 2 A rr = W V (1.4) The velocity of the weight falling a distance L in time t is V = L 2 rs ns = t t (1.5)

where ns is the number of revolutions of the spindle, and rs is the radius of the spindle. The angular velocity of the rotor is 2 nr (1.6) = t where nr is the number of revolutions of the rotor in time t. Substitution of Equations (1.5) and (1.6) into Equation (1.4) and rearranging yields = 1 2 rs ns rs W W = 2 nr t k A rr k A rr t (1.7)

where = ns /nr is the overall gear ratio between the spindle and the rotor. Dening the viscometer constant as rs (1.8) C= k A rr Equation (1.7) can be written =C W (1.9)

Assuming that the model of viscous shear in Equation (1.1) is valid, the constant C depends only on the geometry of the device.

Procedure
Use of the Thomas-Stormer viscometer requires determination of C in Equation (1.9) by calibrating the instrument with a uid having a known viscosity. With C known from the calibration step, measurements of W and can be used with Equation (1.9) to compute the viscosity of an unknown uid. The overall procedure may be divided into three phases: (1) setting up the viscometer, (2) adjusting the weight in preparation for the tests, and (3) running the tests.

Set Up the Viscometer

1. Fill the test cup with test uid to 0.25 in (0.6 cm) below the side vanes. Make sure that the depth of the uid is the same for all tests. 2. Replace the test cup in the viscometer 3. Raise the platform that supports the bath and test cup until the uid is 0.6 cm (0.25 inch) below the top of the rotor. Make sure that the platform is raised so that it touches the stop. 4. Place the thermometer in the holder. Allow the system to come into thermal equilibrium and record the temperature.

Adjust Weight in Preparation for Tests

The viscosity measurement is based on the assumption that the ow on the surface of the rotor is laminar. After placing a new sample of liquid in the test cup, and lowering the rotor into position, adjust the weight until 100 revolutions on the counter takes at least 20 seconds. Shorter run times will cause turbulent ow, and result in erroneously high viscosity values. The preliminary weight adjustment will also allow you to become familiar with the measurement procedure. All data runs should be taken over a range of weights no greater than the weight that gives 100 revolutions in no less than 20 seconds. You will also need to allow about 20 revolutions for the rotor to attain steady state velocity. Make sure, therefore, that the weight can fall far enough to cause at least 120 revolutions of the rotor.

Running Tests
Once the instrument is set up, the calibration runs and the viscosity measurement runs use the following procedure. 1. Turn the brake on and raise the driving weight by turning the handle of the rewinding drum counter-clockwise until the weight nearly touches the pulley. 2. Release the brake one quarter turn and allow the weight to slowly descend until the pointer on the dial is located between 80 and 90. Reset the brake. The time for the weight to fall 100 revolutions will be measured. The starting time is when the revolution counter crosses 0, and the stopping time is when the revolution counter crosses 100. Setting the starting position so that the revolution counter is between 80 and 90 allows several revolutions of the rotor to be completed before the beginning of the measured time interval. This guarantees that the rotor is rotating at steady angular velocity during the interval of the time measurement. 3. Reset the stopwatch. 4. Fully release the brake. Start the stopwatch when the counter passes 0 and stop it when the counter passes 100. Record the time and mass of the weight box.

EXPERIMENT 1. VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT 5. Repeat the preceding steps for several weights (at least 5) by adding or removing shot from the weight box.

Data Reduction
Equation (1.9) can be rearranged as =C W (1.10)

Data from the calibration runs allows C to be determined from a least squares curve t of versus W/. Note that many software packages provide the capability for nding curve ts of the form y = a0 + a1 x but Equation (1.10) requires a0 = 0. If the curve t does not pass through (W/, ) = (0, 0) the value of the slope (and hence C ) will be in error. A simple formula for the least squares t to y = a1 x (1.11)

is not hard to derive. Given a set of measured (x, y ) data pairs the least squares t to Equation (1.11) is xi yi a1 = x2 i

Report
1. Plot the data for the calibration run and report the value of C . Be sure to include the point (W/, ) = (0, 0) to verify that the t is reasonable. 2. Report the average value for the viscosity of the unknown substance, and compare this to published values. 3. Discuss discrepancies and anomalies in your data. 4. Which measurements (data points) are most reliable? Which measurements are most limited by your ability to measure time? 5. How well does the versus W/ data t the model of a line with zero intercept? 6. What other methods are available for measuring the viscosity of liquids?

Experiment 2

Calibration of Pressure Gages

Purpose
The objective of this experiment is to assess the accuracy of a pressure gage with a dead weight gage tester.

Apparatus
Figure 2.1 is a schematic of a dead weight tester. There are three primary components of this device: a uid that transmits the pressure, a weight and piston used to apply the pressure, and an attachment point for the gage to be calibrated. The weight applies a force over a precisely known area, thereby applying a known pressure to the uid. The uid is an oil that is essentially incompressible. Since a dead weight tester is relatively compact the eect of elevation changes on the pressure are negligible. The pressure at the piston face, therefore, is equal to the pressure throughout the oil in the tester. Secondary components of the dead weight tester are a reservoir and an adjusting piston. The reservoir accumulates oil displaced by the the vertical piston during tests when a large range of weights are used for a given gage. The adjusting piston is used to make sure that the vertical piston is freely oating on the oil.

Procedure
1. Attach the gage to the stem, B. 2. Select a weight and place it on the vertical piston, A. 3. Move the handle of the adjusting piston C to insure that the weight and piston are supported by oil, not the bottom stop. 4. Spin the vertical piston to insure it is oating freely. 5. Record the gage reading and the weight. 6. Repeat steps 2 through 5 for increasing and decreasing weights for each gage. Be sure to cover as much of the range of the gage that can be achieved with available weights. 5

EXPERIMENT 2. CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAGES

weight A test gage B reservoir vertical piston

valves

adjusting piston C
Figure 2.1: Dead weight gage tester.

