RELATIONS BETWEEN THE GAUSS-EISENSTEIN PRIME

NUMBERS AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH SOPHIE

GERMAIN PRIMES

Ing. Pier Francesco Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, Francesco Di Noto



Abstract

In this paper we examine the relations between the Gauss prime numbers
and the Eisenstein prime numbers and their correlation with Sophie
Germain primes. Furthermore, we have described also various
mathematical connections with some equations concerning the string
theory.














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Index:

1. GAUSSIAN INTEGER....................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 REMARKS ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 ON SOME EQUATIONS REGARDING LEMMAS AND THEOREMS OF GAUSSIAN
PRIMES ...7
2. EISENSTEIN INTEGER................................................................................................................... 27
2.1 EISENSTEIN PRIME......................................................................................................... 29
3. RELATIONS BEETWEEN GAUSSIAN PRIMES AND EISENSTEIN PRIMES ......................... 30
3.1 CORRELATION WITH SOPHIE GERMAIN PRIMES.................................................... 32
3.2 PROOF THAT THERE ARE INFINITELY MANY SOPHIE GERMAIN PRIMES........ 34
4. REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 35



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1. GAUSSIAN INTEGER
A Gaussian integer is a complex number whose real and imaginary part are
both integers. The Gaussian integers, with ordinary addition and
multiplication of complex numbers, form an integral domain, usually written
as Z[i].
Definition
Formally, Gaussian integers are the set



Norm
The norm of a Gaussian integer is the natural number defined as


The norm is multiplicative:


The units of Z[i] are therefore precisely those elements with norm 1, i.e. the
elements :

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Gaussian primes in the complex plane are marked in red:




A Gaussian integer is a Gaussian prime if and only if either:
a is prime number and b is zero, so we have a prime number of the
form 4k+3
both are nonzero and p = a
2
+ b
2
= (a+bi) (a-bi) is a prime number
(which will not be of the form 4k+3).

The prime number 2 is a special case because is the only ramified prime in
Z[i]).

The integer 2 factors as as a Gaussian integer,
the second factorization (in which i is a unit) showing that 2 is divisible by
the square of a Gaussian prime; it is the unique prime number with this
property.
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Instead, the prime number 5 is a unique factorization
5 = (2+i)(2i).
Gaussian primes are infinite, because they are infinite primes.



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1.1 REMARKS

The prime numbers that are congruent to 3 (mod.4) are also Gaussian primes.
Since there are infinitely many rational primes of the form 4k +3, there are
infinitely many necessarily Gaussian primes.
The prime numbers congruent to 1 (mod.4) are the product of two distinct
Gaussian primes. In fact, the primes of the form 4k +1 can always be written
as the sum of two squares (Fermat's theorem on the sum of two squares)
so we have:
p = a
2
+b
2
= (a+bi)( a-bi)

Numerical form.
Since the form 4k + 3 corresponds to the form 6k '+1 with k' <k, for
example, 19 = 4 * 4 +3 = 6 * 3 +1, with k > k ', in fact 4 > 3, the Gaussian
primes are all of the form 6k '+ 1, and not of the form 6k' - 1, these being
also of the form 4k +1, and then no-Gaussian primes.



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1.2 On some equations regarding Lemmas and Theorems of Gaussian
integers, mod-gaussian convergence of a sum over primes and Gaussian
primes.

Now we see some Lemmas and Theorems concerning the ring of Gaussian
integers [ ] i Z , ( )
2 2
b a bi a N + = + . We note that the letter p denote the Gaussian
prime.

Lemma 1

( ) x C s x s F res
k
s
k
s
=
=
/
1
, ( ) x C s x s F res
k
s
k
s

=
= /
1
, (1.1)

where

( ) ( )
( )

|
|

\
|
+ =

= p
p
2
1
1
4
a
a
k k
k
N
a a
C

, (1.2)
( ) ( )
( )

|
|

\
|
+ =

p
p
t t
2
1
1
4
a
a
k k
k
N
a a
C

, (1.3)

As a consequence of the following representation,

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) s f s Z s Z s Z s Z s Z s Z s F
k
k k k k k k k k k k k k k
k
8 7 6 5 2
24 / 34 57 26 3 2 / 3 4 6 / 5 6 2 / 1
2 3 4 2 3 2 3 2
+ + +
=

(1.4)

we have

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

|
|

\
|
+ =
|
|

\
|
+ =

= p p
p
p
p
2
1
1
1
1 1 1
a
as
k k
a
as
k k
N
a a
N
a
s Z
s F
(1.5)

and so function ( ) ( ) s Z s F
k
/ is regular in the neighbourhood of 1 = s . At the same
time we have

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( ) ( ) ( )
4
, 1
1
4
1

= =
= =
s res L s Z res
s s
, (1.6)

which implies (1.2). Numerical values of
k
C and
k
C can be, for example:
156101 , 1
2
C , 524172 , 1
2

C .
We note that the value 1,156101 is very near to the value 1,15522604 and
that the value 1,524172 is very near to the value 1,52313377 ( 1552 , 1 1561 , 1 ;
5231 , 1 5241 , 1 ). Values concerning the new universal musical system based
on fractional powers of Phi and Pigreco.


