English For Mechatronics Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................... 1 PART 1: DIGITAL LOGIC .................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 3
LOGIC GATES ................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2: APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES ................................................ 8

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ................................................................................................ 8 APPLICATIONS.............................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 3: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS .......................................... 10

RESISTANCE ................................................................................................................ 10 CAPACITOR ................................................................................................................. 11 DIODE ........................................................................................................................... 13 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE ........................................................................................... 15 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) ................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 4: MICROCONTROLLER..................................................................... 20
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 20 IMPORTANT FEATURES ............................................................................................ 21 POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT .......................................................................................... 22 HOW TO START WORKING? ..................................................................................... 23
PART 2: MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS ....................................... 26

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 26
MECHANISMS ............................................................................................................. 26 TYPES OF MOTION ..................................................................................................... 27 DEGREE OF FREEDOM............................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 2: CAMS .................................................................................................. 29

ECCENTRIC CAM ........................................................................................................ 29
English for Mechatronics Engineering
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DROP CAM ................................................................................................................... 31 FLAT CAM.................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 3: GEARS................................................................................................. 34
SPUR GEAR .................................................................................................................. 35 HELICAL GEAR ........................................................................................................... 36 DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR .......................................................................................... 37 BEVEL GEAR ............................................................................................................... 38 WORM GEAR ............................................................................................................... 39 RACK AND PINION ..................................................................................................... 41 GEAR TRAIN ................................................................................................................ 42
CHAPTER 4: BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES ............................................................. 44

PROS AND CONS ......................................................................................................... 44 FLAT BELTS................................................................................................................. 45 ROUND BELTS............................................................................................................. 46 VEE BELTS ................................................................................................................... 47 TIMING BELTS ............................................................................................................ 48 CHAIN DRIVE .............................................................................................................. 49 CHAINS VERSUS BELTS ............................................................................................ 50
CHAPTER 5: BEARINGS .......................................................................................... 51

DEEP-GROOVE ............................................................................................................ 52 FILLING - SLOT ........................................................................................................... 53 ANGULAR CONTACT ................................................................................................. 54 DOUBLE-ROW ............................................................................................................. 55 SELF-ALIGNING .......................................................................................................... 56 STRAIGHT-ROLLER BEARING .................................................................................. 58 TAPER ROLLER ........................................................................................................... 59 NEEDLE ROLLER ........................................................................................................ 61
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PART 1: DIGITAL LOGIC

