CHAPTER IV .

The .Concept
in Indian Thou_aht
p, r .. RAJU .
l INTRODUC'flQN
_hr a bookinl1l(iing the treatment of the (;tJeek: tradiltion,
writer on the Indian traclition has to _note that
philo5ophy started 5ometime around 2ooo B:c. and has
up to-the pr.eSeiit day, whereas the 'writer on Greek ..... wL.U:r.>uw11
starts usUally with Tl1ales of the seventh . century D..
erids with the Alexandrian& of tbe thitd A.P IUs
that. Greek ph.Uosophywas absorbed into the Mediaevalarld
modern: the Platonic al}d the Aristotelian traditions
up to the present in sorne form or other. Yet they are so
modified by the tbo9ght of th,e Middle Ages and
ratiOn.alistic arid sCientific t:hought 6 times that
not call the mediaeval or mo4em thought Greek. J3ut
thought is still called by the nElJll.e. The ideas of
tieth-century Indial1S are grea,tl y
but they still refer to the Vedas ari,dthe Upani?ads as. u 1e 1101.11
oftheir inspiration,arid call their thQuglit Indian ........ ,,IuuiJ(
theirs is only an )nterpretation. Whilelrtdiarttl.lO\Jtghthll5
continuity of about 4000 years---..or even more;
:Mohanjo.:Dare civiliZa.tlon-Gteek thought had a
o( only about a thousand years. The Greeks who
aui!lors of Gretik thought belonged to a different race
tha.to.f the present Greeks, and very little of .. n."'
of the lattet\ - '
Chinese thought also has t<>ntinued fQr about 3000
and we not yet know ntempol'lll'Y e1 :>rru:nUJ
China.willbreaka\Va.y completely fr()Jliber L . o: ntu.c1art
or will continue it itt some modified form. Tbis
length of time<may place the presn*ation of Greek
.: ,.,
diSadVat;ltage:.. But the approach of the Greek$, being
titat1ona!. and humail.istic, Greek philosophy aJi
so far as. phi10$ophy i for Greek. phllosophy; ot
way ot approach to the. problemsi
the standard fot philosophical' judgments in the
even .when. Greek
which are oftenapplieq.
and the classical Indian .philosophies continued
t, either directly by westet'Il philo5ophy
. . Islamic philosophy until. the adv:ent of
. Islam entered . India nearly six hundred years
,Europeans did; but that Islam was not the re;.
.... phUoS()phical. Islam .of Arabia or North .Africa,
t' znilit.a.nt conquering Isla.In that brooked no qu.es-
.. . . no eIect uwn the philosophical thought
SO . cla$ical liicliari philoSophy remained pureiy
Since this chapter .Is intended
views which are peculiarly Indian, the idea$ of
philQsophe.rs, wh() are all irifluenced by
one way or other, are orititted.
dealing with the oconce.pt of man, it is difficult
Mtf'1, .......... "'". Indian thought to confine himSelf to what is
. .called philosophical literature. The main ,aim ().f
Indian systems is to show the way to salvation;
written aiter the ideal of renunciation (sannyasa)
shape. Not -even one out of ten thousand t ake to
so the philosophical .of .the $ystem.s
. . rep:resent . the whole life pf every Indiar};
of renunciationJs presented a;s. a.n ideal for
'a complete: philosophy ohnan one theref()re
to,the including tlle but-
. Vedas,. the ethical code$. and the epics: then
. ge-t a coi:llplete picture. The Mimamsa is out and
and activi.Stic; and the ethical codes and
n u r.,..IJ men, as they tell men what to do llild how to
The ea.I'ly did not even ti>r
.,.,_..v ..... ...,u (maksa}, which is eXistence abOve birth
were tile ideas introduce<Jinto the system
and as a concession to ;the general
If one asks me how.c.ould India's culture
survive, I shOuld say they 'did not only
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The Cbncept of M(m
because of th.e transcendentalldeal of the Brahlll.a:n
confidence it the people in time!! of stres{and
also btlcause of the intensivly active life which the
preached, :the injWlctions of which Were never
any schoc>l so far. as mund,a.rie life was ..
is most orlhodoK <>f the orthodox S]./'St .. e
school so far 3$ man's relationS, to Sodety, fnr.<>f .. irl-i
. and godS are wncerned. Without the ........... ...
the orthodox Vedantawolild have disappeared or
absorbed by the rion .. Vedantic just.
philosophy modified and a.bwrbed into the
and the Islam,ic. that everything
preached was accepted by the other schools; but ..
guided their followers in their mu.ndane lite. This is
times pointed to as a contradiction in the life of Indian
How can India, with its ideal of peace and quietism,
vigorously in times of crisis.? How is. she a:ble i'n col 1.t
time . . to welcome technoiogy and industrialization?
Milll,Amsil, . which also permeates Indi.a's outlook,
t1le answer . . This world is a world of action. Rail'ffl "t: 11mwam
if one Wants life, one must act. It is i:mfortunate
hnponance of the ieaven of the in Ihdian .
and philosophy not been. properly recogniiedeven
has not been brought to the Mtice of
tl:Unkers who are interested in understanding Indian
. . What may be !o be a split in the philosophy
Vedas .has n<>t been g.zven 1ts proper value; for it is this
that has kept .India's cultuie.aJive . . If Iifds a bu'ndle of
tradictions if it exist only by cutthtg through
whel}it cannot resolve them .. with the help qf lit9p.ted ...
.this< split has proved tobe an fo India's
The Vedas a.re<genetally divided into four part$:. the .
the Brahrn.ai)il$ (rituat texts)., the AraQyak<\5
treatises), and t}le . The Miitiamsa deals
first tw() parts ij.tid the Yedbta with. the next two . ....... ,
all interpreters say:that the whole Veda is one an<l. ru ..
Philosophy ot life. Then why cloes th.e
so basically m the Ved.anta fu.etaphysics?. to give .
unportam difference&: Mimamsa is pluralistic and ..
Vedanta rnonistic; the. fOI'lliei: preaches action and the .
non-acti()n. Jlfone can l!aY that these are .
In Indian Tlwught 209
portant. Then, how c.ap two $uch .disparate systems o(meta-
physics belqng to th.e: Veda( Unwe no( across a
answer until now, 13ecause the Vedanta.. IS .extolled,
foreigners tbink . that it represents the .
; . .. 'ch. ... ,., di g The mam answer g1ven .1.s
hfe for Ind1a, wm 1S .rru:).lea . n . . . . . .. . . . . , . .
that the Mimamsa is meant for ifumature minds,. while
Vedanta is 1m the mature; BU.:t. we have two systems
of metaphysics, if metaphysics .itselfts for the
Are we to say that the MlmM'l.sa metaphys1cs ts to be cons1dered
as if true at certain levels of mental development? One may as
well tell an immature mind: 'You cannot understand the truth
now; do your duties and come a?ain.' Instead, a who,le system
of is presented, w1th. elaborate (e<\Solllng, cate-
etc. And what .do .trye
They do not say that .the1r 1s 011ly as. 1f true, they
s.ay absolut ely true' . Fot:metaphystcs be 11o lev_els
Qt maturity. If the wholeYeda tea:ches one oflife,
we have to remove the split have
of life. What then, iS the way '()Ut 9t thls difficulty? 1 thmk1t
is this; The 'the5is that t.wo phil()S()phies to
of means that man .is the ponit of philo-
. h. y so Ie t . us affirm the reality of man first and .let us then
sop . . . . tiall
see what is implied in his reality. The V edas<ha ve 3ll essen . Y
humaniStic approach, which is What I
been advocating elsewhere finds a J usttficatlon h,ere: .a.humarusm
that does not .shun physics, because man s. has very
deep foun4ati<>ns.t can be
:after affirming m.aJ!.. W1thout man to }iis
. t pJ:ace iri philQs()nhy; it iS .im.pos. Sl ... ble not oiily to bl'ldge
cell r .r:. d th v d-.. t b t also to
the gap between the Mililattl$8. an. e . .. ar: a ; u . . ..... .
recohcile the differenee any two .
Thisintroductory Qigres$itiri is necessary for. the toptc
:of the concept of man, lest we should a . ?n(l-.stded
The. epiCs and the ethiCai.codes.had to giVe a. complet: ptcture.
of the life of man, sj,nce they were.meant for all men, .and
of them a re unsystematiC. They, to.o:,did not to re-
move the split except in of tnaturity. The
ethical are not philosophies but la.y
(l()wll. the (}.uties of castes and. of hfe ((ijramas) . The
. . .
"1 'Activi.stic Tenden:cyi n Indian. Tho118ht.' -TM. Ke1an, Oot,ober
195$,
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. 2IO The .COm;ept>o/Man
epic$ taught the Vedic idea.I of life with the h.eip of
anecdotes, histories, etc., intersperSed with popular e;;q>o$ittll!>1
of philosophical scho_ols and religious sects. But they
the whole life ohnan. Both the epics and the ethical
hold the Mlnlamsa and the Vedanta sacrosanct a:nd do'
to. or reconcile the metaphysical theories.: ' ..
-It lS: from this context that we get the idea of
One who likes. to make a deta,iled study has 'to keep in
what the ancient sages said about sacred llteratute. This ..
be rather flllly explained later, but a little acquaintance
it will be useful. T:he main literature ior the ancients is.
VedaS. They are four in number: f1.k, Yajus,
They need 'six subSidiary<studie&' or li:inbs
(phOnetics), kalpa (ceremonial), vyakiirana
ofobscure Vedic terms), cJmn
and JYOU$a (astronomy. and. astrology). In addition, there
four. 'secondary subsidiaries' (np4ngas): puratta. {epic).
(logtc), mfnufms:tfl (rule$ of text\lal investigation), and. anarma'"''
SometiJiies the six: orthodox: systems.
philosophy--the Nyaya, Sa.nkhya, Yoga, .
and Ved.nta7are also called the secondarY
Uter, ot1let forms .of lite.rature grew up to teach the
way of life. Even poetry was originally meant t6 teach
Vedic way of life in a pleasant Wa.y to the common man.-
ofall these sources; if one .is to present a detailed co. l ,p Uo:n ;')
of man, one has to take th.e Vedas, theePis, the ethicil.l
and .the systems into consideration, . In this chapter it .
.. pOSSible only to g1ve an outline. .
. For the sake of clearness; the present chapter will be divided
terce parts dealing with the concept xn.an in the Vedas,: .
mcludmg the o(Jainism
Bud9htStn, and li1 the ()rthodo)C systems; There will be some
unavoidable. repetitions: because most of the orthodox systems
are elabora.twns of the Jdeas ot the Vedas and even the hetero-
. dox systems contain mu{.!h. that is'
. 2. THE VEDIC CONCE.PTlON QF . MAN
The .Vedas: Much has been written oii Ve4ic culture. and civili
. . ' The word mJmamsit is the ri&me of. a school a! well as of a method for
interpr.eting the Vedic teitts, Its et}imological mea1ii:l)g is diSCilssion. .
'$illfMcM Dlrfrma. p. 30 {Madras: T.be TbeQ&OP.hic_. Publishing House,
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In .Indian Tltought 2.II
za.tion l}Jld m,ajority of the Scholars believes th::(t: the
early R,gvedic. is inarked by; !in outlook. The
early Aryans, when they entered Indta. (about 2qoo
n.c.), were full of Ze$t for. life and were rtot much. W:Orr1ed
about life after death.' Of the fol)ryedas. which have already
been referred to, the the earliest, a,nd of it
have been brought by the Aryans into .India fro!Il the outs1de.
The hymns are .t? entities and
forees...,;the sun; the rnoon, the dawn, , the wmd; sky,
conceived as so many gods. The .Aryans, believe,
deStroyed, fhe Mohenjo.-Da.l'Q settlements ?f the
of several rac:es l:>ntpredonuna.ntly Prav1dia.n.
The li!l..tter agriculture arid tra. but. were not g()Od
waniors.like tlie Ary!UlS; They worshipping sotrie fo$ of
the Mother-GOddesS and knew also some of yogic medi-
tation. Thus the Aryan J;eligion, in which nature wor5hip was
predotninant, came intQ contact with the yogic type: Natur.e
worship is .outwart'blooking for its deities, rogJC tnedi-
tatiop. is inward..-lookirtg; )Jut Qut of the coinbmatlon of tbese
two was developed the Athaxya Veda, the main. feature of
which is magic, incantations, etc. not only to propitiate, gods
. but also to hann. enemieS. After the Athatvan; the saxna: and
the Yajur Vedas seem to ha.ve been veloped; The elab()rate
ritual of the Vedic sacrifices detailed organizatum.
and so the Branmat;JaS were comp<>sed. for eachof the Vedas.
Aite1.' a time tbe poopie seem to have realized, the meaningleSs
nes5 of the .a.n4. become reflective. The result was. the
Some of the, thinkers-took also to secluded
.. and reflective life in the forests and thought over the prol)lems
of life; the Aratlyakas contain their thoughts. When these
thoughts took a definite form, iesu1ted ... The
four VedaS cba.nted by fout: kinds of pnests who officiated
at the sacrifices and handed their profession, fathet to
son and teacher t() pupil.
isramas: It is not were prigtnally ..
meant only'for the (te. for those wh6 rel}ourtce the
world) or for only whet"l he made up his min<l to
ren,ounee the world; for many of the personalities
were go<Rl h?\1Seholders, like King and his
Tllti Vedic p ,- (edited by R, C. Ma.j.uP1dar aJ1d A. D. PiJsalkar,
London: Allen & Unwin, Ud.,x9s1).
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We read also tha:t for som,e tim.e me.
formally divjdeQ into four stages or asramas, Dr . .
that the word a.Sr4ma does not even occUI' in amiM:il
the In the CAanaogya ad we
of only three..!' AU this shows that jt took some
develop: the idea of tiSramas. It is v-ery 'likely that