Theorem 1

( )
( )
( ) x x O x C x M
k
k k
3 / 1 4 3 2 / 1
log
+
+ = , (1.7) ( )
( )
( ) x x O x C x M
k k
k k
3 / 2 2 3 2 / 1
2
log
+ +

+ = ,
(1.8)

where
k
C and
k
C were defined in (1.2) and (1.3).
By Perron formula and by the following expressions,


( )
( )

n n
e
k
<<

,
( )
( ) ( )

N
e
k
<< t ,
( )
( ) ( )

N
e
k
<<

t , (1.9)

for x c log / 1 1+ = , x T log log we have

( ) ( )
|
|

\
|
+ =
+
+

T
x
O ds
s
x
s F
i
x M
iT c
iT c
s
k k

1
2
1
, (1.10)

that, for the eq. (1.7), can be rewritten also as follows:


( )
( )
( ) x x O x C x M
k
k k
3 / 1 4 3 2 / 1
log
+
+ = ( )
|
|

\
|
+ =
+
+

T
x
O ds
s
x
s F
i
iT c
iT c
s
k

1
2
1
. (1.10b)
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Suppose x d log / 1 2 / 1 = . Let us shift the interval of integration to [ ] iT d iT d + , .
To do this consider an integral about a closed rectangle path with vertexes in
iT d , iT d + , iT c + and iT c . There are two poles in 1 = s and 2 / 1 = s inside the
contour. The residue at 1 = s was calculated in (1.1). The residue at 2 / 1 = s is
equal to
2 / 1
Dx , D= const and will be absorbed by error term (see below).
Identity (1.4) implies

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s f s Z s Z s F
k
k
k
2
1
= , (1.11)

where ( ) s f
k
is regular for 3 / 1 > s R , so for each 0 > it is uniformly bounded for
+ > 3 / 1 s R . Let us estimate the error term. The error term absorbs values of
integrals about three sides of the integrations rectangle. We take into
account ( ) ( ) ( )
4
, s L s s Z = . On the horizontal segments we have
( ) ( )
[ ]
( ) ( )

+
+

<< + + <<
iT c
iT d
k
c d
s
k
T x iT Z iT Z ds
s
x
s Z s Z
1 1
,
1
2 2 max 2

( )
T xT T T x
k 3 / 4 1 3 / 1 4 1 2 2 / 1
log log

+ <<

. (1.12)

It is well-known that ( ) ( )
1
1

s s in the neighbourhood of 1 = s . So on [ ] i d d + ,
we get

( ) ( ) ( )

+

<<

<< + <<
i d
d
k
k
k
s
k
x x
x it
dt
x dt it d x ds
s
x
s Z s Z
1
0
1
0
1 2 / 1
1
2 / 1 1 2 / 1 1
log
log / 1
2 2 2 , (1.13)

and for the rest of the vertical segment we have

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+
+

<<
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+ + <<
iT d
i d
T
k
T T
s
k
t
dt
it Z
t
dt
it L
t
dt
it ds
s
x
s Z s Z
2 / 1
1
1 2
4 / 1
1 1
4
4
4
1
2 1 , 2 / 1 2 / 1 2

( )
( )
( )
T x T T x
k k 3 / 1 4 3 2 / 1
2 / 1
1 3 / 1 8 5 2 / 1
log log log
+ +
<< << . (1.14)

The choice
+
=
2 / 1
x T finishes the proof of (1.7).
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In conclusion, we note that multiplying both the sides of (1.14) for 8, we
obtain the equivalent expression:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+
+

<<
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+ + <<
iT d
i d
T
k
T T
s
k
t
dt
it Z
t
dt
it L
t
dt
it ds
s
x
s Z s Z
2 / 1
1
1 2
4 / 1
1 1
4
4
4
1
2 1 , 2 / 1 2 / 1 8 2 8

( )
( )
( )
T x T T x
k k 3 / 1 4 3 2 / 1
2 / 1
1 3 / 1 8 5 2 / 1
log 8 log log 8
+ +
<< << , (1.14b)

that we can connect to the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of
the superstrings by the following Ramanujan modular equation:


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1.14c)

Thence, we obtain the following mathematical connection:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+
+

<<
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+ + <<
iT d
i d
T
k
T T
s
k
t
dt
it Z
t
dt
it L
t
dt
it ds
s
x
s Z s Z
2 / 1
1
1 2
4 / 1
1 1
4
4
4
1
2 1 , 2 / 1 2 / 1 8 2 8

( )
( )
( )
<< <<
+ +
T x T T x
k k 3 / 1 4 3 2 / 1
2 / 1
1 3 / 1 8 5 2 / 1
log 8 log log 8

( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1.14d)

Theorem 2

Let
N T
e x
/ log
= and N such that x and T N log log / as T . Then
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( )
( )
( ) u dt e
T
e
T
T
p
p t
iu
x u
x p

+
2
log sin
4 / log log
1
2

as T (1.15)

locally uniformly for R u . Here denotes Eulers constant and is the
analytic function given by
( )

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
P p
u
p
u
J
p
u
0
4 /
2
1
1 (1.16)

where
0
J denotes the zeroth Bessel function.