Data Reduction
For each gage tested, draw two curves like those in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3. Figure 2.2 is a plot of the pressure indicated on the gage versus the pressure of the oil in the dead weight tester. Figure 2.3 is the discrepancy between the pressure gage reading and the pressure applied by the weight on the dead weight tester. A dierence plot like that in Figure 2.3 is a good way to compare two quantities that have nearly the same value. The data in Figure 2.2 suggest that the calibration is quite good, but there is no indication of the magnitude of the discrepancy. Figure 2.3 clearly shows the magnitude of the discrepancy between the indicated reading of the pressure gage and the dead weight tester. Furthermore, by plotting the calibration data as in Figure 2.3 one sees that the indicated pressure tends to be lower than the calibration standard (more points fall below the line pindicated pdwt = 0).

Report
Briey explain the principle involved in the deadweight gage tester. How is the pressure generated? How is it transmitted to the gage? How is the pressure level controlled? What is the maximum error to be expected when this gage is used to measure pressure? Is this error more likely to happen at low or high pressures? Is there a range of pressures for which the gage gives signicantly more (or less) accurate readings? Is there any dierence in the calibration errors between the data taken in order of increasing pressure, and the data taken in order of decreasing pressure? If so, give a plausible explanation for this error. Could you use this apparatus to calibrate a vacuum gage? How? The dead weight tester is just a standard to which the pressure gages are compared? How do you imagine the dead weight tester was calibrated?

1800 1600 1400 1200 pindicated (psi) 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 Increasing pressure Decreasing pressure

500

1000 pdwt (psi)

1500

2000

Figure 2.2: Calibration results for model XYZ gage.

10 8 6 pindicated pdwt (psi) 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 500 1000 pdwt (psi) 1500 Increasing pressure Decreasing pressure

Figure 2.3: Discrepancy between the gage and dead weight tester for model XYZ gage.

EXPERIMENT 2. CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAGES

Experiment 3

Hydrostatic Force on a Submerged Surface

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to experimentally locate the center of pressure of a vertical, submerged, plane surface. The experimental measurement is compared with a theoretical prediction.

Apparatus
Figure 3.1 is a sketch of the device used to measure the center of pressure on a submerged vertical surface. It consists of an annular sector of solid material attached to a balance beam. When the device is properly balanced the face of the sector that is not attached to the beam is directly below (coplanar) with the pivot axis. The solid sector and the balance beam is supported above a tank of water.

Balance beam Balance adjustment O H h B CG F A r2 S L P r1 T W Q

Figure 3.1: Apparatus for measuring the location of the center of pressure. 9

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EXPERIMENT 3. HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON A SUBMERGED SURFACE

x y h yR

Figure 3.2: Detailed nomenclature for locating the center of pressure.

Theory
Figure 3.2 shows the submerged surface viewed from the left side of the tank in Figure 3.1. The depth of the centroid below the surface of the water is h. The x-y coordinate system has its origin at the centroid. The y-direction position of the center of pressure, yR , is (Munson et al., 2.8) y R = yc + Ixc yc A (3.1)

where Ixc is the moment of inertia of the surface about the x-axis, and A is the surface area. The location of the center of pressure can be measured using the apparatus sketched in Figure 3.1. The counterweight is adjusted so that the beam is horizontal when there is no water in the tank and no weight in the pan. When the tank is lled with water the unbalanced hydrostatic force causes the beam to tilt. Adding weight W to the pan at a distance L from the pivot O exerts a moment W L that counterbalances the resultant moment due to the hydrostatic forces on the quarter-annulus-shaped body ABP Q. When the water level is as shown in the gure, there are hydrostatic forces on surfaces AB , BS and AT . Since BS and AT are concentric cylindrical surfaces with the common axis passing through O, the hydrostatic forces on BS and AT do not exert any moment about O. As a result W L is equal to the moment due to the hydrostatic force F acting on the vertical plane surface AB . In this experiment the force F is not measured. Instead the theoretical value F = ghA is assumed, where h is the depth of the centroid of the surface. The moment due to F is measured and the theoretical value of F is used to compute the location of the center of pressure. Balancing the moments about O gives W L = F (H + yR ) Substituting F = ghA and solving for yR yields yR = WL H ghA (3.2)

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Laboratory Procedure
1. Adjust the counterweight so that the balance the beam is horizontal with no water in the tank. 2. Add water up to some level. During the lab you will use at least four water levels. Make sure some water levels leave part of the vertical face exposed. 3. Add weights to the pan to restore the beam to a horizontal position. Record the weight. Measure H . 4. Measure and record h. 5. Return to step 2 and repeat the measurements using at least three other water levels.

Analysis
1. Calculate yR from equation (3.1). Call this the theoretical value yR,th . 2. For each water depth, calculate yR from equation (3.2). Call this value the measured value yR,m . 3. Plot yR,th versus h and yR,m versus h on the same axes. 4. Plot yR,th yR,m versus h. 5. Plot yR,th yc versus h. The plots created in step 3 and step 4 allow a comparison of the theoretical and measured values of yR . The plot from step 4 shows the dierence between the measured and theoretical values. A dierence plot (like that required in step 4) is a good way to compare two quantities that have nearly the same value. For example, Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 in the lab manual for Experiment 2 are two plots of the calibration data for a pressure gage. The data in Figure 2.2 suggest that the calibration is quite good, but there is no indication of the magnitude of the errors. Figure 2.3 clearly shows the magnitude of the discrepancy between the indicated reading of the pressure gage and the dead weight tester. Furthermore, by plotting the calibration data as in Figure 2.3 one sees that the indicated pressure tends to be lower than the calibration standard (more points fall below the line pindicated pdwt = 0).