A.J:yarz?- thought of only two stages Of life; the
and a stage might have,been
the were copQ$ed and that stage . . .
dweller.s; and by the tiiii:e .. of the Upanisads the .....
the s.annyasins, .cou}d have been accepted: Dt:ring the
stage rnan g;ets . all information about tfte . w6rld
the householder's stage man . ' . .
Wlth hts wt{e:,.,;..for without the wife the sacrifices
pays back his- three debts:>to .the .;" ..
, .. by having ehildten; to. by performing ".<
to the . sage$, by transmttting the learning he
from them. Thus, procreation sacrifice and J
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During the stage.
.of the family to his d1ildren, retires to the , ... .
hlS Wlfe). and reflects 6n the life he has Jived and the
the world .he enjoyed. During the la,st stage he gi .
worldly connectiOns: and lives the rest of his life in .
tach!Tlent.and to the Divine Spirit.
ofcastes: Tl!eJonnatioil ofthe caste .
complicated Several factors .
The conquering Aryans we.re sm.all in number$ When COJll' oa
t o the conquered people; and
found a
soc1ety m which the Aryans could p1ate ..themselves at
Much has been written on the r believe .
have been the process: The .pre-Aryans knew
trade had >alsQ their owz:: . priests. T1J.e Aryans knew
of fightmg and had own priests . . The. Aryans .
, acGept the pnests of the C()nquered; and so. priesthood . . .
.. to . Aryans only and was given the highest .
Agam, the would not allow the conquered to
ar; fighbnK; so 1he warrior caste also ..... . ,.i!
. , Hslory o.fJ/1# Dha.'11Jailfslra, Vol. II, pact!, p, 418; {Paona: The J:SIItndarni
Iilstitlite, '
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In Indian Thought
Since the :Aryan priests and the Wa.ttiors could both live
the wealth produced by traders .and agriculturists, there
have been.s.ome mixing of.Arya,ns and non-Arans .at
.(vaisya) level; and the Vaisyas were with the
of wealth through both trade and agncu1ture. The.
caste, Suciras, though often described as tor
. were. agriculturists, SO that, later,
t.o be with tracie and the w1th
As ;t sort. of comprom1se between the rulers and
the Vaisyas; who must ha,ve. been composed of .both
and n<m.,;;Aryans, were all()wed to study the Vedas and
the holy thread. . . . . . .. .
. Again, not ev:en all the There was,
tor exaJ1lple, an Aryan . tnbe, Sydrm, the llorthem
Arachosia.i Further, the word Aryan came to mean a way
life rath.el' than. a race; and some Aryans who entered In<:J.u,;
but did not accept the orthodox way were at first out of
the four-fold caste system, but later, through inter-marriages,
entered higher casfes._ race became
. in parts of and other parts.
Moreover, the castes were fl:uxd at first, not ng;d.
both inter-marriages an(! Then
disappeared; but hifer:-<ljning Then mter-d1nmg also
was st
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pped. Still, a higber caste b()y was allowed to marry .a.
lower caste girl, but it did not ..
The early reference to . 5astes . :vas. a to
fatts without . any theological or J?hllosophJcal rn,ay
.say th!lt two principles worked fu the d!stinction, not
separation; of castes: col_?ur Long afterwards,
a. theological and an wasfol1llqlated. The
Brahmit1s were supposed to have been born from the
the from the Shoulders, the Vaiyas from the thtghs,
and the Siidras from the feet of the Godhead. Next, the B_hagt+
vadgita said that the castes were created by to
the character and activities of .men .. l3l.lt on th1s the, btrth
of cruel and wicked people h1 higher castes and of salnts tn>the
lower cil$tes cahnot be explained. However, . onc_e the castes
were formed, man's \ve.re fixed in thetn.
Indi4':s Cultwe awtl, P,cibleft!s, p. 1 (Jil.ipun Uni :
versity of R.ajputOUI\\
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For a deta'ile4 'll,C(:riuiit ofthese P. V, l{ane, H;slafy OJ .t. e
Pharmasastra, Vol. rv. .
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2i4 .. The:Crmcept oj Ma1t
iw values QjJife: It has already beeii: o" l n-1r:V.i?.r
the early .Aryans did not bother much .
dea(h Ql" about salvation conceived as a
existence:-beyond tile reach of birth and .death .
thoUght now I'eCOgili1)eg .fonr Values of . life; -wealth
enJoyment (kiima), duty (dharmq), and salvation . . .
The early Aryans were mindfUl <)f only the first three.
.long time tl:ie coiJ.troversy must ha ye been carried
whether there were twoj. or three, ot four basic
Cirva.kas would accept only t1le. nrsf two. "
B. d), the author of Kd;,(!Jistra. of . . . . . .
first three, notthe fouqh, Up to the time of the
the Aryans seem to have. known only the first three
B.ut the time of the Atar_tyakas, the foluih may
recogn,tzed. T-hen the four sciences may have ben
the selence of wea:Ith (itrthas(istt>a), the science of
science of duty .
(mok$a$4sh'a). Vatsayana sa.ysthat
pati was the onginal au of the first; Nandi was the
au.thor oJ the second, was the original author
third. Whatever is studied as philosoplly proper, that
systezns, except the MTinamsa and-the. carvak:a /'f\Tlc:i'ih+<i
fourth. '
One can easi,ly see that the sche111,e, Qf values. is well
out. Wealth, ":ltich does not mean merely oash-but any .
of sustenance, 1s needed . for life. and is l_.t :s ve:ry :toundlliil
in this world. But wealth, however is not
lation but for enjoyment, and is not to
but ethical, and morality becomes aimleSs without the
of salvation, Why shoUld man follt>w eihiCal lnlnntT, ... ., ....
care fot the members of 4ri' bis .. .... ...... ""'"' ..
and enJOyrllent? Therejs a highet:; good t:han n ..
' that is imity the Supreme
understood by the different systems later .
wealth is sti:bordihated, to enjoyment-, enjoyment to
and duty to . As originally conceived, the
though Instrumental, is a neces$a!jr mean.s to
higher, . ..
Butlate.t:, after the rise ofJainism and Buddhisni, the
ceased to be cqn;ijdered as . .for
JatlllSm and Buddhism the pra:ctite ;of giving.>ni+i<>H,;;,
In In_dian Tho-ught
the life of the monk (sanny4sa) to young boys and girls.
did not consider the repayment of the three debts to fore--
gods, <Ultf sages as imi:><>rtant or' tf:len
was understOOd as the injl.lnchon of the Veda,
included sacrifices als6. But were <;ondemned
. the new scb:o()Js Further, if the highest ideal, salvation,
. . by meditation, why nbt the. boys and
the methods of meditation and why unpose on them the
kinds. of activity? The orthodox sch()(}ls C!l.SQ were _
. . . by this argument,. and Sanka,rain
could take to (sa.n-nya$a) -whenevf;lt one. felt cliS1Ilterestt'ld
the world, whether one went firl:!t through fttst three
of Hfe or not and whether one realized tbe fust three
of life'or not. The three are automatically paid up
one the Rimanuja does not. seem to
. this view; forj iil his cominentary on first
of the he Sa.ys that the nature of the. Brahman
lhould be inquired into qnly after one understands the nature of
or duty.
Man .The early'Vedic a5 the 'Wor5hip of
natu:ral forces. was Jlytheistic. Scholars believe that there was
n9 idol worShip ;and tbere were no temples; fodhe .early Aryans
worshipped nature directly. instance, prayers
&nd oblaticms to the sun when 1t rose and when 1t set Nature
was conceived as fully animated.And a natural con-
ception; for when man did not distinguish bet\Yeell spirit and
body within himself, he coUld make n.o distinction.
them in nature either, Butlater, wlten he. drewthat,dlStinction
within himself. he made it Within natur ;tlso; and the idea of
deities (adhi#lfnadevatas) twa
Qf development in India may. be ca.lled anunatism and anumsm
coming under polyt,heisrit Then the tendency of what . Mu
Milller called henotheism grew; When each of the gods was
worshipped, he was called the Supreme God. Thus Vcu:tt\ia
(god of the oceans 9r ()f the waters which sur-
rounded the world; the iioompassing god whp Iater
the god of the earthly seas); ftajapati (the lorn of created
(the architect of the universe) and
othef'S; b.ecallJ.e one by one, and. the <:>t9& gc;ds were
subordinated. to them. By this time tile Aryans maY have
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realized that the world was an ordered cosmos arid .
dependent natural ' unrelated and '
single entity. WQl.lld work against eacl\ other and
wQrld to Henotheism be<iame a stepping
polytheism to fu.onotheism:
The further lltep in the development cannot be . .
w:itho:tlhefei'ring back .to the two forms. of religion, tile
looking and the inward-looking. The .tendency to .
external nature, to.unifytheworld andplace it unMr
of one God, can te$ult only in seeing. God somewhere
either in space orbeyorid space. But then; how can He
wno ha5 :<U1 ir:rward mindil Can He do it 'by .
only man.'s external Here the
supplied an answer: He daes it by r, ri\11
inward na:tt1re also. God .controls man .both from
from inside. The Brltadarattyak{l says that the .
of the dtman is the san1e a$ the light ofthe sun; the self
is the Sart:le as the surt with9tit; The subordinate gods
the presiding dei.ties of mind (whiCh the Upanisads
distinguished from the atman} and the senses, on the
and of their objects on the othet. Tbtis a -cortelatton
established between man's psychologica.l natlite and _.
physiC<lcl world outside. For the preSiding
the eye and the light which .it is sometimes given
stlrt and at other times as fire; the presiding deity ofTnm . n.,
of tlieobject of touch is air, and SQ on .. This correla
illustrated in the SE@i-mythOlogieal narrative the .
The once e}dsted alone and wanted to
the lords of the worlds/ It then created . up.per
lower wotlds.. Ther.t it wanted to tteaiie the 'lords
wqddS. It created .a form iu}d
on it. The mouth of the torm openecl; .Jiom the
speech and frq.m speech the god. of fire came,
1lostdl$ opened: out . of the no5trj1s came life (pnitut) . ' '
out of. life air came forth. lts eye5 opened; out .of eyes
and out of sight the sun c!une Similarly, other gpd.S
out of the other senses .arid out of. mind. The .gods
habitat and . . The A tman' gave fir.st <t cow . .
then. a. llor$e. They said that the animals were nbt
Then tll.ey were given man and were satisfied. Thris the
a:nd the mind ofman and their corresponding objects
------ ..
realms (bases, ayalanas) of the godS of the \\rortd. Arid hlL
. .. were subordinated to the .Atman.
narrative .is full of significance for philosophy, it
. the . reas6n why the . Vedanta became essentially
. The nattative further says that fire becaJne speech .
entered the .mouth of man; the sun sight and
the eye; ;md in th!lt way the .bequlle the
IIIJlt:uoJ[}::; ofman's organs and entered him. The external
. internal .to man. Philosophy rriay ignore the. the.o
and aspect; but the between
sense$ attd the ob]eCts
1
l;>asd on the1r be1ng, to the
&vision of the'prhiciple into the>subjective and
man's experienee, is by .at!
be they monistic; ()f .
Jtven corrc!.Q.ttytt;r m ;tts .doctrme
or bases of experience . . th.e lmph,catlons. of
torrelativity are brought out fully m the1deahst1c culmmations
of the Vedanta and Buddhislll- . . . . .
Man thus became the meeting point of the go$ of the unt-
verse or .its Controlling forces. The highest controlling power
was the Atnto:n. the of light; b()th intemal and
is nnally accepted. AU gods once for subPrdinated
to the .Atmt<ln; tlle Supreme Spmt dwelhng lkll :men,
were t() a lowe.t place./\_
fullftedged irionothe_lStn Wlth .the concept of the
Supreme Spirit as the . most inward reality of man; the
question was rasied or not the Supreme.Spmt could
be personal in the ordi,na.ry sense. and monothetsm; _was, de.. .
veloped .into monism. But it is wh,ether the
a:re monistic as ppposed to rnonothe1st1c; no. exact fonnul.atlon
can be tound.Jri they.acePt theid.ea that God 1S the
innertnost Spirit withh). The pbilE)sophi,calthougbt of. the
once an<i fot au beCaMe inward too king in its
to ftnd explanatiOnS.. ,
Crea.tion of man: As shown a,bove, man is.created as .tlle . ;,,. _
the abode, Of the' lo.rds. oi the universe, the meeting pomt. of
realms Of activity and, fteld,s :of enj.oyment. G9(3s. oj the
external f<m;es . were .made god.s of the
activities of m'ind and -
supervision of. the Atma1i.
t
. i
' '
. .. l .
' .
: ...
218 .
But how create man? The words
come across. ate katna, which may be translated as
or wm, lm#u, which may be ttinslatoo as sacrifice or
iind tilpas, the English equivalents for which
willing. The 4tman desired, willed;. dld
perfoi:'ined sacrifice, . which iS: meant for v..,. ........
creativity .of <lesire. Man is the result of the :creativity
Alman. .. . . .:
Epistemological discussions of the later V"''"'"""
created the itnpression that the 4tman is a static.
that it is without activity and, therefore, un:infl>rp.,t,i;.;v.
epistemqlogy; concerned mainly _with truth and
the same as the whole of philosOphy and is not
tli()ttght. In the tlie 4tman is