Corollary 1

Assume RH. Let
T
U be random variables uniformly distributed on [ ] T T 2 , .
Then the family ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
T
iU T + 2 / 1 log Im 2 / log log / 1 satisfies the large deviation
principle with speed ( ) ( ) 2 / log log / 1 T and rate function ( ) 2 /
2
h h I = . For instance,

( )
[ ] ( ) ( ) { } ( ) 2 / 2 / log log 2 / 1 log Im : 2 ,
1
log
2 / log log
1
2
h T h it T T t
T T

|

\
|
+ as T
(1.17)

where 0 > h and denotes the Lebesgue measure.

Let x be a positive real number and denote by
n
p p p ,..., ,
2 1
the prime numbers
not exceeding x . We have
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( )


= + +
+

+ |
|

\
|
=
T
T
T
T
k
it
n
n
k
x p
it
dt p p
k
T
dt
p T
n
n
2 2
2
...
2 / 1
1
1
2
2 / 1
1
1
...
...
1 1 1



(1.18)

and applying the mean value theorem of Montgomery and Vaughan this is
equal to



= + + = + +

|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
k k n
n
n
n n
n
k
T
p p
k

... ...
2
1
1
2
1
1 1
1
...
6
...
...
(1.19)

with 1 . The absolute value of the remainder is bounded by ( )
k
n k T ! / 6 .
We note that, for the eq. (1.19) and multiplying both the sides for 4, we can
rewrite the eq. (1.18) also as follows:

( ) =
|
|

\
|
=


= + +
+

+
T
T
T
T
k
it
n
n
k
x p
it
dt p p
k
T
dt
p T
n
n
2 2
2
...
2 / 1
1
1
2
2 / 1
1
1
...
...
4 1 4






= + + = + +

|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=
k k n
n
n
n n
n
k
T
p p
k

... ...
2
1
1
2
1
1 1
1
...
24
...
...
4 . (1.19b)

The eq. (1.19b) can be related with the following Ramanujan modular
equation concerning the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of
the bosonic strings:



( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

(1.19c)

and we obtain:
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( ) =
|
|

\
|
=


= + +
+

+
T
T
T
T
k
it
n
n
k
x p
it
dt p p
k
T
dt
p T
n
n
2 2
2
...
2 / 1
1
1
2
2 / 1
1
1
...
...
4 1 4





|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=

= + + = + +

k k n
n
n
n n
n
k
T
p p
k

... ...
2
1
1
2
1
1 1
1
...
24
...
...
4

( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1.19d)

Applying ( ) ( ) i p p p t
it it
2 / log sin

= and a version of the mean value theorem, we
obtain:


( )

= + +

+
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
| T
T
k
n
n
k
k
x p
n
n
p p
k
k
k
dt
p
p t
T
2
...
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
...
...
2
2
1 log sin 1






= = + + = + +
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
+
k
j j k n j n
k
n n
j k j
j
k
T
D
2
0 2 ...
2
1 ...
2
1
2
1 1
...
2
...
2
2
2


(1.20)

with 1 and D is a constant, and we have also that:



= + +

=
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
(
(

|
|

\
|
k
n
n
k
k
n
i
i
i
n
n
p p
k
k
k
p
X
E



...
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
...
...
2
2
1 Im
. (1.21)

Now, for eq. (1.21) and multiplying both the sides for 8, we can rewrite the
eq. (1.20) also as follows:


( )
+
(
(

|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|

=
T
T
k
n
i
i
i
k
x p
p
X
E dt
p
p t
T
2
2
1
2
Im
8
log sin 8

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= = + + = + +
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
+
k
j j k n j n
k
n n
j k j
j
k
T
D
2
0 2 ...
2
1 ...
2
1
2
1 1
...
2
...
2
2
16


. (1.21b)

This expression, can be related with the Ramanujan modular equation that
concerning the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of a
superstring:


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

, (1.21c)

and so, we obtain the following relationship:


( )
+
(
(

|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|

=
T
T
k
n
i
i
i
k
x p
p
X
E dt
p
p t
T
2
2
1
2
Im
8
log sin 8


|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
+

= = + + = + +
k
j j k n j n
k
n n
j k j
j
k
T
D
2
0 2 ...
2
1 ...
2
1
2
1 1
...
2
...
2
2
16




( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1.21d)

Now let ,... ,
2 1
X X be an i.i.d. sequence of random variables uniformly
distributed on the unit circle. We have
[ ] ( )

= =

2
0
0
sin Im
2
1
1
u J d e e E
iu X iu
. (1.22)

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Applying (1.22), Weierstrass product formula, and Mertens formula, we
obtain that
( )

=
x
i
i i
p X

1
/ Im converges mod-Gaussian, i.e.