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Many control systems are concerned with setting events in motion or stopping them when certain conditions are met. For example, with domestic washing machine, the heater is only switched on when there is water in the drum and it is to the prescribed level. Such control involves digital signals where there are only two possible signal levels. Digital circuitry is the basis of digital computers and microprocessor controlled systems. There are two input signals which are either 1 or 0 signals and an output signal which is 1 or 0 signal. The controller is here programmed to only give a 1 output if both the input signals are 1. Such an operation is said to be controlled by a logic gate .Logic gate is the basic building blocks for digital electronic circuits. The term combinational logic is used for the combining of two or more basic logic gates to form a required function.
LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are the basic components in digital electronics. They are used to create digital circuits and even complex integrated circuits. For example, complex integrated circuits may bring already a complete circuit ready to be used microprocessors and microcontrollers are the best example but inside them they were projected using several logic gates. In this tutorial we will teach you everything you need to know about logic gates, with several examples. As you may already know, digital electronics accept only two numbers, 0 and 1. Zero means a 0 V voltage, while 1 means 5 V or 3.3 V on newer integrated circuits. You can think 0 and 1 as a light bulb turned off or on or as a switch turned off or on. a. AND gate: Suppose we have a gate giving a high output only when both input A and input B are high; for all other conditions it gives a low output. This is an AND logic gate. We can visualize the AND gate as an electric circuit involving two switches in series. Only when switch A and B are closed, there is a current.
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(a) Represented by switches
(b) Symbols
The relationship between the inputs and the outputs of an AND gate can be expressed in the form of an equation, called Boolean equation. The Boolean equation for the AND gate is written as A.B=Y An example is a burglar alarm in which it gives an output, the alarm sounding, when the alarm is switched on and when a door is opened to active a sensor. The relationships between inputs to a logic gate and the outputs can be tabulated in a form known as truth table. This specifies the relationships between the inputs and outputs. We can write the truth table as A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Output
b. OR gate: An OR gate with inputs A and B gives an output of a 1 when A or B is 1. We can visualize such a gate as an electric circuit involving two switches in parallel. When switch A or B is closed, then there is a current. OR gates can also have more than inputs. We can write the Boolean equation for an OR gate as: A+B=Y
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(a) Represented by switches
(b) Symbols
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Output
c. NOT gate: a NOT gate has just one input and one output, giving a 1 output when the input is 0 and a 0 when input is 1. The NOT gate gives an output which is the inversion of the input and is called an inverter. The 1 representing NOT actually symbolizes logic identity, i.e. no operation, and the inversion is depicted by the circle on the output. Thus, if we have a digital input which varies with time, the output variation with time is the inverse. The Boolean equation describing the NOT gate is
AY
A bar over a symbol is used to indicate that the inverse, or complement, is being taken; thus the bar over the A indicates that the output Y is the inverse value of A.
Input 1 0
Output
d. NAND gate: The NAND gate can be considered as a combination of an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. Thus when input A is 1 and input B is 1, there is an output of 0, all other inputs giving an output of 1.
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The NAND gate is just the AND gate truth table with the outputs inverted. An alternative way of considering the gate is as an AND gate with a NOT gate applied to invert both the inputs before they reach the AND gate. The figure below shows the symbols used for the NAND gate, being the AND symbol followed by the circle to indicate inversion.
The Boolean equation describing the NAND gate is:
AB Y
The following is the truth table: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Output
e. NOR gate: The NOR gate can be considered as a combination of an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. Thus when input A or input B is 1 there is an output of 0. It is just the OR gate with the outputs inverted. An alternative way of considering the gate is as an OR gate with a NOT gate applied to invert both the inputs before they reach the OR gate. The figure below shows the symbols used for the NOR gate; it is the OR symbol followed by the circle to indicate inversion.
The Boolean equation for NOR gate is:
A B Y
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The following is the truth table for the NOR gate. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Output
f. XOR gate: XOR stands for exclusive OR. XOR gate compares two values and if they are different its output will be 1. XOR operation is represented by the symbol . So Y = A B is the Boolean equation for the XOR gate.
The following is the truth table for the XOR gate. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Output
g. XNOR gate: XNOR stands for exclusive NOR and is an XOR gate with its output inverted. So, its output is at 1 when the inputs have the same value and 0 when they are different. XNOR operation is represented by the symbol (). The Boolean equation for XNOR gate is: A () B = Y
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CHAPTER 2: APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
Logic gates are available as integrated circuits. The different manufacturers have standardized their numbering schemes so that the basic part numbers are the same regardless of the manufacturer. For example, Fig. 1(a) shows the gate systems available in integrated circuit 7408; it has four two-input AND gates and is supplied in a 14-pin package. Power supply connections are made to pins 7 and 14, these supplying the operating voltage for all four AND gates. In order to indicate at which end of the package pin 1 starts, a notch is cut between pins 1 and 14. Integrated circuit 7411 has three AND gates which each having three inputs; integrated circuit 7421 has two AND gates with each having four inputs. Figure 1(b) shows the gate systems available in integrated circuit 7402. This has four two-input NOR gates in a 14-pin package, power connections being to pins 7 and 14. Integrated circuit 7427 has three gates with each having three inputs.
Figure 1: Integrated circuit (a) 7408, (b) 7402
APPLICATIONS
1. Digital comparator A digital comparator is used to compare two digital words to determine if they are exactly equal. The two words are compared bit by bit and a 1 output given if the words are equal. To compare the equality of two bits, an XOR gate can be used; if the bits are both 0 or both 1 the output is 0, and if they are not equal the output is a 1. To obtain a 1 output when the bits are the same we need to add a NOT gate, this combination of XOR and NOT being termed an XNOR gate. To compare each of the pairs of bits in two words we
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need an XNOR gate for each pair. If the pairs are made up of the same bits then the output from each XNOR gate is a 1. We can then use an AND gate to give a 1 output when all the XNOR outputs are ones. Figure 2 shows the system.
A0 B0
A1 B1 A=B A2 B2
A3 B3
Figure 2: Comparator 2. Coder The Fig. 3 shows a simple system by which a controller can send a coded digital signal to a set of traffic lights so that the code determines which light, RED, AMBER OR GREEN, will be turned on. To illuminate the RED light we might use the transmitted signal A = B = 0, for the AMBER light A = 0, B = 1 and for the GREEN light A = 1, B = 0. We can switch on the lights using these codes by using three AND gates and two NOT gates.
A RED
B AMBER
GREEN
Figure 3: The traffic lights
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CHAPTER 3: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