dynamic . and as full of bliss and C!'nS9iouS:ness.
it is not merely dynamic, it is also static, betailse it .
subsistent Or as some conln'lentators pq.tit, it: is .
dynamic nor .static, If the Atman ls the whole of . :
ifi.t is why do the Upanl$aq!; speak.of 1ts
and creati()n qf the world? C<)nc)usions
phil0$ophies drew, the original conception Atman
not metely static.
. Although the Vedas thought of man as created by: the
in a complex. way for a complex purpose; some :rQt:
materialistltconceptions also prevailed aith.e time. The
of the Lokayata school, whichis also called the
was a person <>fthe Vedic times, 'Yho maintained that
product of material elements; . earth, water, fire
W}ien particles of these elements . come fogetliet and
a, 'parliculat structure, life and consCiOusness
when the particles aie separated, life and c .. <.m&:
1
or
1
sm
disappear. Thus both the conceptions, creation of man
Spirit and creation of him out of matter, Were presentln
times. But the materialistic oonception did nqt make
headway in philos()phies oflndia.
and hi.S. e1wirotJ'meni: Man in the early Vedic and
the Upa.rti$adic times did not thiiik that he was living in
environment which he quit for ever. }{e
ot:it as his own, .t!) be controlled by k<Jrma or action;. .
the early Veda does n<>t have any fatalistic irnplicatidns;
....... --....... . . .
1 n. Indian Thought 219
only aetion. .an tP.qugh.t that he coUld determille his
t :lin v .. , make it olinat it: he was its mastei.'; He no
- ......... . , of salvation, of an existence beyond the hfe of
He had no need even -of God, whom he had to, beg for
. Everything; happiness and rriisery, heayen and hel_l,
IIJ)encled. on his own actions. He performed acbons on earth,
merit, of which he enjoyed here and the rest
exhausted his merit, came back to the human. world
perfonn.ed actions again in order to He
joy in life and in action themselves; an<l Jtn de v:vre,
is S() conspicuoll$ly absent :in some of the
later philosaphy, finds' a strong the eadyVedtc
This topic will be elaborated m the supsequen.t
aliro.-
Kam'a act;ivism; The question ho:W the conforms to
the artd of action dtd l).ot trouble the
Vedic thinker; The world is a world of for action
and sristalned by ll{:tion-by prescnbe(l act10;n, oL course;
not by prohibited action. For is _Dharma (duty), Y>Y::ar4s
the ofwhich the whole phJlpsop)ly of
I directed? It is action pteStribed by the, Veda . . D.ha(1;ia
literally means 'that sustains an:d supports. l.U)d by
Implication, that which su.stains man an.d un.lverse: Dha"!'a
Is karma, according t4l the Veda., Mentonous. karma
supports the Karma 1s necessary for the umverse.
the oftb,e wOI:ldis ortly through karma.
Aording to its . human action: tnJ.nsform the
n'ahire of the universe; .not ohly the but also the
supra-mundane. No greater faith i :n _the potency.
n.ction can be found in any other philosophy. thts .. highly
nctivistic . . . ... .... f
But the sustaining action was notjustany 1t was ac ton
nccorG.ing to tlie Ve<Uc injunctions. The Veda Itself wa:s eternal,
not composed by anY person not by God.
God was the Veda was and .ru;cor?:-
to it w!i$ enQtigh .. how? Man a,t m
u hylozoistic wbrld in wh1ch .the oppostbon of :ztd matter
was not felt. AS a philosQphlcal system Mimamsil dJ:ew
distinction;; but thQ Sam,llitli$, . the first patt o.f the . Ve$, dJd
.not.. feel. the ' opp
0
sit.i6ri We have seen .th;tt the early .
- ; ..
. .. ;
':r '
. I ..
:t
:;,1
.'
, j
'
"
'
The Ccncept Q[ Man
Aryans treated. the mi.tural .toties :a.5 a n :
later, placed a presiding deity in each, So ........... ld,E. ll
conformed the spiritual forces, A:Uer some time the
regarded as controlled by the
. was no conflict between the sj:>irihml forces.
. natural over which they pre$ided. Mari: was thus li
wotld Qf .animated natural fOrce$ or in a world oi
. deities, all .born of karma, which was. at first ..
sacrifice. Sacrince is a fonn ()(desire. Karma is borri..
and so the.presiding deities :were born of desire.
the external manifestation of desire.
and controlle(l the world, Yet. sacrifice is a n. 1 ece:ssa1rv SJ
festation and so actiQn has to be perlorm:ed. Orily then
pleased, proper enjoyment i$ obtained for them,
natural forces .and the world )jeld to man's wishes.
. The of sacrifice is tQQ c()mplicated .to
further in the present context Few. of us now ate . .
accept world of the early Aryans. But . what
philosophical importance is the. Conception of kawtti as .
to e,KJ>lanation ofthe illiiverse. The parts Of
brought together by human action, t6r human action
the sake. of enjoyment. In the early Vedie hymns,
not expect the atoptic theory; but when ohce the
formulated, the Mlmamsa said that the atoms were
together by karma and for future karma. Thus the
of the due to karma: L<J-ter the Nyaya- . .
aciopted this v1ew and said that God was prompted to
together for creatipg the .world by the karma
The Mimamsa; when it later introduced GOd
of karn;a, . Propounded a sim.Ha:r . ctrine.
JX>lht has. to be noted here: past karma deter.inihed the
nature of the world; but prese{lt }larni.a ma:y:'.- <1e1tennine
future form of . t'Jle world arid may its preSe-nt . .
So the. of karma is not pute fatalism: .tna.ri has ,
power to his environme:ntthrough action. 1'hls
the karma. doctnne has not been cleatly.brought
of the but I it is very iTT'11'lnrta
of the. untV\rtan . ce of ""-e d ... f:
. . r- . . . . . oc ne o
be<:ause of too lll.any 'and :cntro:tsmtS;
See K. R. Srifit:4 in particolarly Chapters :X .
.xm. Bhratiya Vidya