( )
( )

+
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|

(
(

=
P p
u
p
X
iu
x u
p
u
J
p
e E e
x
i
i
i
0
4 /
Im
4 / log log
2
1 2
1
1

(1.23)

as x , locally uniformly for C u , where ( ) x denotes the number of
primes not exceeding x .
By means of (1.20), (1.21), and the analogous results for odd integers, we
can apply for fixed x the method of moments and obtain the following weak
convergence


( )

|
|

\
|

T
T
x p
p
p t
iu
p
u
J dt e
T
x p 2
0
log sin
1
as T . (1.24)

The improvement of Theorem 2 follows from combining (1.23) with the
following proposition.


Proposition 1

Let 1 > c be a constant. Define
N T
e x
/ log
= with ( ) T ec c N log log 4 / '
2
= , 1 ' > c another
constant. Then for T sufficiently large independent of c and ' c ,


( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+ +
|
|

\
|
=

T
T
x p
N
N p
p t
iu
x c c O
p
u
J dt e
T
x p 2
2
0
log sin
log / 2 ' / 1
1
(1.25)

uniformly for c u , R u . The remainder is ( ) ( ) ( ) 4 / log log exp
2
T c o , if e c c / 1 ' log ' > .

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From the Taylor expansion ( ) ( )

+ =
1 ' 2
' 2
! ' 2 / ! /
N k
N k iu
N u k iu e , R u , with 1 and

N N = ' , we obtain


( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )


|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=

T
T
T
T
T
T
N
x p
N
k
x p N k
k
p
p t
iu
dt
p
p t
T N
u
dt
p
p t
T k
iu
dt e
T
x p 2 2 2
' 2
' 2
1 ' 2
log sin
log sin 1
! ' 2
log sin 1
!
1


(1.26)
with 1 . The remainder is by (1.20)


( )
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|

T
n c
p N
c
O
N
N
x p
N
N
'
2
'
' 2
' 2
1
2
1
! '
. (1.27)

Using the bound ( ) ( )
'
/ ' ! '
N
e N N , elementary results in the theory of primes,
namely the formulas ( )

+ + =
x p
x O c x p log / 1 log log / 1
1
and ( ) x x x n log / 2 = , and
finally

N N = ' , this is


|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
N
N
N N
x
c
c
O
x
c
N
T ec
O
log
2
'
1
log
2
4
log log
2 2 2
(1.28)

for sufficiently large T independent of ' , c c (since 1 ' , > c c ).
Now let ,... ,
2 1
X X be an i.d.d. sequence of random variables uniformly
distributed on the unit circle. The moments in (1.26) are by (1.20) and (1.21)
equal to those of the stochastic model plus a remainder which is bounded by
( ) ! / 2 k n T D
k
. The resulting remainders in (1.26), 1 ' 2 N k , add up to
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
N N
x c O T n c O log / 2 /
2 2
= . Hence, (1.26) is equal to


( )
( ) ( ) ( )

=
+ +
|
|

\
|
1 ' 2
2
1
log / 2 ' / 1
Im
!
N k
N
N
k
n
i
i
i
k
x c c O
p
X
E
k
iu
(1.29)

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17
for sufficiently large T . Applying the above Taylor expansion again, we
obtain


( )
( )

= =
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=
(
(

=
|
|

\
| =
1 ' 2
' 2
1
' 2
1
Im
0
Im
! ' 2
Im
!
1
N k
N
n
i
i
i
N
k
n
i
i
i
k
x p
p
X
iu
p
X
E
N
u
p
X
E
k
iu
e E
p
u
J
n
i
i
i
(1.30)

with 1 . The remainder already appeared in (1.26) and is ( ) ( )
N
c O ' / 1 for
sufficiently large T .
Now, we note that multiplying in the eqs. (1.26) and (1.30) both the sides for
8, we obtain the following relationship:

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )

|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=

T
T
T
T
T
T
N
x p
N
k
x p N k
k
p
p t
iu
dt
p
p t
T N
u
dt
p
p t
T k
iu
dt e
T
x p 2 2 2
' 2
' 2
1 ' 2
log sin
log sin 8
! ' 2
log sin 8
!
8

( )
( )

= =
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|

1 ' 2
' 2
1
' 2
1
Im
! ' 2
8 Im
!
8
N k
N
n
i
i
i
N
k
n
i
i
i
k
p
X
E
N
u
p
X
E
k
iu
. (1.30b)

Also this expression, can be related with the Ramanujam modular equation
that concerning the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of a
superstring:


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

, (1.30c)

thence, we obtain the following mathematical connection:

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18
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )

|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
=

T
T
T
T
T
T
N
x p
N
k
x p N k
k
p
p t
iu
dt
p
p t
T N
u
dt
p
p t
T k
iu
dt e
T
x p 2 2 2
' 2
' 2
1 ' 2
log sin
log sin 8
! ' 2
log sin 8
!
8

( )
( )

|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|

= = 1 ' 2
' 2
1
' 2
1
Im
! ' 2
8 Im
!
8
N k
N
n
i
i
i
N
k
n
i
i
i
k
p
X
E
N
u
p
X
E
k
iu


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1.30d)

Now we briefly discuss Selbergs result about the rate of convergence in the
central limit theorem of ( ) it + 2 / 1 log Im . From Theorem 2 we obtain

Lemma

Let
N T
e x
/ log
= and N such that x and T N log log / as T . Assume further
than ( ) T O N log log = . Then

[ ]
( )
( )
[ ] ( )
b a
b
a
t
x p
T O
dt
e b a
p
p t
x
T T t
T
<

=
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

log log / 1
2
,
log sin
2 / log log
1
: 2 ,
1
sup
2 /
2

.

(1.31)
In fact, the right hand side can be replaced by ( ) T o log log / 1 .

We denote by ( ) u
n
the left hand side of (1.15). We can bound the right hand
side by ( ) 1 log log / log log T x

( ) ( ) ( )

|
|

\
|
+ +
x c
x c
n
u
T c
O du u x u e
log log
log log
2 /
log log
1
/ 1 2 / log log /
2

. (1.32)
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19

We choose 0 > c such that ( ) u J
0
has no zeros for c u . An inspection of the
proof of Proposition 1 shows that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x u O u u
n
log / 1+ = , c u . On the other
hand, we have ( ) ( ) ( ) T u O x u log log / 1 2 / log log / + = + , x c u log log . Plugging in
these estimates gives the lemma.
This lemma combined with the following bound

[ ] ( ) { } ( ) T O T c t r T T t
x
log log / 1 log log log : 2 ,
, 1
= (1.33)

where 0 > c is a constant, yields Selbergs result

[ ]
( )
( )
[ ]
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

< T
T
O
dt
e b a
T
it
T T t
T
b
a
t
b a log log
log log log
2
,
2 / log log
2 / 1 log Im
: 2 ,
1
sup
2 /
2

. (1.34)

Let x and y be positive real number,
p
a and
p
b be complex numbers with
1
p
a and x p b
p
log / log , and k be a positive integer. By repeating the
arguments in (1.18) and (1.19), we obtain

( ) ( )

+
|
|

\
|

+
T
T
k
k
x p
k
x p
it
p
T x k
p
k dt
p
a
T
2
2
2
2 1
/ ! 6
1
!
1
, (1.35)


( )
( ) ( )

+
|
|

\
|

+
T
T
k
k
x p
k
k
x p
it
p
T x k
p
p
x
k dt
p
b
T
2
2
2 / 1
/ ! 6
log
log
1
!
1
, (1.36)

( ) ( ) ( )

+
|
|

\
|

< <
+
T
T
k
k
x p y
k
x p y
it
p
T y x k
p
k dt
p
a
T
2
2
2 / 1
/ ! 6
1
!
1
. (1.37)

If
k
T x
/ 1
, the first two terms are bounded by ( )
k
Ak and the third by
( ) ( )
k
A y x k + log log log log , 0 > A some constant.
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20
Now, if we multiply for 4 both the sides of the eq. (1.36), we obtain the
equivalent expression:


( )
( ) ( )

+
|
|

\
|

+
T
T
k
k
x p
k
k
x p
it
p
T x k
p
p
x
k dt
p
b
T
2
2
2 / 1
/ ! 24
log
log
1
! 4
4
, (1.37b)

and this expression, can be related with the following Ramanujan modular
equation concerning the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of
the bosonic strings, i.e.


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

,

and thence, we obtain the following mathematical connection:


( )
( ) ( ) +
|
|

\
|

+
T
T
k
k
x p
k
k
x p
it
p
T x k
p
p
x
k dt
p
b
T
2
2
2 / 1
/ ! 24
log
log
1
! 4
4


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1.37c)

Returning to the eqs. (1.35) (1.37), for example, we obtain for a function
( ) 1 u g

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21

( )

( )

+ + =
|
|

\
|

+ +

+
dt O
p
a
p
b
T
dt
T
n
g
n
n
T T
V
T
T
T p T p
it
p
it
p
V
T
T
T n
V it V
V V V
2
2
2 1 2 / 1
2
2
/ 1 2 / 1 / 1
/ 1 / 1 2 / 1
1
1
log
log
log
1 1

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
V V V V
O AV AV 1 3
2
+ + .
(1.38)

Also here, multiplying both the sides for 8, we obtain the following similar
expression:


( )

( )

+ + =
|
|

\
|

+ +

+
dt O
p
a
p
b
T
dt
T
n
g
n
n
T T
V
T
T
T p T p
it
p
it
p
V
T
T
T n
V it V
V V V
2
2
2 1 2 / 1
2
2
/ 1 2 / 1 / 1
/ 1 / 1 2 / 1
1
8
log
log
log
1 8

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
V V V V
O AV AV 1 24
2
+ + ,
(1.38b)

and this expression can be related with the Ramanujans modular equations
concerning the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the
superstrings and the bosonic strings, i.e.