Report
1. How does the design of the apparatus enable the resultant force on the vertical surface to be measured? Are any signicant forces being neglected? Does the section of the vertical surface that is above the water surface contribute any error to the measurement? 2. Compare the experimental and theoretical values of yR and explain any discrepancy. Pick one point in the middle of the range of measurements. For that data point, how much of a change in the measured yR would be caused by an error of 10 grams in the weight measurement? 3. What is the primary trend in yR yc versus water depth? Is this consistent with the theory presented in lecture and in the textbook?

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EXPERIMENT 3. HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON A SUBMERGED SURFACE

Reference
B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., 2002, Wiley and Sons, New York.

Appendix: What About Buoyancy?

Is the buoyancy force being neglected in the analysis of the experimental data? The answer is no. To understand why, we will consider two ways to analyze the experiment. The rst analysis involves a moment balance that causes the buoyancy force to appear. The second analysis is the same as that presented in the preceding sections, and no buoyancy force appears. How can the buoyancy force be made to disappear? Remember that the buoyancy force is dened as the net pressure force acting on a submerged body. If we consider the pressure force components acting in the horizontal and vertical directions, then the buoyancy force contributes to the moment about the device pivot. If instead we consider the pressure forces acting normal to the surface of the acrylic arc, then the buoyancy force does not appear because the normal forces on the curved surface do not contribute a moment about the pivot of the device. This result is due to the design of the experiment. In other words, the person who designed this device chose the circular arc shape because it allows us to measure the hydrostatic pressure forces without accounting for the buoyancy eect.

Initial Balance
First consider the force balance on device when the apparatus is dry (the tank is empty), and the balance weight has been properly adjusted. This situation is depicted in Figure 3.3. The balance weight Wc is moved left or right until the moment Wc Lc is equal and opposite to the moment Wa La . When the tank is lled with water, pressure forces on the surface of the curved acrylic cause an additional moment. The moment due to the pressure forces is balanced by adding weights to the pan shown on the right side of Figure 3.3. Adding water does not aect the moment balance Wc Lc = Wa La because the water does not change the weight of the device.

Lc O

La

Wc

Wa
Figure 3.3: Moments acting while balance weight is being adjusted and the tank is empty.

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L Lc O La Lb Fb Wc W Wa

Figure 3.4: Horizontal and vertical forces that create moments.

Moments due to Horizontal and Vertical Forces

Figure 3.4 shows the horizontal and vertical force components acting the acrylic after water is added to the tank. The horizontal forces are depicted as acting on vertical planes that are the projection of the curved surface. The contributions to the horizontal pressure forces on the left and right sides cancel exactly. Thus, by considering the horizontal pressure forces separately from the vertical pressure forces, we see that the net horizontal force must be zero. The horizontal force on the at face of the acrylic does not appear separately because it is already included the balance of horizontal pressure forces. The vertical forces acting on the top and bottom of the curved surface create a buoyancy force Fb , which acts through the center of buoyancy. The center of buoyancy is the centroid of that portion of the acrylic that is submerged. The weight of the acrylic Wa acts through the center of gravity of the solid material. When the system is analyzed with the forces identied in Figure 3.4, the weight W creates a moment W L that balances the buoyancy force Fb Lb . The moment Wa La caused by the weight of the acrylic is still cancelled exactly by the moment from the balance weight Wc Lc .

Moments due to Normal Forces

Now consider the moment balance depicted in Figure 3.5. In this view only the force components normal to the surface are identied. No forces are neglected because the pressure force acts normal to the surface. In this particular apparatus it is easier to analyze the normal forces directly than to separate the forces into horizontal and vertical components. The local pressure force on the curved surface of the acrylic is not zero. However, the pressure forces on the curved surface do not contribute to moments about O because these forces have lines of action that pass directly through O. In other words, the device is cleverly designed to eliminate the contributions of all surface forces except the force acting on the vertical surface. A moment balance about point O shows that the moment F (H + h) is balanced by W L. The buoyancy force is not neglected.

14

EXPERIMENT 3. HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON A SUBMERGED SURFACE

L O H+h

Figure 3.5: Forces normal to curved surface.

Summary of Buoyancy Aect

The analysis of Figure 3.4 gives W L = Fb Lb and the analysis of Figure 3.5 gives W L = F (H + h). (3.4) Thus, the weight can be used to measure either the magnitude of the buoyancy force or the magnitude of the net pressure force on the vertical face of the acrylic. To use Equation (3.3) we need to compute Lb , which requires locating the center of buoyancy. This is not trivial because the centroid of the submerged region of the acrylic is not a regular geometric shape. (3.3)

Experiment 4

Impact of a Jet
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate and verify the integral momentum equation. The force generated by a jet of water deected by an impact surface is measured and compared to the momentum change of the jet.

Apparatus
The experimental apparatus consists of a water nozzle, a set of impact surfaces, a spring scale connected to a balance beam, a ow meter, and plumbing for recirculating the water. Figure 4.1 is a schematic of these components. The pump draws water from the collection tank and provides sucient head for the water to ow through the nozzle and the ow meter. The jet of water from the nozzle impinges on the impact surface. The balance beam attached to impact surface allows measurement of the force necessary to deect the water jet.

Theory
A theoretical model for the force necessary to hold the impact surface stationary is obtained by applying the integral forms of the continuity and momentum equations. The details of the model depend on whether or not the uid stream leaving the impact surface is symmetric relative to the vertical axis of the surface.