. . . .
In Thought
. philosophy I>urely passive an<ilacJ4ng all activism, .
dwell a little more on the problem. The early A:yans.
the as a world of action J(lgat)
action prddutes effects, If under .w.e
and oxygen; water wdl be lJilrnedt-
Irt the ethical world; however; effects appear frequently
after< long interv'als and at times only after severaJ yea;rs;
whiCh t.his fact entails did not trouble
although .they believed that heaven cQuld be
action perfQt'med seyeral years before\ ]3ut the dt_ffi-
. . the Indian thirikers of a later pE;pod, The action
-fn'im"n is ,ethical and coneems both< men a.nd. gQd,s:; and; the
are presiding deities of the ria.P!.rai forces. J'heref?re,
no actl<m is (!ver lost. if it does ;not produce .
it remains in :a lat.ent form until the proper occaswn
. fructiftcati!>n. It what we now ;call potenttal
energy, It is this fact . that produces requ1red forms .of.
... t . ..
1
n the ethical wc:>rld; .and the whole world;.....,earth,
ex1s ence . . . . . d'. A Wh .. ..
h a
nd hell-was ethical for the Ve rc ryans. . .. en.
. h th
right action is g(){!s are ; w a(e.
ap.tisfied, the natural forces which ther P:estde YJeld .to
human desires. Even gods are borri of destre 111 Atman.
And wben desire, sacrifice, and penance were the
Atmcm itself wa$ believed t<l have sacnfice and to
!lave done penance for the creation o.f the world. . . . . . . . . . , . .
Later the d(ICfJ'ine of. karma. which originally meant actlon
.and then action accoqiingto the was related
to the doctrine of transmigration.

behe._ve very
l;k 1 the eai'ly Ary . ans had no idea of ttansnngration,
t e y, . . . th Ar .. t n
that they may have taken it over u.vm_ e . yan.
habitants. It is :difficult to verify the doctnne: we C(tnnot:have
definite proofs for or against it .. By of

. however; the:doctrine oftransmtgratlon, was defi:mtely J!ccepted
by the . .' .. f .... ... f
Mari;s environment was thus an environment or acton .
Materihl nature therei but it was. animated or
by deitiei or gods who, like were n:telligent
beings. Like meri, gods were; .qf des1re; and des1res
S<'ltistied hy aCtion. Every action, hpwever, was a sacrtJke:
10 see 1': s. Deshinukh: Rtligitm in -z
11