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
8
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

,


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

.


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22
Thence, we can obtain, for example, the following mathematical connection:


( )

( )

+ + =
|
|

\
|

+ +

+
dt O
p
a
p
b
T
dt
T
n
g
n
n
T T
V
T
T
T p T p
it
p
it
p
V
T
T
T n
V it V
V V V
2
2
2 1 2 / 1
2
2
/ 1 2 / 1 / 1
/ 1 / 1 2 / 1
1
8
log
log
log
1 8

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + +
V V V V
O AV AV 1 24
2


( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
3
1
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

. (1.38c)

Now, we consider the following function:

( ) ( )
1
1

+ =
z
e z F , (1.39)

Developing in series the (1.39), we obtain:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )


+

= = + =
0 0
1
1
1 1 1
k k
k z k zk k z z
e e e e z F . (1.40)

The equation (1.40) is defined in the complex half-plane 0 z R
e
with the
exception of points in which 1 =
z
e .
Now, we examine the following function

( )
p
z
e

1 , 0 > p (1.41)

performing the series expansion type (1.40) of the function ( )
p
z
e

1 , we find:

( ) ( )
( )


+

|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
|
=
0 0
1
1 1
k k
k p z zk k pz
p
z
e
k
k p
e
k
p
e e . (1.42)

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23
the series on the right hand-side of equation (1.42) is defined in the half-
plane 0 z R
e
with the exception of points in which 1 =
z
e .
Integrating the equation (1.42) between the limits 0 and infinity, we find:

( )
( )

+
|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
| +
=
0
0
0
0
1
1 1
1
k k
k p z
p
z
k p k
k p
dz e
k
k p
dz e ; (1.43)

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

= =

=
0 0
0
1
1
1 1
1
1 p p dt t t
e
dz
e dz e
p p
p
z
pz
p
z
with t e
z
=

. (1.44)

Thence, we can rewrite all also as follows:

( )
( )
( )

=
+
|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
| +
=
0 0
0
0
0 1
1
1 1
1
p
z
pz
k k
k p z
p
z
e
dz
e
k p k
k p
dz e
k
k p
dz e
( ) ( ) ( )

= =

0
1
1
1 1 p p dt t t
p p
. (1.45)

Therefore:

( ) ( )
( )

= =
+
|
|

\
| +
0
sin
1
1
1
k
p
p p
k p k
k p

, ( ) 1 0 < < p (1.46)

For
2
1
= p we have that

=
+
|
|

\
|
+
0
2 2 1
1
1
2
1
k
k
k
k

. (1.47)

Remembering that: ( ) ( )
|

\
|
+ =

2
1 2
2
1 2
z z z
z

, we obtain:

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24

( )
( )
( )
( )
|
|

\
|
=
|

\
|

+
=
+
|

\
|

+
|

\
|
+
=
|
|

\
|
+
k
k
k
k
k k
k k
k
k
k
k
2
2
1
2
1
! 2
1 2
1
2
1
!
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2 2

, (1.48)

and thence:

=
+
|
|

\
|
0
2
2 2 1
2
2
k
k
k k
k

. (1.49)

Thence, for
2
1
= p the eq. (1.45), for the eqs (1.47) (1.49), can be rewritten
also as follows:

( )
( )
=
+
|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
| +
=

0
0
0
0
1
1 1
1
k k
k p z
p
z
k p k
k p
dz e
k
k p
dz e

=
+
|
|

\
|
+
0
2 2 1
1
1
2
1
k
k
k
k

, (1.50)

or also as follows:

( )
( )
=
+
|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
| +
=

0
0
0
0
1
1 1
1
k k
k p z
p
z
k p k
k p
dz e
k
k p
dz e

=
+
|
|

\
|
+
0
2 1
1
1
2
1
k
k
k
k


( )
( )
( )
( )
=
|
|

\
|
=
|

\
|
+
|

\
|

+
=
|

\
|
+
+
|

\
|

+
|

\
|
+
=
+
|
|

\
|
+
=

k
k
k
k
k
k
k k
k k
k
k
k
k
k k
2
2
1
2 1
1
2
1
! 2
1 2
2 1
1
1
2
1
!
1
2
1
2 1
1
1
2
1
2
2 2 0

=
+
|
|

\
|
=
0
2
2 2 1
2
2
k
k
k k
k

. (1.50b)

Multiplying both the sides of (1.42), for
qz
e

, and integrating with respect to

z, between the limits 0 and infinity, we find:

( )
( )

+ +
|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
| +
=

+ +

0
0
0
0
1
1 1
1
k k
k p q z qz
p
z
k p q k
k p
dz e
k
k p
dz e e
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25
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )


+

+
+
= =

=
0 0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
q
p p q
dt t t
e
dz
e e dz e e
p p q
z
qz pz qz
p
z
for t e
z
=

(1.51)

Therefore:

( ) ( )
( )

+
+
=
+ +
|
|

\
| +
0
1
1 1
1
k
q
p p q
k p q k
k p
, ( ) 0 , 1 0 > < < q p (1.52)

For 2 / 1 = = q p , we find:

=
+
|
|

\
|
0
2
2
1
2
2
k
k
k k
k
. (1.53)

Thence, in conclusion, for 2 / 1 = = q p , we find:

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

+
+
=
+ +
|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
| +
=

+ +

1
1 1
1 1
1
0
0
0
0
q
p p q
k p q k
k p
dz e
k
k p
dz e e
k k
k p q z qz
p
z

=
+
|
|

\
|

0
2
2
1
2
2
k
k
k k
k
. (1.53b)

Now, we note that the eqs. (1.50b) and (1.53b) can be related with the eqs.
(1.15) and (1.32) for obtain the following mathematical relationships:

For example, multiplying the eq. (1.53b) for

1
, we obtain:


( )
( )

+
dt e
T
e
T
T
p
p t
iu
x u
x p 2
log sin
4 / log log
1
2

( ) ( ) ( )
|
|

\
|
+ +

x c
x c
n
u
T c
O du u x u e
log log
log log
2 /
log log
1
/ 1 2 / log log /
2

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26
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

+
+
=
+ +
|
|

\
| +
=
|
|

\
| +
=

+ +

1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
q
p p q
k p q k
k p
dz e
k
k p
dz e e
k k
k p q z qz
p
z

=
+
|
|

\
|

0
2
2
1
2
2
1
k
k
k k
k

. (1.54)

The same can be make with the eq. (1.50b). As we note, the eq. (1.54) can be
related with (and thence with
2
1 5 +
= ) by the following Ramanujan
expression regarding just :


(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
=
4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
142
24
. (1.55)

We observe that the eq. (1.55) contain the number 24, that is related to the
physical vibrations of the bosonic strings. Thence, for the (1.54) for
2 / 1 = = q p , we obtain the following mathematical connection:


( )
( )

+
dt e
T
e
T
T
p
p t
iu
x u
x p 2
log sin
4 / log log
1
2

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
|

\
|
+ +

x c
x c
n
u qz
p
z
T c
O du u x u e dz e e
log log
log log
2 /
0
log log
1
/ 1 2 / log log / 1
1

(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+
4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
142
24
2

( ) ( ) ( )

|
|

\
|
+ +
x c
x c
n
u
T c
O du u x u e
log log
log log
2 /
log log
1
/ 1 2 / log log / . (1.56)

A general relationship that link, , prime numbers, Riemann Hypothesis and
physical vibrations of bosonic strings.

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2. EISENSTEIN INTEGER

Eisenstein integers are the intersection points of a triangular lattice in the
complex plane:




Eisenstein integers (named after Gotthold Eisenstein), are complex numbers
of the form:

where a and b are integers and


is a primitive (non-real) cube root of unity. The Eisenstein integers form a
triangular lattice in the complex plane, in contrast with the Gaussian integers
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which form a square lattice in the complex plane, (see the two figures
above).


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2.1 EISENSTEIN PRIME

The Eisenstein primes which are equal to a natural number 3n -1 are 2, 5, 11,
17, 23, 29, 41, 47, 53, 59, 71, 83, 89 (with differences (after 5) equal to 6
(sexy numbers) or 12, for example. 41-29 = 12, 71-59 = 12, 83 = 12 -71,
etc..) or even more.
For larger numbers we have in fact the biggest differences, but always of the
form 6k, for example 419-401 = 18 = 6 * 3
All, less the initial prime number 2 are of the form 6k - 1 (since, for n even,
we have the form 6n -1) and therefore are not Gaussian integers, which are
of the form 6k +1 as already seen before.
Eisenstein primes are congruent to 2 mod 3 and Mersenne primes (except the
smallest, 3) are congruent to 1 mod 3; thus no Mersenne prime is an
Eisenstein prime.



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3. RELATIONS BEETWEEN GAUSSIAN PRIMES AND EISENSTEIN
PRIMES

We have seen that the Gaussian primes "g" are of the form:

g = 4k+3 with k = 0, 1, 2,

The sequence is the following:

3, 7, 11, 19, 23, 31, 43, 47, 59, 67, 71, 79, 83, 103, 107, 127, 131, 139, 151,
163, 167, 179, 191, 199, 211, 223, 227, 239, 251, 263, 271, 283, 307, 311,
331, 347, 359, 367, 379, 383, 419, 431, 439, 443, 463, 467, 479, 487, 491,
499, 503, 523, 547, 563, 571,



Eisenstein primes e are of the form:

e = 3k+2 with k = 0, 1, 2,

The sequence is the following:

2, 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 41, 47, 53, 59, 71, 83, 89, 101, 107, 113, 131, 137, 149,
167, 173, 179, 191, 197, 227, 233, 239, 251, 257, 263, 269, 281, 293, 311,
317, 347, 353, 359, 383, 389, 401, 419, 431, 443, 449, 461, 467, 479, 491,
503, 509, 521, 557, 563, 569, 587,


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From the intersection of the two sequences we obtain prime numbers of
Gauss-Eisenstein.
From the two preceding formulas 3k +2 and 4k +3, since the least common
multiple between 3 and 4 is 12 we have the following formula for primes
common Gauss-Eisenstein :

= 12k + 11 with k = 0, 1, 2,

The sequence is the following:

11, 23, 47, 59, 71, 83, 107, 131, 167, 179, 191, 227, 239, 251, 263, 311, 347,
359, 383, 419, 431, 443, 467, 479, 491, 503, 563, 587, 599, 647, 659, 683,
719, 743, 827, 839, 863, 887, 911, 947, 971, 983, 1019, 1031,


It should be noted that all the prime numbers that are derived from this
formula 12k +11 are all prime numbers that are simultaneously Gauss
and Eisenstein primes.
These numbers are then congruent to 11 modulo 12.

We note that is 12 = 24/2, where 24 is the number connected to the modes
corresponding to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings by the
following Ramanujans modular equation:



( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
+

(
(
(

4
2 7 10
4
2 11 10
log
'
142
'
cosh
' cos
log 4
24
2
'
'
4
0
'
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

.

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3.1 CORRELATION WITH SOPHIE GERMAIN PRIMES

We observe that some of the previous sequence numbers are also Sophie
Germain primes.
A Sophie Germain prime is a prime p such that 2p+1 is also prime. The
number 2p + 1 is instead called safe prime.
The Sophie Germain prime numbers up to 1000 are:
2, 3, 5, 11, 23, 29, 41, 53, 83, 89, 113, 131, 173, 179, 191, 233, 239, 251,
281, 293, 359, 419, 431, 443, 491, 509, 593, 641, 653, 659, 683, 719, 743,
761, 809, 911, 953, 1013, 1019, 1031,

Lets recall the list of numbers = 12k+11 with k = 0, 1, 2,

11, 23, 47, 59, 71, 83, 107, 131, 167, 179, 191, 227, 239, 251, 263, 311, 347,
359, 383, 419, 431, 443, 467, 479, 491, 503, 563, 587, 599, 647, 659, 683,
719, 743, 827, 839, 863, 887, 911, 947, 971, 983, 1019, 1031,


Out of 40 numbers of Sophie Germain, as many as 20, are also Gaussian-
Eisenstein (marked in bold in the two sequences).
So we have a new connection, with the numbers of Sophie Germain, of
which is a subset and is exactly the half.
We can say that 50% of the Sophie Germain primes are also Gauss-
Eisenstein primes
This can be demonstrated with a simple consideration:
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In the list of Sophie Germain primes, if we want to know if its any number N
is a number of the form 12k +11, obviously we must subtract 11 and divide
by 12, if the result is integer, then N =
A few examples:

3779 = Sophie German prime = prime since

(3779-11)/12 = 3768/12 = 314 (integer)

Instead 4793 (Sophie German prime) it is not because (4793-11) / 12 =
4782/12 = 398,5 is not an integer, and then 4793 is not a prime number of
Gauss-Eisenstein.

Now chosen any prime number N of Sophie Germain and applying the rule
above, we have

(N -11) / 12 = integer or half-integer

The division produces only 2 possible results, or an integer, and then N is
also a prime number of Gauss-Eisenstein or is a half-integer of the form
x+1/2 and N isnt a Gauss-Eisenstein prime.

As a result 50% of the Sophie Germain primes are also Gauss-Eisenstein
primes.

Also here, we note that is present the number 12 that, as we have
described above, is connected to the modes corresponding to the
physical vibrations of the bosonic strings.



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3.2 PROOF THAT THERE ARE INFINITELY MANY SOPHIE
GERMAIN PRIMES

It is conjectured that there are infinitely many Sophie Germain primes.

Since Gauss-Eisenstein primes are infinite and there is a relationship with
Sophie Germain primes, we can by induction affirm that Sophie Germain
primes are infinite.

This is because the set of Gauss-Eisenstein of the form 12k +11 is infinite
and these numbers are an infinitely subset so that produce endless Sophie
Germain primes.

.

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4. REFERENCES

1. Andrew V. Lelechenko Multidimensional exponential divisor function
over Gaussian integers arXiv:1211.0724v1 [math.NT] 4.11.2012

2. Martin Wahl On the Mod-Gaussian convergence of a sum over primes
arXiv:1201.5295v2 [math.NT] 08.07.2012

3. Pasquale Cutolo A note on the Study of some particular functions.
Considerations and observations
www.matematicamente.it/approfondimenti. in Italian