Symmetric Jet
The geometric and uid parameters for this experiment are identied in the sketch in Figure 4.2. A stream of water with average velocity V ows upward from the nozzle. It impinges on the impact surface and turns to ow radially outward from the axis of the impact surface. The control volume, bounded by the dashed lines, is chosen so that it crosses the jet streams at right angles. To proceed with the analysis make the following assumptions friction between the impact surface and the water jet is negligible the magnitude of the jet velocity does not change as the jet is turned

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EXPERIMENT 4. IMPACT OF A JET

Scale adjustment F L2 L3

L1 Impact surface Nozzle Balance adjustment

Flow control valve Collection tank Flow meter

Pump

Figure 4.1: Apparatus used in the jet impact experiment. velocity proles are uniform where the ow crosses the control surface the jet exit is circumferentially symmetrical If any of the impact surfaces used in the experiment cause ows that violate these assumptions, the formulas for reaction forces given below will not match the measured reaction forces. Applying the conservation of mass to the jet streams gives V1 A1 V2 A2 = 0 (4.1)

where V is the average velocity at a given cross-section, and A is the cross-sectional area normal to the direction of the average velocity. The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the inlet and outlet of the control volume, respectively. Since the magnitude of the velocity is assumed to not change, Equation(4.1) simplies to A1 = A2 = A (4.2) The integral equation for momentum conservation in the x-direction is Fx =
CS

Vx V n dA (4.3)

= Rh = V2 cos V2 A2 + (V2 ) cos V2 A2 = 0

where Rh is the reaction force in the x-direction necessary to hold the impact surface stationary, and is the angle between the horizontal and the velocity vector of the uid leaving the control volume. Equation (4.3) shows that Fh = 0 if the ow leaving the impact surface is symmetric about the vertical axis of the impact surface. If there is any disruption to the symmetry, e.g., variations in V2 or around the periphery of the exit, Rh will not be zero.

17
Rv

Rh

q
V2 y x V1

V2 Impact surface

Figure 4.2: Nomenclature for control volume analysis of the jet. Ideally, the apparatus and jet are symmetric about the centerline of the jet. Applying the y -direction integral momentum equation gives Fy =
CS

Vy V n dA (4.4)

= Rv = V1 (V1 ) A1 + (V2 sin )V2 A2

where Fv is the reaction force in the y -direction. Using the simplications A1 = A2 = A and V1 = V2 = V , Equation(4.4) reduces to Rv = mV (1 + sin ) (4.5)

where m = V1 A1 = V2 A2 . Equation (4.5) is the theoretical model for predicting the vertical force on the impact surface. The experimental apparatus is designed to measure Fv . A moment balance about the point O in Figure 4.3 yields Fv L2 + Fh L1 Fs L3 = 0 (4.6) where Fv and Fh are the vertical and horizontal forces transmitted from the impact surface to its support, and Fs is the force measured by the spring balance. Solving this equation for Fv allows a
Fs L2 O L1 Fh Fv L3

Figure 4.3: Moments arising from forces in the jet experiment.

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Impact surface

EXPERIMENT 4. IMPACT OF A JET

Rv V2

Rh

y x V1

Figure 4.4: Forces in the jet experiment when the impact surface is not symmetric. comparison between the theoretical and measured reaction forces caused by the uid jet. Note that Fv = |Rv | and Fh = |Rh |.

Asymmetric Jet
Now consider the case depicted in Figure 4.4 where the impact surface is not symmetric about its vertical axis. The uid stream leaving the surface will cause a nonzero horizontal reaction force. Applying the momentum integral equation in the x direction yields Rh = (V2 cos )V2 A2 which simplies to Rh = mV 2 cos where m = V2 A2 . Applying the momentum integral equation in the y direction gives Rv = V1 (V1 )A1 + (V2 sin )V2 A2 or Rv = m (V1 V2 sin ) (4.8) where m = V1 A1 = V2 A2 has been used to simplify the expression. Equations (4.7) and (4.8) can be simplied further if we know the cross sectional area of the jets entering and leaving the control volume. Without approximation we can use the incompressible mass conservation relationship V1 A1 = V2 A2 . (4.9) Using Equation (4.9) to eliminate V2 from Equations (4.7) and (4.8) gives Rh = mV 1 A1 cos A2 A1 Rv = mV 1 1 sin A2 (4.10) (4.11) (4.7)

19 Unfortunately, there is no easy way to measure A1 /A2 . In the absence of additional information, assume A1 /A2 = 1. Under this assumption, the formulas for the horizontal and vertical reaction forces simplify to Rh = mV 1 cos Rv = mV 1 (1 sin ) Rearranging Equation (4.13) gives Rh 1 sin and substituting this result into Equation 4.12 and simplifying gives mV 1= R h = Rv cos 1 sin (4.14) (4.12) (4.13)

Finally, substituting Equation (4.13) and (4.14) into Equation (4.6) and solving for Fv gives Fv = Fs L3 /L2 L1 cos 1+ L2 1 sin (4.15)

This equation is the theoretical model for predicting the vertical force on the impact surface when the impact surface is not symmetric about its vertical axis. Note that Equation (4.15) is based on the assumption that A1 /A2 = 1. This is consistent with an assumption that the uid velocity does not decrease in magnitude as the uid impinges on and leaves the impact surface.

Procedure
In the theoretical calculation of the force on the impact surface it is assumed that the jet exit is symmetric around the impact surface. For the ow to be symmetric the balance beam must be horizontal. Two adjustments are necessary to keep the balance beam horizontal: one on the balance beam and one on the scale. Balance adjustment: For each impact surface, adjust the knurled knob on the balance beam so that with no ow and with no load on the scale the balance beam is horizontal. Do not make further adjustments to this knob unless the impact surface is changed. Scale adjustment: The mechanism inside the spring scale stretches as the force on it is increased. This causes the balance beam to tip as the ow rate is changed. The new equilibrium orientation of the balance beam is established when the reaction moment from the scale balances the moment exerted by the water on the impact nozzle. To get a proper force reading you have to adjust the scale so the balance beam is restored to horizontal. This is achieved by turning the nut on the rod that passes through the support for the scale.

Step-by-step Instructions
To perform the experiment: 1. Measure the length of the lever arms of the balance beam. 2. Install an impact surface and adjust the balance knob as described above. 3. Set the desired ow rate with the ow control valve.