Oxford Uiii\tersity. PrllS&i 1933}; and a.lso Saetifice tn t e 8"
8

p, . . . ,
! ..
The Concepfo/Man
animal sacrHic5 performed for pieasing some gods were ltto.li
orily sacrifices. For the gods. themselves we:re the forces
through man, They cllose man as their h!l.bitat in .
enj.oy .t]:lemselves; and so it came that every
performed by man was indirectly an a<:ti<>n performed
gods themselves. If man sees, then_ it is the sun that is
through him: if he t<mches., then it is the god of Wind
touches tlu:ough hiln. Again, the pbjects seen and u_ mcnect.r.
the objective of the respective. gOds. As. i Said
we may ignore gods for philosophy; but
accepted bet\V!!en senses and their objects led, i;ndilin
in the Vedanta into a metaphysical idealism. .
SCholars believe that the. Vedas had-ar.t important &uuu1ua.1.n
for morality in. the. conception of Varu:r:tl\ as the o ontrolller i
and when Var:un,a fell frol1l the highest .
of the Suprern:e God, the. concept :of ij.ta was given up and
of D!JtJrma: was. reinstated 1n its place.: It iS' t:iue tb,it, in
1Jkirma obtained greater that but 1
this charge. resulted in the loss the f6undations for
active morality. west(lrn ethical th_eories .are woven
two basic concepts, the .Right (Ought) and the Good. , Kant
name . is particularly associated with _the former and
with the lattel'. But, even Kant, Je:wish ethics
based mail)ly on the Right: (;od gave the
and it is. man's duty to obey :them q u es_t _J onlng.
Obeys theirt> he Will attain happinesS in :the WOrld;
God's-wrath will condemn bini to mis(lry. Siri.ce
was generally influenced by Ja.daism, one .apJprecJate
criti<;ism of the lndian ethical outlook by Christian p hH<>sopht!ri>
and .their tegi:'et that the concept of fell into disus.e .
Actually, however, it did not .fail into disuse, <tlth..9ugh the
word was not 'tlsCd as. often as the word dJi,artna'. J)h4f:ma
is the central concept of the and, I said,
t.he Mimfu'r.lsa is the philosophy of the first two parts' of the .
Veda, . are intensively By time the
stisu.tras \V.ere composed by Jaim.ini (abo.ut 400 :s.c.), dhn,rma . .
became tl!e central concept of ethical Bufthe Right
was not yet differentiate4 from the Good; and dharma included -.
!he question, Which is ptiinary Right or the<GoO<l?
engaged the thought of so.me thinkers until abm.).t the seventh
CA;lntury A.b., when>two followers f>f. the. seh,ool, Prabhakara and
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
T
Z.hlaht 2Z3
In Indian '"""'6 .
. . .. . .1- t . k opposite<sid.es, Both of them
. . . ciwy. ()() ... _ . _ ai and that even God dtd not
vtew the Veda etern as to wh . we should
. t.t. But the .. . y a that actlon
. . . , . . ol the Veda. Ptabhakara sal . .
. . . . . . . . . .-ood Veda com .
e-t1Drding to the in)unctl?ns g ; . d that the Veda
. . but Kumartla , mamtame -.. . _ . . _. m _
MU!Lil __ . . be use it was go<ld. thus, ga':e pn .. acy
ca. . . . . .- . . th Good. But 1ll e1ther . case,
Ri ht and Kumanla to e . . . . . di. . _ . -- r-
. -. g .. . . . . . . . h. t . .,h,-a Thus Rta dtd not . . sappea: ,
.. _ . . . good. and r,.g . lS u- ... , "' , . . . . . .. . . .
was by ta became synonymous. with
In later Jttet:arY language . IJ ds still distinguished the.two
. _-_. . -ortruth. But the is a ounget coritemp<>ra,cy
. . (abou,t A.D. 8oo), . . y . 'n that whlch
. . K - 1 . explains the. word rta as g . d a
of_ a, _ . __ . _ d with duty, .and 1s well const
accordS w)th the Veda f it as:'praetical trut_tl.' inopppstt:oll
Wemaytrans a e feely as truth of practlcal
to 'theoretical truth',. or, r . . ,. tical reason.
reason as distinct from the truth of t9-e<>re . . ... : . - . .
. . . . . . . . . . h time of the. different
F anns .of ex on. By t e .. . . . e current and of these
kinds of of thef is, the view that
the 1n terms
0
e importilJlt. :rhe
the th the of Jive kinds.
Taithr1-ya tJpa.m$a:d<f!i8.:ys tbat ical rocesses; with
They are- concerned. W.lth

d P (mil"'a) obtained through

. .th p. ocesses of ...uOW e ge J f
godS, Wl r . . . dt chets with processes of ctea Jon
sac:rifi.ceS, __. e3; ;ocesses of the Atma*
lhroll:gh cosmlC sexes, and Wlth:e explained as .due to n:a.tural
pondingly wor,ld processes of sa<tr.JftceS, penall:ce, and
processes, ?-CtlOns .of gods, . ._ . eS and the creative pro-
incantatiOJ1S, processes of cosmJc sex: , . . . . . . . .
cesses _. ' of the_ Jtma11. . . . ed .
0
.. d,_ e r any one of these five
"'" ... hi'mseIf can be vlew u
lua.tl . ... .. . . . . the tiith perspective ..
aspects. Ultimately, bighe5t fo):ln of
the.r-est aJ;ld,wa,s ofex: lanation tbe .r.e.,
hi pun;u?t of this even then; o'?-twardness.
fieciion.a.tta.med deeP mwar . . ted ot treated '\UlllllpO:t:ta.nt.
Wa
" """t comnletely subord.Uta . d .... .. ..... ar dness
.. " .., . .. -r. . . . .. cine5S all OUL'"
a balance was str\l.ck b.etween mwar _ _ . . . . . . .
iu itmn.
. u YaiMS4Uiram
on thO Tctiliiriya I,:
1

. . .. .
... ' .
. I. .
) ''
I
.
224. T'L c . .
ne oncePt of Man
salvation. througli :contemplation
life. o_f activity. Tius world a world of names, forms,
.. Names forms l!l'il!.e through activity, and
acijvlty_ the of the A'tman, the activity of
the Prest ding of senses and, .their objects, and the
of man for sat:is.fyrn&' his ow:n de5ires and the desires
That action is to shunned is not obvious in the U
I s4va8ya for instance, askS man
saying that they do not taint bini When nPir-tm-m
rtghtly, although Saiikara tries to g:ive the meailin ... of
passage a t t Wha fi g
. . . . ; . new .. w1s . . t we nQ, in the U is
exh<?rtatton.of man to realize the .Atm_an, and the view
the Atm4n 1s the same as the Brahmiiit; the highest
and creator of the world, The i!tma,n within
hmtSelf ts the sante as the Bra.Junan. Then, why endeavour
lower who are to the. Alman? Just
ones atman suP:rvJSeS the actlvtttes of one's senses, so
supez:"lses. activities of g:ods. Just as the
fectto11. and sattdactjon of the .senses is not the same as
and of so the pt()pitiation .
ts .not the same as the prop1tiat1on of Jl!r:ahmari.
rea:hz:ttlon ofgOds is riot the same. as the realiZation of
Whether th_e Brahman is . the same as fhe
or from .it, it is . within man arid can be H'<&JU;c,c;;J<4;;
} nward Then, is
an4 or ts 1t unt].e.cessary and dispensable?
are not clear in their answer; The Vedantins
different answers. The idea tha,t the world is a vale
nusery :md one should free ones1f from its fetters is not
m the such as the
the ofsalvat.ton had entered Indian tho,ttglit and, in '
time, was g1ven the highest place.
The cons6,tutio# i>j The inchoate ideas<of early parts .
of the V:eda reprdmg the nature and of man are
present.m a fa:ttly dea:fonn in th.e Upani$ads. lt has already
tbe Vedic man not fuid hitrtseltin an alien,
env1rorunent. ln the earlr l1yn:ms,inthe .
(one of the .for msta.nce: .we. find 1nan asking how tbe
world tnto bemg, It came being from.
or But suclJ. doubts slowly ceas.e4 to t;rf)uble him

