Chapter 4.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Geological considerations for: Tunnels Highways Foundation Dams Reservoirs

Earthquake:- Definition, terminology, earthquake waves, intensity, recording of earthquake.

Prepared By:Er. TARUN SHARMA ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

TUNNELS

TUNNELS
A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for entrance and exit, commonly at each end.

TUNNELS

TRAFFIC TUNNELS

HYDROPOWER TUNNELS

PUBLIC UTILITY TUNNELS

TUNNELS
Traffic Tunnel:- It includes all tunnels which are excavated to divert the traffic load of whatsoever type from surface to subsurface routes with a view of facilitating the flow of traffic at a desired depth ,maximum convenience and at min. cost.

Ex:- Jawahar Tunnel connects Srinagar to Jammu ( 2.85km ).

TUNNELS
Hydropower Tunnel:- Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric

stations.
Ex:- Beas-Sutlej Link, Yamuna-II.

Nathpa Jhakri Hydro Power Project

TUNNELS
Public Utility Tunnels:- Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power. or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment. Ex:- Underground utility tunnel for heating pipes between Rigshospitalet and Amagervrket in Copenhagen,Denmark.

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Tunnel design , method of its excavation and stability are greatly influenced by following geological conditions : 1. Lithology 2. Geological structures 3. Groundwater conditions.

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Lithology
In this we collect the information regarding mineralogical composition, textures and structures of the rocks through which the tunnel is to pass.

It helps in deciding:
o The method of tunneling. o The strength and extent of lining. o The cost of the project.

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Lithology
Hard and Crystalline rocks are favourable for tunneling. Excavations in these rocks are often self supporting so these could be left unlined. Rocks in this group include

granite,basalts,gabbros,limestones,sandstones,marbles,quartzites.

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Lithology
Soft rocks Excavation cost, volume for volume, might be lower than those in hard rocks.

These rocks are not self supporting, so temporary and permanent support becomes
necessary. Rocks in this group include Shales ,friable and poorly compacted sandstones ,chalk ,slates and phyllites with high degree of cleavage.

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Lithology
Fissured rocks :- Rocks that are deformed as a result of folding, faulting and metamorphic changes of shearing type.

Tunneling in such rocks is always hazardous and very challenging job for an engineer.
Excavation in such rocks require large scale timbering for temporary support. Sometimes groundwater is also encountered, so adequate arrangements for drainage should also be provided.

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Geological Structures
Following main structural features of rocks have to be fully determined along the proposed tunnel route:

Dip and Strike

Folding Faulting

Shear zones
Joint systems

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Geological Structures
Dip and Strike:- Under this, three general cases may be considered. 1. Horizontal strata 2. Moderately inclined strata 3. Steeply inclined strata

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Geological Structures
1. Horizontal strata

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Geological Structures
2. Moderately inclined strata Layers that are dipping at angles upto 45 may be said as moderately inclined.

The tunnel axis may be running

(i) parallel to the dip direction. (ii) at right angles to the dip direction. (iii) inclined to both dip and strike directions.

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Geological Structures
2. Moderately inclined strata

(i)

(ii)

TUNNELS:- Geological considerations

Geological Structures
2. Steeply inclined strata Layers that are dipping at angles above 45 may be said as steeply inclined.

EARTHQUAKE

EARTHQUAKE
AN EARTHQUAKE is the motion or vibration, sometimes violent, of the earths surface that follows a r

elease of energyin the earths crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden
dislocation of segments of the crust by a volcanic eruption or even by manmade explosions.

Sources of Ground Movements

o Tectonic Earthquakes o Volcanoes o Explosions o Tsunami

EARTHQUAKE
Terminology:1. Focus- The place or point of origin of an earthquake below the surface of the earth is termed as its
focus or hypocenter. 2. Epicentre- The point or place on the surface vertically above the focus of a particular earthquake is

termed as its epicenter.

3. Seismic waves- Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on

seismographs.

EARTHQUAKE
Types of Seismic Waves
There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves. BODY WAVES
P-waves; also known as primary waves or pressure waves
S-waves; also referred to as secondary or shear waves

SURFACE WAVES
Love and Raleigh waves

The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air. Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake. Usually we only feel the bump and rattle of these waves.

S Waves The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock. This wave moves rock up and down, or side-to-side.

SURFACE WAVES
(These produce all the damage!)

Love Waves The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician. It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Rayleigh Waves The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

HOW IS EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY MEASURED ???

Earthquake intensity:- It describes the surface ground shaking and damage caused by an earthquake. There are currently two measuring schemes used to quantify or qualify the destructiveness or power of an earthquake. 1) The Mercalli Intensity scale (it is qualitatively based) 2) The Richter Magnitude scale (it is quantitatively based)

The Mercalli Intensity Scale

The following is an abbreviated description of the 12 levels of Modified Mercalli intensity. I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated. IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably. V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop. VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight. VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.

X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent.

Richter Magnitude
-1.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

Equivalent energy yield in TNT

6 ounces 30 pounds 320 pounds 1 ton 4.6 tons 29 tons 73 tons 1,000 tons 5,100 tons 32,000 tons 80,000 tons 1 million tons 5 million tons 32 million tons

Breaking a rock on a lab table Large Blast at a Construction Site Large Quarry or Mine Blast

Example

Small Nuclear Weapon Average Tornado (total energy)

7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 10.0 12.0

Little Skull Mtn., NV Quake, 1992 Double Spring Flat, NV Quake, 1994 Northridge, CA Quake, 1994 Hyogo-Ken Nanbu, Japan Quake, 1995; Largest Thermonuclear Weapon 160 million tons Landers, CA Quake, 1992 1 billion tons San Francisco, CA Quake, 1906 5 billion tons Anchorage, AK Quake, 1964 32 billion tons Chilean Quake, 1960 1 trillion tons (San-Andreas type fault circling Earth) 160 trillion tons (Fault Earth in half through center, OR Earth's daily receipt of solar energy)

HOW DO WE RECORD EARTHQUAKES ?

The instrument used to record and measure these vibrations is called a seismograph / seismometers.

How Seismometers Work.

To determine the motion of the earth during an earthquake, ground motion must be measured against something that remains relatively fixed (i.e., not affected by the shaking). In a seismometer, the fixed object consists of a mass suspended on springs within a case. During an earthquake, the mass remains still while the case around it moves with the ground shaking. Most modern seismometers work electromagnetically. A large permanent magnet is used for the mass and the outside case contains numerous windings of fine wire. Movements of the case relative to the magnet generate small electric signals in the wire coil.

How Seismometers Work.

Earthquake waves decrease in strength as they travel through the earth. Instruments sensitive to seismic waves that vibrate several times per second, called short period seismographs, are used to record local earthquakes, during which the waves reaching the seismograph are still very rapid and close together. Long period seismographs respond to lower frequency waves and are used to record distant events. Modern broadband seismographs perform both functions.

How Seismometers Work.

To completely characterize the earth's movement, the motion must be measured in three perpendicular directions. Consequently, seismographs often employ three sensors, recording in each of the north-south, eastwest and vertical (up and down) directions.

World's Largest Recorded Earthquake 9.5 Magnitude - May 22, 1960 near Valdivia, Chile

The Great Chilean

Earthquake

THANKYOU