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EXPERIMENT 4. IMPACT OF A JET 4. Adjust the scale as described above so that the balance beam is horizontal. 5. Record the ow rate and the force on the scale. 6. Repeat steps 4 through 6 for a total of six ow rates 7. Repeat steps 2 through 7 for at least two dierent impact surfaces.

Analysis
Analysis of the data for the symmetric impact surface is almost identical to the analysis to the analysis for the asymmetric impact surface. The only dierences are in the formula used to compute the theoretical reaction force and the formula used to compute the reaction force from the measured spring force. In the following steps, the references to the formulas for the asymmetric impact surface are given in parenthesis. 1. For each setting of the control value: Convert the ow rate to average velocities for the jet. Use Equation (4.5) (or Equation (4.13)) to compute the theoretical reaction force given V computed from the ow rate measurement. Use Equation (4.6) (or Equation (4.15)) to compute Fv from Fs and that apparatus dimensions. 2. On the same axes, plot Rv and Fv versus V for each impact surface. (Create a separate plot for each surface, but compare Rv and Fv on each plot.) 3. Plot the discrepancy Rv Fv versus V . (Create a separate plot for each surface.)

Report
1. Discuss the trends in reaction forces versus jet velocity. Is the trend consistent with the theory? Does it make sense? 2. How well does the theoretical model predict the measured force for the symmetric and asymmetric impact surfaces? 3. Do any of the measured values point to weaknesses in the theoretical models?

Experiment 5

Bernoulli Equation
Purpose
The objective of this experiment is to measure the variation in air velocity along the axis of a duct with variable cross sectional area. The measurements enable experimental verication of the Bernoulli Equation.

Apparatus
Figure 5.1 depicts the apparatus used in the experiment. It consists of a blower connected to a duct with a Venturi. At the exit of the duct is a support for a Pitot probe. The support allows the probe to be positioned at dierent axial locations in the duct. The Pitot tube (see Munson et al., 3.5) is a device that enables simultaneous measurement of the stagnation and static pressure of a moving uid. Figure 5.2 is a schematic of the measurement tip of the Pitot tube used in the experiment. A Pitot tube has an opening that faces upstream. Fluid approaching this opening is assumed to be brought to rest isentropically. Thus, the upstream-facing opening measures the stagnation pressure. The stagnation pressure port is the open end of a continuous tube that extends to a pressure tap outside of the ow stream. The stagnation tap is attached to a pressure measuring device. Downstream a short distance from the stagnation port are a series of openings around the circumference of the probe. These ports sense the static pressure. Inside the probe body, the static pressure ports are connected to a continuous tube that extends to a pressure tap outside of the ow stream. By connecting multiple static pressure ports to a single pressure transmitting duct, the eects of misalignment of the probe with the local ow direction are minimized. The static pressure tap is attached to a pressure measuring device. Although the static pressure ports are downstream from the stagnation port, one normally assumes that the stagnation port and the static ports measure their respective pressures at the same axial location. More precisely, the assumption is that the static pressure does not change signicantly as the uid moves the short distance from the stagnation port to the static port(s). For the Pitot probe used in this laboratory exercise, the distance between the stagnation and static pressure ports is 11/16 inch. In the laboratory exercise, a Pitot tube is used to measure air velocity in a duct with variable cross sectional area in the ow direction. Because the duct area is not constant, the average uid velocity varies in the ow direction. The Bernoulli equation shows that changes in velocity along 21

22

EXPERIMENT 5. BERNOULLI EQUATION

Blower Venturi Pitot probe Flow straightener

Figure 5.1: Apparatus for verifying the Bernoulli Equation. a horizontal streamline cause a change in static pressure. Thus, in regions of the duct where the area is rapidly changing in the ow direction, it is not safe to assume that the static pressure is the same at the stagnation and static pressure ports. The measurement procedure and data reduction steps in the laboratory exercise must compensate for the variation in static pressure due to changes in duct area. On the opposite end of the Pitot probe from the measuring tip are taps that allow the stagnation and total pressure ports to be connected to a pressure measuring device. Not shown in Figure 5.1 are three U-tube manometers that are used to measure the static pressure, dynamic pressure and stagnation pressure from the Pitot probe. The manometer measuring dynamic pressure measures the dierence between the stagnation and static pressure ports. This measurement will indicate the true dynamic pressure only in sections of the duct where the area does not change in the ow direction.

Theory
The Bernoulli equation applies to steady, incompressible ow along a streamline with no heat or work interaction. One form of the Bernoulli equation is 1 1 p0 = p1 + V12 + z1 = p2 + V22 + z2 2 2 where p is the pressure, is the density, V is the uid velocity, g is the acceleration of gravity, and z is the elevation measured from an arbitrary datum. The subscripts 1 and 2 denote two positions along the streamline. The total or stagnation pressure, p0 , is a measure of total energy of the owing stream. When the Bernoulli equation applies the stagnation pressure is constant along a streamline. Figure 5.2 is a sketch of the ow eld near the tip of the Pitot probe. The streamline that terminates at point A is called the stagnation streamline because as the uid approaches A it decelerates until it has zero velocity. The uid velocity is V on the stagnation streamline far upstream of A. If we assume that the deceleration is reversible, the pressure tap at point A measures the total pressure in the vicinity of the tip. Note that there is no ow through the Pitot tube. The Pitot probe is a small aerodynamic body that does not signicantly disturb the ow eld except for the stagnation streamline. Although the streamlines curve as the uid passes around the tip there is negligible change in velocity for uid that follow streamlines near the probe. Along the streamline through point C , for example, the uid velocity is assumed to be constant. In addition, over distances on the order of the Pitot tube diameter, elevation changes are negligible. All the streamlines in Figure 5.2, therefore, have the same stagnation pressure p0,A = p0,C

23
C B A D

Uniform flow at velocity V

Static pressure taps 0.688 inch

Stagnation point

Figure 5.2: Flow eld near the tip of a Pitot probe. There is a dierent relationship between points B and C . Since there is no velocity in the direction between B and C the static pressure is the same at these points, pB = pC In other words the pressure tap at point B measures the static pressure in the vicinity of the probe tip. Combining the foregoing equations and assumptions, the pressure dierence between point A and point C is the dynamic pressure p A pB = 1 2 V 2 (5.1)

Equation (5.1) applies if the uid velocity does not change between points D and C .