Inlndian Tho ht s
. ... . ........ . ug
&nd finally when the univei:Se was as
the product of his o:vvrt iri.nerm<>St Spirit, the and when
be. thought t hat all tlie gods were its products and that b.e "llim-
letlf was the field ofthei.t' and enjOyinf!ll[i.t
Had man not been born, gods would have be(:ln without an
abOde. From the $tandPQint o it :triay be tepated, '
this,theological perspective may be. ignoted, we riiay say
that man discpvered the correlati_vity of .his Md their
. (lbjects, and that he thought it was due to the polapsation
of the same elem;ents. Man was one with the world/ not a
dropped illtO it by an unknown agency.
Although maq was the abode of gods, this did not me.an
that manwas first created and then offered as an abode to
gods; it means, rather, tha,t ,he was a form created. out. of the
being ofgods: he was the unH0ng principle of theactivities of
gods or, in otherwor<;ls, processes of the natlU<il elements
forces pr.esided over by gods . . In
man iS the tiriifying prinCiple of the pr<>eeSSes of sense organs
{like viSion and of organs.,;oi action (like bands and
feet) and of their objects; . . .
The Tait#riya< iui account of the of:
Already by the time of the Upanijads; the distinctioij
was drawn between body arid spirit, between J:na;ii's. physical
body and hls ritman. The dtman js one's teal and uitimate self.
But is not one's self'the body? Do we not identify
with the body and say: tam. the<son of so and the father
of so and so? !be. says: No. Frotrl the atman. which
is the Bra1unan, is born; it air; frot;n air
fire; from fire water; and from W!lter earth ... From earth are
boni . platlb and fr()in piants is derived; and frOm. foqd
inan iS born. But this is only the physical body to whiCh we
refer as 'I'. This T at death, altll.ough the physiC<IJ
body may remain for sometime. UeJ1ce, body is notthe true
What disappears at death is life; the vital then the
vital principle, prat;a, niust be the titman, the But evert
now we have not penetrated to the true Jor when
asleep, his iife is present,. but he .o,otan.swerif we
call him. The 'II; therefore, is. absent here; more specifically,
hoWe\fer, what is<absent here is .mind (manas) .- MiM, therefore,
11
See Belvalkar and Ra.nage: Creative pp; 71 fol. Bitva-
kunja; P ublisbillg. Bouse,
, . . . .
. . . .
... .... ,. ....... .... '1;..... w: .,., ,, .. ;..--....
, .
' .
, .
,',
. _. :
Z26. The Comept
may .be: the atmatr andlile. its bOdy. But we cann<>t stop
here; A lunatiC may say: I am' dead lQ.Ilg ago, and yei his
is operating. What is lack;ing in the lunatic is reason. So .
is the . atman and Jllind its body. Even here, however,
cannot Man may be ili. deep sleep when his teascin .
not work. We do not say that his disappeared.
exists. We t)lerefore have to say that there is SQruething
deeper than reason; and that it is the unconscious bliss in
sleep, iri 'whiCh man attains the unity of and
and intel:lSity .of being. Bliss is intensity of })ring, Because
. is unconScious and the annan has to be coriS<:ioU$, even
JlllCQnscious bliss is not the ifi1nan but only it$ body, Thus .
the following levels: 4tman, .the unronscious .bliss
nrl.nd. life; and matter. Tlie lower is the body
. higher, and the higher is the tUman ofthe lower. Matter
the dhnan of anything; and the .ultimate dtman is not the
of .
Mah, as:he exists, is an iiJ,tegral unity ofa11 these bodies
4tmans, which may be interpreted as differen:t lwels of
accepted by the Modem philoS()phy has .still .
solved the problem of the relation of matter, life,
spirit. In addition t().these fourlevels, .however; the
accept two . more. Certainly, the also have
solved the probletn.S we now faise. Infact, they do not seem .. .
have felt the acl;l;teness of the They saw that '3.11
were unified and integrated in man and they . ..
t:ent with viewing the .relation between them as the
hetween body and the contl'QIUng spirit. . way .of !':OIVJn.r:r.:
t ht! problem. maY not be completely . . to .mtJidetn'
.. scienee. But . at least it lessens . the of tl .. ie . : problems;
As a. result the stu.dy of rna.n becomes not ordy- the noblest .
studies but s,dso one that is basic for phllQ.sophy. Nature .
the problemfor .herselfbyunitingaU the levels of . . ..
m man. For us, therefore, man alone proVides the. clue to

The rriain interest of the centred in th.at
JIn thi& dO<:trjne commentl!,tonldiffer, '!'he': words used by tire :
are bodY. an<l tltmMJ. Tho Adva.itins the word
lower .one: as a of liigber. Again, some
1dentlf)i' the . bhss!,ul .with Afm11n 1tsel,f. The indeed does ..
use tllo. word un<:onsc1ous . But I am lntl)rp.-etation;
wi;!Jt;:h seems to be quite rea.sollll;b!. Here we i1eed not enter into the con-
tro'o'era:y. '
In Indian Thought
which, .iS called the '.!'. The wotd tilnJai!: in its general
Uiage refers to, the 'I' .in the. third person. When we say, '1
am happy', it is notthe body that is .happy. it is not even
mind, or reason. We speak of 'my mind' and -say,, 'I obserye
1'1\y mind's activities\ The . ;I' is farther back th,an. is mind.
This is the significance ()fthe Taittiriya . . ..
. The Mattukya Upanittd raises the quE!stiCm tlle
v.a,rious states of the 'I', whkh ultim,atelyisidentined with the
Atma1k The T -in me through. the states .of waking,
dream, and deep sleep. In both the first two states, man ex-
periences that he iS seeing, h,earing, talkingi .etc. In
both stateS', therefore, his sen5es and orga,ns of action are
operating; One may aSk how this is. po5Sible. When l am
my sens'es are open and. my handS feet m,ove; but tn.my
dreams my senses are shut and my hands and feet are atrest.
But the .says that we should not identify om- 5eJ1$eS
and organs of action with the gross matefi:al parts so called;
They have subtle fohns which operate in dteam.
all, dream experience 3lro is an.eX'}>erience, $tirely, we call it
unreal; not because the dt:eam 'I' has n() contili.uity.-witb. the
Waking 'I\ but the dream objects have rio continuity
with the objects of the wa.k:ing state .. Tb.e 'I' rem.eril.bers the
experience of dream. The question whether the dream
objects ate due' to .. impr:6Ssions' left .on the mind by the
perienees ofwakfugeonsciousness or not is here nc>t the point,
The Indian. thiQkers. accepted that they due to such im-
pressions. But . why does man suffer and enjoy. in
Why does h,e thil}k, so long t1,le lasts, the
are real opjects? Why does he not drink . he 1s only reVlvmg
. past impressions? man. or something Withiri man,
. l$ able to bip&larlze itself in dream into the subject and its
. ol)jects. says that it is psychic force (tejas)
that creates the world of dreams, and this psychic force
includes in subtle forms the senses, .the 'of a,dion; and
the eorresponding objects: sout1ds, . tastes, . etc.
The body of . man in dream is the bodY All . this.
may look like going to the concepti()n& of primitive
man. But dreat:ns are a; testirriony of the inwardnesS
of man's ' being, ind'udes the subjective and objective
potes._ . . .. . . .
In Q.eep .sleep the bipolariza.tion 9f experience into
..
i '
' .:
The Concept of Man
subject and object is cancelled; the subject and (lbject
<me, and their unity is shrouded by ign.Qrance or
ness. We cannot appreciate psychology, if We
as nothing buthecominguncom;cious. In deep
mind and the subtle forms of senses and organs of
whjch are in dream; ate all presentbut illala.tent
gripped in the unity ofs;ubject and object. In dream a.ttd
conseiousness, the beJng' of m<J.n is diffused tb.rough . .
their objects, his pers;onality is spread out; but jn sleep .
diffuse<l being is brought tQ a. centre or Jocusr .the spread
personality is completely brought J:nto a unity, and
being attains the utmost intensity. The state,
called bliss or anada. So long the. objective world is
be separate, ma,n feels unhappy until he makes it hi's
But when it is taken into one's self, nothing is left out to'
attained, and so man feel$ his completeness and is
am not here justifying this thel;)t'Y, as against the PS'Vtl:lol<)J(i(
do(:trines of the West;. I merely presenUt as the
view, And I Jeel that there is some truth in it which
when we discuss t};l,e psychological and episte:fri
logical conditions. of happiness and of value even
usual point of view ofwe;tern philosophers, .who have."'"'""' .. "'
the point of waking consciousness and
states of man in dream and sleep, which are
states of his being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
One may here say that sleep is not a state o the '1' ;
the . T is completely wiped out in sleep, since . .....
could be conscious. Some Indian th,inkers say t )l.at we are
sdous; for man after lle wakes up, 'l slept well' .. If
wa,s swept out, how cau b e say, '{ .lePt well' ? How
know: that he slept well. It is the nal ure.of the T to
scions; therefore mall is conscious of the fact t hat he
well. But. is not consciousness always direct ed
object? And what is the object towards which cortsCI.O.UJm
is direct ed i.n sleep? T}tis question is not discussed by
but is taken 'UP by the late.rconunentators,
differed from one anot her. But all that the ' l' 1$
in sleep. Some, like Sankara, say that the Tis consci(>us
is conscious o f Nothing, which, like . Hegel's Nothing,
undiversifted positive Being of objectivity. Others, like
nuj a, say although. t he 'I' is selfconsci<>us, itis Mt.,
In Indian Thcmght
.229
of any objectivity.u On the of. i.t. th.e
of the seems to be that obJectiVtty lS
the being of the 'I', because m.irid and senses are
Since mind senses, and their objects. ate c9rrelates,
one correlate is withdrawn, the other Js also . withdrawn.
must remember, furthermore, that the of the 'I'
flOt understoodby as a bare po1nt
and creative. TheAtman is the creatot of .
Wheil the shroUding and the
tl removed, the T is<seen as the Atma_n shmmg m punty.
is at this stage that man knows, drrectly and re ..
ference to anything elSe, his original consClous ts a
which transcends th l:!Ubjectivity l\nd opJec:t1ytty. It
fa wrong to think that itis a subjective stage, SubJectiV1ty lasts
only so long as objectivity l(tSts .. But. a:e .
when mind, .. senses, and their. correspondmg. ObJect;s are;
Th,is is the limit. of man's at. whtch ile
toucheS again, or as Sankara becomes one w1ththe Sul'reme
Brahman, which. is the same fot all. . . . . . . . .
A western epistemplogical realist may :t . difficult
appreciate the idea of the withdrawal He .
aay that even . when .. man his .mmd
lenses their objects can rem.am quts1de. The.
will that they can remain outside for
minds and . senses. If . the . correlativi ty . referred . to. above .. IS
a.ccepted, . then. the withdrawal of the .objects. alSo has .to, b e
acc<;pted. Man's being is not merely. h1s conse1ousness hn.uted
to his body but to the objects also. pxe exl'enence
.f d
. s sh. ows , th.a.t the. s. a. t.ene ss . . .of. ob.]ects fr. o. m.. t .he
0 ream r - h. b' t d
subj ect d oes not exclude the .creat ion of JCC an
object, by the same pr!nciple . .. Mind is the .foundat10n. of both.
That the same o bject IS expenenced by different s ubJects 1\as
to be reconciled with this fact of expen ence and not be
simply t!J negat<J it, Dre!l,m and slew testifY, to,
privacy.of man.'s being, and . waking consciousness t o h1s hvmg
in a common world. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ' . .
In. dream . and sleep man his c<mn.ec.tiOn th,e
physical. world through the vital principle or It I S. thts
principle that holds t oget her t he different parts of t he body
"1'hese differences of view gave dse into
which we canpQt enter het:e
230
The Cfmcepi of Man
and it is respOnsible for the Sfllthetic vital processes. It.
kinds and the processes also are .of .five kinds.
pninas are: apana, satnlna . ,,Jiana., .vyana. Allare
pranas and the fir&t Qfthe five aiSois called It
to translate terms because .rio siinllar
principle is found in western philosophy. Of the
resides in the heart and is responsible for
resicle$ at the anus and performs excretory functiops;
has its .abode in the navel, keep$ up the heat of the . .
the and asshnilative processesi dana is. .
conttolsthe activities:of!>peech.andthe functions
parts 6f the body; and the whole
the functions of the different parisi.of .. ..
the Me constitute the life process oft:he it .
We SaW that the origiri.al
of the Aitareya. .up(jniad, Il'lan was created as the
the activities .of the cosmic gods, who the
deities of the .COSmic dements, and who burst out of the
mass created by the Alman. This was the mytholoitCa.J.
of the tl)eological and philosophical conception of the
CO!!Il\Os and the m.acrocosmos. Man with the three
m.icroeosmos and; at the :fourth stage consciou&ly '
his relation with the macrocosmos. The. microcosmos is
dtffl<in, and the macrocosrnos is the
the Bi-ahman is c<!.Ued the Supreme Atma;,. ..
sim.ply Alman .. Corresponding to the three . . the
cosmQS, there are three states in the The
of the latter are not diScussed .py the . . . u
b!Jt conunentatolis; particularly the

theory with the help of the other u The
may be given thus: .. ;-' .
States . 1v.fici'QCosmos Macro:cosmqs
Waking oonscio'usness ViSva Virat .
Taijasa Hi.ra.]J.yagarbha
(also called
Sleep Prajfta Uvara
. . Pure State Atman Bralu:nan
This ;eraHon. is according t() . San bra, !limilarity accc ,r.
.nearne!IS accor<J;ng to some others, and ldentityiri difference
to the.rest,
l e See 11iditm Phiklscphy, VoL. I ;. p. 169 foL
AUeJt & Unwtn Ltd.; t?-48).
231
every state the is thus tonnected with
llla.crocosmo.s. Virat is the physical cosmos . Hirat,wagarbha 1s
vital principle, that .binds all the parts :Of and
. are connected together through Jt, lsva;ra JS the
entity that, like mind, controls the universe.
the Brahman is the Spirit compre ..
the whole. That the physical man is partot the physical
un&.rstood. ln their dream state. a.ll men are
,.,.,..;_ .. , ... :... by the thread Of the bio-psychie principle,
Except for this tie, they are allowed eat:h to.
own dream wodd .. In the deep un<;onscl6U$ness of
. sleep; they are the<obje<::ts of whcds dern.allra,nd
intermission conscious, is not overwhehn,ed by sleep,
for whom sleep is an object consciously known. In the
state the miCrotosm and the macrocosm. are one,
thi; nne-ness is eXplamed in different ways by different
ct>rtunentators. . . . . . .
The idea seems to be implied ill . thought, that
. the states of the hc;>w the. individuds,
although having ow.n privat .lives, a:re boUild together
by a common world. The epistenwlogical implications are not
worked .out. by the or by the commentaries. But
the suggestion .is there that objective bearings of .men' s
private are in of
cosmos, which has some sunilantyto the ObJeCtive Mlnd of the
western idealists;
Salvation; wbiqh is att;Unment of complete bli$5; lies
state. liow can . this be
The<difference between, the third and the fou.rth states of the
microcosmos lies in the presence and absence reSpectively of
the unconscious. The third state is the ' cancellation of the .
J)ipolarity of Ute two poles,
.Ubject and object, into On.e's self. This w1thdtawal can 'be
achieved by withdrawing 'lfilnd and senses; and objects.
Tbewhole Yoga is a technique develoP\. for this Wtthdrawal
and for reaching the limit l>f inwardness, Th.i$ .. is given
cintly by the Ka;ha Upani$41.; i7 The subtle o.t
are higher than the mind (mctna!) is higher -than the
objects,, reason (buddh$) is higher-than mind, Cosmic
GJ:ea.t, .is highJ'than rea$0n, the ':
1>1, 3. to-'ll;
' .
. . . ;. ,.,; .. '.;, :, . . . . .. . i. . . -.. ' ... ...
232 The C:o-ncept of Man
iS higher Cosmic Reason, and
is higher than the Utuna.nifest. The 'higher' means
.inward or has to withdraw the lower
.higher; fQr the)owerca.me out of .the higher. In his
state . man: (;ontains :ill in .their full unfoldment. . Hfs
as pttshi11g the outward into the .
limit reached. .
For a proper appreciation of it
to be clear about what mind, ego, reason, 89'\11, ;$elf
mean. In mQd.ern western philosophy rriind is ail
five terms mean in thought, but f<>r the
they: have different meanings. Often . the Up;!liiJ?a,ds
mind (manas) and. reaSon (buddhi). The AiiaYeya
for insta.nce, gives mind, reason, memory, desire,
synonyms . . Sut the KiJih:a. U paniad
11
places
than.mlnd. The function ofmindcisas504;iation and d: .
synthesis and analysis. The function of reason is
(niscaytltmika). Again, that reason iS higher than mind
for the not :tnerelya higher function bu.t als.o
reality. Reason: is as different from mind.as mind is
But it is that man is i pirt of cOsmic
of the Maha.t; the that man is peculiafly one
Logos is to both. Greek and Indian thought.
Itt Indian; .philoS()phy, the ego is called ahanikiira
1

not particularly mentioned in the The soul
jft!f/ I'J:tis is not discussed in the t.Jpani!}a:ds but is<
by the cotiunentators. The jiva consists <If the vital
(#anii), of mind (manas), of. reason (bUtitihi), pf ....
elements and of the bliss body. This is so a:ccordi"g to
but according. to Ram:anuja, the bliss body is
atman. The jiva thus t}ie ethical personality wQ;iCh
and suffers the fruits of its actions and which alsb + ..
grates from :one birth to another. It is aho
subtle body In
means the self. But the use the word to
several things; the pb,.y5ica1 bi:>d:h .the vital pr-inciple,
reason, the bUs$ body, and the metaphysf<;a.l principle as
as the Brahman. ln popular Hterature, it means also
nature, strivjng, and
.usee $3nkara.'s Cu!!!-ltJdntary.on II, xo .

later.
/
233
tbis connection one shoUld understand what is usually
tbe causal body . (k4ra.,asa1'ira). As. Mat.v/:ukya
IMitsn'"' says, 'deep sleep is Jiot blank unconSCiousness. but
. . . . being <>f the j"tva, who withdraws into a,
. is <:Qnnected with the physical body by the 'Vltal
c . whicli preserves this connection in. drl'aill. In
force or tejas is active and divides itself mto
subject a,nd it$ :objects. Tltis subject assumes fonn.
one sees. as one's body in dream. Through hiti'Qspective.
. . the thinkers discovered that the
more comprehell$ive than the phJ1$ical body and that 1t l.l!
th.e same as the physical body, And this is the reason: why,
dream one tan hiinseU as dead and de3;d body
............ to the cremation grot1nd. Unless the subJect 1s
atem5i.lll'e than the physical body; it cannot tl}.e body as
. :. Sitnilarly, in the wiiking sta.te al$<>, the subject tr!inscends
physical body and the physiCal bOdy is orie of i:ts objects.
Of all the one's .own body is cliOseii by the ego for
identifying itself for the sake of activity and This
may $cern to ways of ?ut
cannot easily be ga.in&aid, If the ego ts completely tdentical
with the piiysl.t<i} b()dy, why does the ego. perccive its .own
. body as an :)ect? One's own back and face cann<.>t be seen by
oneself; be and even otherwise ()ne Ca;tl
feel their objectivity through one's mind. I can experien(:e. my
whole body, even my head, face, .. and baclc, aS my .
Thenl,>as the knowing subject, cannot be anyofthese obJects.
Yet, .in action and. enjoyment I identify myself with the bOdy;
1 say: ' I amw such words
to the body; This ana.lysrs of the Sltuation has to be recogruzed,.
and whatever necessaiy implicationsitha.s haye to
If Indian drew s6me wrong . c6nelusiQns. their errors
may, of course, he pointed out. But the a.nalysis itse.U,.I think,,
is not contrary to experiep.ce. ..
In t}le dream state the subject assumes tJie forms of one's
body as well as the f6rms ofone's objects; For this reason
'I' is called The with
man sees the objects is his own., In this state, to cre.ate the
object$ and to pertleive them is'one and the same, a.nd>aerke1ey's
pdnciple, is per:bipi, holds gomt. For t.he cJ:ra.m. object
tv, III, .
" .
' I
234. The Con:cept of Man
exists only so:, l<>ng as it is The moment it is not
out .of existence and. becomes merged .in the ego"s
fotce (te)as) as waves mer.ge in the sea. In the .... ... "-'.La:!'l
also; iri order to pereeive the object,. the same
mu:'t be the form of the i:rbJect, since otne:rw:tse.It-:c
be to the niind,The difference is
wak:i?g state the form taken by the psychic force is
temuncd merely by the impressions of the ego. . .
. In deep_ sleep the dynamic psychic force . . , .
tnto a potentiafi $tate, Which iS called the causal state
ca.usat body .. o{ the misunderstandings of this
are due to the fact .that the ego is taken to be. a
inactive. which is. regarded as being annulled
Although the ego iS .subrilerged and
latent, 1t 1s. not annulled. In addition, it is not uten!J.'Il!
pole <>f experience that is submerged but both. One
even farther: what i$ usually .c:;alled the subject is
pole of the ego, the other pole being the object. The
not only the .. 'I' bqt also the 'mine'; 11.nd the. .
mcludes not only the in dream and
states but als<> the physica.I bodies with Which the 'I'
itself ... For instance, tlie colour l i'n the .Waking
part of my: experience; .a colourb}jnd, perst.m d<>es not
From t}ris fact, tQ be sure; . onesided conClusion$ have
in the . of philosophy, . .
pen;ip1-. .But th1s 1s not a; sufficient re.a$on for: us to
the faqtual data themselves. The dynamic creative ria
tQ.e ego i$ anirnportant <loctrine of the .
. . In deep sleep the of the ego is .sttspended: and
dtfferent poles of activtty arid experience into whlth t:he
is spread out in. dream and waking states are
a unity; the ego itself becomes in
SClOUS . .the Wakiqg state dawns ;iglt.izi, the eg<,) .
out and becomes active. In sleep' the urges, forces, .
ek, in aceord with which tlie ego is -spread out in the
are keptJatent, and so the sta,te of the
1n 1s called the causal ofthe }iva.
u Ih:S not been ou:t by