Procedure
The Pitot tube is used to measure the variation of stagnation, static, and dynamic pressure along the length of the variable area duct. The basic measurement procedure is to record the dierential heights of the uid columns for the three manometers attached to the Pitot tube. The manometer readings are recorded at a series of probe positions along the duct. Care must be taken in selecting the probe locations so that the correct dynamic pressure can be obtained from measurements of stagnation and static pressure at two separate probe locations. Figure 5.3 shows the location of the Pitot probe at two measurement stations located x = 11/16 = 0.688 inch apart. The term station refers to the position of the probe in the apparatus. At each station, the static ports are 0.688 inch downstream from the stagnation port. If the probe is moved so that subsequent stations are 0.688 inches apart, then the stagnation port at station i + 1 is at the same location as the static pressure port for station i. Therefore, by moving the probe in increments of 0.688 inch, the correct dynamic pressure can be obtained by subtracting the static pressure at station i from the stagnation pressure at station i + 1. Table 5.1 is a suggested layout of a table to record raw data during the experiment. The rst column is a station number. The second column is the axial position of the probe measured from an arbitrary reference point. It makes sense to dene x as the position of the probe tip. The location of x = 0 is up to you. The last three columns in the table are for recording the height dierential of the three U-tube manometers on the apparatus. Record all three manometer readings for each position of the probe.

24
c

EXPERIMENT 5. BERNOULLI EQUATION

Station i a 0.688 V(x)

0.688

c b

Station i+1 a

V(x)

Figure 5.3: Using a Pitot probe to measure velocity in a duct with variable area. If the probe is moved a distance equal to the spacing between the stagnation port and the static port, the dynamic pressure can be measured without introducing an area due to the change in duct area. Table 5.1: Layout of table to record pressure measurements Indicated Pressures (inch H2 O) Station 1 2 3 . . . x (in.) static dynamic stagnation

25

Analysis
The raw data must rst be converted from manometer heights to pressures. The indicated dynamic pressure is the dierence between the stagnation and static pressure taps at each probe position. In other words, the indicated dynamic pressure is obtained by converting the readings in the fourth column of Table 5.1 to pressure. The indicated dynamic pressure is then used to compute the indicated velocity. The corrected dynamic pressure is obtained by subtracting the static pressure at location x (in the duct) from the stagnation pressure at location x. The corrected dynamic pressure can only be calculated if the probe was moved in increments of 0.688 inch. The corrected dynamic pressure is used to computed the corrected velocity. Conversion of the raw data yields the variation of station pressure p0 (x), the static pressure p(x), the indicated velocity Vi (x), and corrected velocity Vc (x) along the centerline of the duct. 1. Plot p0 (x) and p(x) on the same axes. 2. Plot Vi (x) and Vc (x) on the same axes. 3. Plot Vi (x) Vc (x). 4. Estimate the ow rate through the duct.

Report
Present and discuss the plots listed in the Analysis section. Answer the following questions. 1. When using a Pitot tube in a duct of constant cross-sectional area the total and static pressure are measured at two streamwise locations. What assumption is being made when the distance between these locations is neglected? 2. Suppose pressure gages with a range of 0 to 10 psi were used instead of the manometers. How would this aect the accuracy of the measurements? 3. Suppose mercury instead of water was used as the manometer uid. How would this aect the accuracy of the measurements? 4. Suppose the experiment was performed with an apparatus that was scaled up by a factor of two. Furthermore, suppose that the fan was adjusted so that the pressure readings for all of the manometers in the large apparatus was identical to the pressure readings for the manometers in the experiment you performed. Would the velocity values for the two experiments be the same or dierent? What other ow properties would be aected by the change in scale?

Reference
B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., 2002, Wiley and Sons, New York.

26

EXPERIMENT 5. BERNOULLI EQUATION

Experiment 6

Flow Meters
Purpose
The objective of this experiment is to show how pressure measurements can be used to measure ow rates in pipes.

Apparatus
Figure 6.1 is a schematic of the apparatus used to demonstrate obstruction-type ow meters. The apparatus is a ow loop with a Venturi meter, a sharp-edged orice, a paddle- type ow meter, a pump, and a collection tank. The pressure taps around the ow loop have quick-disconnect connectors. By switching taps it is possible to measure pressure dierentials at dierent points around the loop with a single U-tube manometers.

Theory
Obstruction type ow meters work on the principle that changes ow area result in changes in uid velocity as required by continuity, and the changes in velocity result in changes in uid pressure. The theory of ow meters is discussed in 3.6.3 and 8.6 of Munson et al. The volumetric ow rate through an obstruction type ow meter is Q = CA 2p (1 4 )

where = d/D, d is the diameter of the orice (or throat of the Venturi), and D is the diameter of the pipe.

Procedure
1. Turn on the pump and choose a ow rate. 2. Move the pressure lines connected to the U-tube manometer to the taps on either side of one of the ow meter (orice or Venturi). 27

28

EXPERIMENT 6. FLOW METERS

Pressure taps

Venturi meter

Sharp-edged orifice meter

Paddle wheel flow meter

Collection tank

Flow control valve

pump
Figure 6.1: Flow loop for testing obstruction-type ow meters. 3. Record the pressure drop across the ow meter (orice or Venturi). 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for a total of six dierent ow rates. 5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 for the other ow meter

Analysis
1. Calculate the discharge coecient, C , for each ow meter at each ow rate. 2. Calculate the Reynolds number for each ow rate. 3. Make a plot of C versus Re on semi-log paper for the orice and the Venturi.