"The
not nuide a 8CltmttJiic
Phlloaophy ha$
unduat&lld man,
Inlndian ThoU(tht Z35
. Brha#ra1Jyaka for .
. which iS. higher than the J1.1Ja. or personahty, but
. not exclude tM}iva. The jfva,, as .has Mz:eadybeen
out is the ethical pers()nality; and according. to the
' of the Upani!l'adic th()i.ight, titman
. . . . . . not by exclUsiQn but tncluslOn.
the later commentators, however, there
txc:lUlle the jiva; But if everything from, and tS the
n,n.owc<tntheAtmanmcclude.anythmg?Wehaves.eentlia.t,
the ego knOW$ by its .light . .
lisht is not some the vsychtc
means that the psyclnc force Itself takes vanous
$)nee it iS. psychic, it its There IS;
no difference this psychic cre1tt1ve !or,ce and
light in which its crea.tedobjects are se<m. 1.swhat
Upani!?ads mean. when they sa,y that the lS
. The psychic force iS the same as the Ob]ec;ts created,
the give the example of_. the clay and the pot
ofit and say that clayis the they
psythic force in mind. I11 sleep thlS ;
all . the fornis it and becomes submer.ged ltl the
inconscious. The to
lit at: this psychic force, . whtcllts hiS essenttal
from forms it creates, v;bich is the . psychic
fc,rce at i.ts uncreative stage. There, . m pne s own one
. ts the )ight 3.$. such of the with the
rraJlman, aJthOUIJh Ql;lenesS _ls . differently
different \Vhen umty wtth. t11.e
raiUiied, man kri.ows that he has. the whole: him-
lelf, that he bas l1o need. to desire and he .]S
t<:iously. blissful. But Brahman, to?, ls not pale static.
- 1 t ' ,t.-tng Even when one .
consciousness; 1t lS eterna . crea, .. 1ve_ ue , . . . .
realizes the Brahman, creation goes _on, and con-
tinues to exist -for those who have not the Here,
one may say, is mysticism expe11ence: o?'e
tra.nS<;ends the . world -of . and, I S no ) onger W.lt!rln lt.
Until this. is achieved, the causa,l body
<-f creahon and not cease _to act. . : Y
is result .Qf tM tendenctes s !!.
is th.e medium. of the Brabmans l'he.
ttiV, III. .
236 . C6ntept of Man .
that tfiis causal body gaes hom birth to bitth in ..
migration. teQdencies are brought together; tied
knot; and constitute tb:e individual's inner core
The iitdividuai is created and acts according to
the.=possibility ofa.J.ways rising a!:x>ve thernl for the
IS the ongitl of this creativity and is therefore a b6ve the
. whic? it is the origin. Man, therefm:; ca,n alter hiJU$elf
. hts env.1rorunent, . provided he unders:tafids himself welL
Regatdless of whatever the Advaitiris maintain, as
!he general trend of the thought is concer
tn. ()rder to be in c9nsenance .with the f_irst .. parts of
Veda, we must say that rising above the. world
triL!illg one:s callsai body, is possible pniy
action. Ethtcal. action is rteCe5sary; :it is not dis.pei1Sa'ble.
seers. in general went =through aJU_,.,..,"'
Px:eached by the first parts of the Veda: and then
irtqwcy int<> the Brahman/fh,ere are instances of .
wb;o rertounced. the wotld during early b()yhoQd; but
is explained. generally as being due to .
h"'-:Vlllg gone through dutiful activity in thekpast
Most ()f of the
Janaka, King Bhrgu, . for
to thatthe iltman is the highest reality
1ts hjghestgoodis one to preach
ethical actlon 18 another, ,
Here l may add, another point. The speak of
as the Truth and of the rest. as other than truth
to be identified with falsity. :But if Atman is'
thing and everything issues out of it,. how cart falsity C4)tiie
of Does Why
found m the Uparu!?a.ds? I 'thmk that the reason;die$
111? oft.he is' .. t<J find out wh.at ' the
ultimately. JS it is the atma.n not the l1n.llsu::aJ
. u 'l'he stt>ry. it given: Qf Vrf.sa. and his Sub . . When Suka,
Yll'll:th, "-pproa9hed a wWch some<damels . .
l.attllr did not Cafe t0 put on their clothes but ,aPJf)rOl
Aljtt111 later, Vyitsa., tbe 'Qld ma.ll,

,tor and them on. was asked
the.ydmso before: very old man and not a youth. :replied.
Sdka. _was sel(, Vy481!, in apite oi hia ol(i age,
o,t tt. Sub. Ill aa1d. to- have reahze4 Dhcmna j n his pa.st live-.
hOw rn.any. Su!':as aJ:tl at any time thit w.ortd? fbi,lQsOpby is for
man, not for Sulc:a.s. And hQw :many oJ thoSe who claim
be l1ke Suka. jl,re really so? . . . .
In Indian Z37
BU:t, in general .e:om:munication, we use the Word ''f;
11
te our pli,ysiea.l body . Thatthe '1' is as the
body is obviously . false. But the body Its1f, _a.
.... .,.. body, ig :false; It is not false is a
and that we identify ourselves wtth 1t. One fnend reo-
that whether. God is a fact or not, it is a fact that
histl?ry of philosophy the existence
llS a Similarly, whether the idenbtyof :the body
atft.an is a truth otnC:>t; it is a tf\lth that many of us
ourselves: With the body, and it is also a truth that the
r-egarded a,s material, do notthlnk that tb,e material
istrealed as unreal by only ?ne's complete
;_IQ!Ilat JOn to it is treated as false.
MaK and eooluticm: One naturally does not to find
doctrine of evolution, as exPoUnded by Darivin other
IClentiSts, in the which belonged to. a time long
before Christ. But the doctrin-es of the creation by God out of
not . ()ut of :Nothing; a:nd the dootrines of . the.
of the universe out of the Atman may be treated as
1.nd phiio5ophicalfoljn5 ()f the dOctrine evolution .. Of all
the Iridian schools, the Garv!ka alone believed that life and
mind .,appeued particles came . together and.
wtimed some $-tructunll patterns) although even t}ris school
did not inquire into the nati:ite .of the it . .
interested mainly in the problem< of what to do w1tb. th1S I?e
and held that, because life and mind disappear when matenal
plltticles separated as happens necessarily at. tnim
had to make the be5t of. life here on earth and enJoy whatever
is It is not surprisingi in
the 1,P.tensely spiritual mili.eu of India, this n6t
muchirl.fiue)lce'al}:d wa.Sverylittle qeveloped. The otherdootrme,
therefore, that everything came. out ofthe to be
nwr:e generally accepted, even though the
in partkUlar
1
could not reconcile it With its atomic theory .
dtrine of evolution .h.a!ol
matter, life) mind,. and spirit. The
It I il the fl.lrther de,8l.opmeilt 'of the ideas, IaJer: commentaries
gOt 1nto insoluble difficuities, as they carried ov:er these of fntlli,
. and falsity iii to t heir l'hjs two.valued When tJ!ey: ba!l
deal with $everal leve.ls Qf. roan'$ being \\'ith intimate did
not serve them; . . . .
. ..
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