Report
1. Compare the physical appearance of the owmeters with the diagrams of these devices in your uids textbook. 2. Discuss any discrepancies with your results and the discharge coecients from your uids textbook. 3. Which ow measurement device in this apparatus is most accurate? Why?

29

Reference
B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., 2002, Wiley and Sons, New York.

30

EXPERIMENT 6. FLOW METERS

Appendix A

Report Writing
The primary objective of an engineering report is to transmit technical information to individuals having training comparable to that of the author. The information in the report should be presented as clearly and concisely as possible, but always with sucient detail that the methods and data can be well understood by the reader. Imagine that you are writing a report that you would want to read. Imagine that you will have to make an important decision based on the information in the report. This does not mean that the report has to be long or elaborate. It does require you to explain the equipment used, the procedure followed, and to identify and explain the signicant results. In addition to presenting essential information, a good report is well organized and uses a conventional style. In many situations the reader of a report will not have seen the apparatus or performed the experiment. The reader needs a description of the experimental apparatus and the procedure used to make the measurements. The use of line drawings (schematics) is an essential aid to a text description of the apparatus. While preparing your report, ask these questions: Could someone with your education reproduce your results with the same apparatus? In other words, is the description of the apparatus, procedure, and theory complete? Could someone with your education make make a judgment on the quality and usefulness of the results without having to reproduce the experiment?

Content
EAS 361 Laboratory reports should consist of the following sections: 1. Cover page. The cover page allows quick identication of the report. It should contain the number and title of the experiment, your name and names of lab partners, the date the experiment was performed, and the lab section (identied by day and group). 2. Introduction. The introduction is where you explain the purpose of the experiment. Give an overview of the methods used and the expected results. In this class the introduction should be brief. One paragraph should be sucient. 3. Apparatus. Sketch the equipment used in the experiment and describe the key components in words. Use of computer generated drawings are strongly encouraged. All drawings should be labeled according to the Style Conventions discussed below. Additional drawings may 31

32

APPENDIX A. REPORT WRITING be necessary to help explain pieces of the apparatus that are referred to in later sections of the report. Specialized equipment should be identied by brand and model number. 4. Procedure. Briey describe the procedure used in the experiment. Do not copy verbatim from the instruction sheets. Be sure to describe any special steps needed to achieve good results. 5. Theory. Provide a concise listing of equations used to obtain your results from the measurements. Equations should appear as in the following page excerpt.

The line of action of the hydrostatic force is through the center of pressure. For a vertical plate, the the center of pressure is at yR . The theoretical formula for yR is yR = yc + Ixc yc A (A.5)

where yc is the depth of the centroid of the plate, Ixc is the moment of inertia about the horizontal axis through the centroid, and A is the surface area of the plate.

The equation is centered between the margins. The equation number (which is (A.5) in this case) is aligned ush with the right margin. These eects can be obtained by placing a centering tab stop in the center of the page, and a right-aligned tab stop on the right margin. More important than the appearance of the equation is the documentation of the equation content. Each symbol used in the equation must be dened in the text of the report. In the preceding excerpt, notice that yR , yc , Ixc , and A are all identied in the sentences preceding or following the equation. The reader should not be left to guess about the meaning of a symbol. The one exception is that universal mathematical constants like or functions like sin() need not be explained (though should be dened). 6. Results. The Results section should contain the reduced data in either graphical or tabular format. If possible, list known values for comparison. See Style Conventions below for a discussion of the proper format for graphs and tables. Raw data should appear as part of the Appendix. The Results section should contain a brief narrative that describes what is contained in each graph and table. A few sentences are usually sucient. Results sections lacking a narrative will be ignored. 7. Discussion. State what has been learned from the test and the signicance of the results. Discuss the accuracy of the results. Explain any sources of error. Do the limits of accuracy explain discrepancies in the data, or is there something missing or wrong with the experiment? If possible give alternate procedures to obtain the same or better results. Answer any questions given on instruction sheets. Did the experiment achieve its objective? 8. References. Always give complete citations for material on other sources. A proper reference involves two components: the citation in the text and the complete bibliographic entry in the References section. Consider the following excerpt.

33

The viscosity of water at 22 C is 9.61 104 kg/m/s. This value was obtained by linear interpolation of the data in Table B.2 in the book by Munson et. al [2]. . . . References 1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Portland State University, Laboratory Manual for EAS 361 Engineering Fluid Mechanics: Fall 2002, Portland, OR. 2. Munson, B.R., Young, D.F., and Okiishi, T.H., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., Wiley, New York, 2002.

Notice that the citation in the text uses a number [2] in square brackets. This tells the reader to look at the second entry in the reference section for the complete bibliographic citation. When in doubt, emulate publications that you have. For example, look at the way citations are made in your course textbooks. Refer to the ASME style guide at http://www.asme.org/ pubs/MS4.html for additional examples. 9. Appendices. A. Sample Calculation. Give an example of how the reduced data was obtained from the raw data. B. Raw Data. All the data collected during the experiment should be presented in a neat and clearly readable format. C. Additional calculations or information supporting arguments made in the report. Occasionally it is necessary to make a lengthy justication or mathematical proof of an argument made in the body of the report. For example, you may want to show that the variation of uid viscosity with temperature could not account for the scatter in the data. That conclusion could be stated in the body of the report, while the quantitative justication, especially if it involves detailed calculations, should be in the appendix. In general, for this class, if the proof takes more than half a page of algebra or computations, it should be relegated to the appendix.

Style Conventions
Engineering technical reports are structured documents with the contents described in the preceding section. The style of the lab report should conform to standards for professional communications, and good usage of the English language. The visual appearance should be clean and rather plain. Do not distract the reader with fancy fonts, borders, and cute graphics. For information on the style suitable for ASME journal publications, see http://www.asme. org/pubs/MS4.html. For questions on usage of English consult a style manual such as Strunk, W., Jr., and White, E.B., The Elements of Style, 3rd ed., Macmillan, New York, 1979.

34

APPENDIX A. REPORT WRITING

Format
The report should be typed. Use of a word-processor is preferred. All text, Figures and Tables should appear on only one side of each sheet of paper. All pages other than the cover sheet should have page numbers that begin with 1 on the rst page after the title page, and should continue through the last page of the Appendix. Handwritten reports, or reports that contain pages of scrap paper or notebook pages with ragged edges are unacceptable, and will be returned without grading.

Text
The text of the report should be written in complete sentences. The style should be formal. This does not mean that you should use vocabulary words that are not part of your speaking vocabulary. Rather, formal style means to avoid slang, cliches, abbreviations that are common in spoken English or advertising copy. In short, imitate a engineering textbook, not the writing that appears in popular magazines. It is convention that formal reports are written in the third person. First Person: Third Person: We repeated the test ve times and computed an average from this data. The test was repeated ve times and an average was computed from this data.

Use clear, exact prose. Be specic. Bad: Good: The numbers were close enough considering all the data. The viscosity values were within 15 percent of the published values listed in Table 3.

Clear thinking and understanding of the material is a necessary but not sucient condition for good report writing. Consider the quality of your report as evidence that you understood the experiment.

Figures and Tables

A Figure is any drawing, photograph, or data plot. All Figures and Tables should have a number and a caption. When your laboratory reports are graded, Figures and Tables without captions will be ignored. All Figures and Tables should lie within the margins of the text of the report. Table A.1 is an example of a properly formatted table. The caption includes the number of the table, i.e., A.1, and a brief caption identifying the contents of the table. Units of data in the table are usually be placed in the column headings. The exception is when an individual column contains quantities with dierent dimensions. Never put dimensional data in a table without somehow indicating the units. Of course, percent is dimensionless. Computer-generated graphs are suggested, but not required. Hand drawn graphs should be on graph paper, and to scale. Graphical display of quantitative data must be precise. Never use freehand sketches to present quantitative data. Axes should be labelled with a symbol or word, and the units of the scale. Multiple curves should be identied with a legend. If colors are used to represent dierent data on a graph, make sure that the nal printout is in color. Figure A.1 is an example of a properly formatted graph.

35 Table A.1: Summary of viscosity measurements at 20 C . Percent deviation is relative to the published values. Viscosity values, kg/ms Fluid Glycerin Glycerin Water Water Test Ball small metal large metal large metal glass Experimental 1.85 1.72 0.75 103 1.13 103 Published 1.50 1.50 1.00 103 1.00 103 Percent Deviation +23 +15 25 +13

10

-2

water air 10 (Pa s) 10

-4 -3

10

-5

50

100

T ( C)

150

200

250

Figure A.1: Variation of the dynamic viscosity of air and water with temperature.

Word-Processing
The purpose of using a word processor is to increase your productivity, not to produce elaborate reports. Properly used a word processor allows you to (1) type your rough draft directly into the computer, (2) easily make editorial revisions, (3) present your report in a neat, easily readable format and (4) check your spelling. In short, a word-processor should help you write better reports. A word processor should not be used to (1) copy the report of another student, (2) waste time playing with multiple fonts and formats, (3) waste paper by printing your report after making small changes, (4) write poorly. The GIGO phenomenon, Garbage In, Garbage Out is as common with the use of word-processors as any computer tool.

36

APPENDIX A. REPORT WRITING

Free Advice
Writing well has nothing to do with word processors, fancy font selection, or plastic report covers. Writing well is hard work. It is about clear communication with a reader who is not able to directly ask you for clarication. In order to write well you will need to revise your manuscript. In other words, do not simply type out a report and print it. Rather, sit down with the printed draft and mark it up with a pencil. After you have edited the draft, go back and revise the document in your word processor. Repeat this write-edit-revise loop at least twice. There are many paths to a completed manuscript. It is usually a bad idea to start by writing at the beginning of the report. Instead, you might want to try the following procedure 1. Complete the data reduction. Perform all necessary computations and make all plots and tables of nal results. This information forms the core of your Results section. 2. Write the text of the Results section. Explain the content of each plot and table in words. Guide the readers attention to the most important information. Explain any unexpected results. Use equations to support quantitative arguments. 3. Write the Theory section. Include all of the equations necessary to convert your raw data to the reduced data in the Results section. Because you wrote the Results section rst, you will know exactly what equations are necessary. Include any additional background equations that help to explain the results. 4. Write the Apparatus and Procedure sections. Be sure to include diagrams of the equipment that are useful in explaining the results. Close up diagrams or alternative views of the equipment may be necessary. 5. Write the Introduction section. Because you have already completed the Results, Theory, and Apparatus sections, you should have a clear idea of the entire experiment. Now you are in a position to prepare the reader for what is to follow in the report. 6. Write the Conclusion section. 7. Write the Abstract (if required).

Policy on Collaboration
Writing a laboratory report is an educational experience. Copying the lab report of another student means loosing out on that experience. It also constitutes a misrepresentation of your achievements. Students working in laboratory groups are expected to communicate with each other about performing the experiments and analyzing the results. Students are expected to turn in reports that are substantially their own, independent work. It is unacceptable to turn in photocopies of any part of another students work. It is unacceptable to exchange any part of word-processing documents used for lab reports. It is unacceptable to exchange spreadsheets or computer programs used to analyze data or prepare graphs for any part of a lab report.

37 Visual similarity of the nal report constitutes proof of unacceptable collaboration. Other evidence such as duplicate les on computer disks also constitute proof of unacceptable collaboration. Since it is usually impossible to determine who is the source and who is the recipient of such unacceptable copying, grades of zero will be given for lab reports for any and all students who turn in duplicated work.