RESISTANCE
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the passage of a steady electric current. An object of uniform cross section will have a resistance proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, and proportional to the resistivity of the material. Discovered by Georg Ohm in the late 1820s, electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm, symbol . Resistance's reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance measured in Siemens, symbol S. The resistance of a resistive object determines the amount of current through the object for a given potential difference across the object, in accordance with Ohms laws:
I V R
where R is the resistance of the object, measured in ohms, equivalent to Js/C2 V is the potential difference across the object, measured in volts I is the current through the object, measured in amperes We all know that voltmeter and ammeter are used for measuring the voltage and the current respectively. For the resistance, the meters that use to measure it is the ohmmeter. But what if we don't have an ohmmeter to use? Color coding system for resistors consists of three colors to indicate the resistance value in ohms of a certain resistor, sometimes the fourth color indicate the tolerance value of the resistor. By reading the color coded in correct order and substituting the correct value of each corresponding color coded as shown in the table below, you can immediately tell all you need to know about the resistor. Each color band represents a number and the order of the color band will represent a number value. The first 2 color bands indicate a number. The 3rd color band indicates the multiplier or in other words the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates the tolerance of the resistor. In most cases, there are 4 color bands. However, certain precision resistors have 5 bands or have the values written on them, refining the tolerance value even more.
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Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White
1st Band 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2nd Band 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3rd Band 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4th band (multiplier) 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
5th Band (Tolerance)
CAPACITOR
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
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The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
C Q V
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DIODE
A diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with nonlinear resistance and conductance (i.e., a nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic), distinguishing it from components such as two-terminal linear resistors which obey Ohm's law. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now rarely used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.
A Zener diode is a special kind of diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage." The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown voltage. For
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example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a centertapped secondary winding. The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit is also known as the Graetz circuit after its inventor, physicist Leo Graetz.
HW: Describing the basic operation of Diode Bridge?
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LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting, automotive lighting (in particular brake lamps, turn signals, and indicators) as well as in traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
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A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot-matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, and other electronic devices for displaying numerical information.
A seven segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of seven elements. Individually on or off, they can be combined to produce simplified representations of the Arabic numerals. Often the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted) arrangement, which aids readability. In most applications, the seven segments are of nearly uniform shape and size (usually elongated hexagons, though trapezoids and rectangles can also be used), though in the case of adding machines, the vertical segments are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to further enhance readability. In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or all of the anodes (positive terminals) of the segment LEDs are connected and brought out to a common pin; this is referred to as a "common cathode" or "common anode" device. Hence a 7-segment plus decimal point package will only require nine pins (though commercial products typically contain more pins, and/or spaces where pins would go, in order to match industry standard pinouts). Integrated displays also exist, with single or multiple digits. Some of these integrated displays incorporate their own internal decoder, though most do not each individual LED is brought out to a connecting pin as described. Multiple-digit LED displays as used in pocket calculators and similar devices used multiplexed displays to reduce the number of IC pins required to control the display. For example, all the anodes of the A segments of each digit position would be connected together and to a driver pin, while the cathodes of all segments for each digit would be connected. To operate any particular segment of
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any digit, the controlling integrated circuit would turn on the cathode driver for the selected digit, and the anode drivers for the desired segments; then after a short blanking interval the next digit would be selected and new segments lit, in a sequential fashion. Often in pocket calculators the digit drive lines would be used to scan the keyboard as well, providing further savings; however, pressing multiple keys at once would produce odd results on the multiplexed display.
An LED matrix or LED display is a large, low-resolution form of dot matrix display, useful both for industrial and commercial information displays as well as for hobbyist humanmachine interfaces. It consists of a 2-D matrix of LEDs with their cathodes joined in rows and their anodes joined in columns (or vice versa). By controlling the flow of electricity through each row and column pair it is possible to control each LED individually. By scanning across rows, quickly flashing the LEDs on and off, it is possible to create characters or pictures to display information to the user. By varying the pulse rate per LED, the display can approximate levels of brightness. Multi-colored LEDs or RGBcolored LEDs permit use as a full-color image display. The refresh rate is typically fast enough to prevent the human eye from detecting the flicker. A dot matrix display is a display device used to display information on machines, clocks, railway departure indicators and many other devices requiring a simple display device of limited resolution. The display consists of a matrix of lights or mechanical indicators arranged in a rectangular configuration (other shapes are also possible, although not common) such that by switching on or off selected lights, text or graphics can be displayed. A dot matrix controller converts instructions from a processor into signals which turns on or off lights in the matrix so that the required display is produced.
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.
NPN TYPE
NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter. Most of the NPN current is carried by electrons, moving from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-type base region. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation. A mnemonic device for the remembering the symbol for an NPN transistor is not pointing in, based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the name. That is, the NPN transistor is the BJT transistor that is "not pointing in".
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PNP TYPE
The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and point in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode. A mnemonic device for the remembering the symbol for a PNP transistor is pointing in (proudly), based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the name. That is, the PNP transistor is the BJT transistor that is "pointing in".
P-N-P Transistor
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CHAPTER 4: MICROCONTROLLER
INTRODUCTION
When we have to learn about a new computer we have to familiarize about the machine capability we are using, and we can do it by studying the internal hardware design (devices architecture), and also to know about the size, number and the size of the registers. A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor (the CPU), non-volatile memory for the program (ROM or flash), volatile memory for input and output (RAM), a clock and an I/O control unit. Also called a "computer on a chip," billions of microcontroller units (MCUs) are embedded each year in a myriad of products from toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70 or more microcontrollers. The Intel MCS-51 (commonly referred to as 8051) is a Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (C) series which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. Intel's original versions were popular in the 1980s and early 1990s. While Intel no longer manufactures the MCS-51, binary compatible derivatives remain popular today. In addition to these physical devices, several companies also offer MCS-51 derivatives as IP cores for use in FPGAs or ASICs designs. Intel's original MCS-51 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions, identified by a letter C in their name (e.g., 80C51) used CMOS technology and consumed less power than their NMOS predecessors. This made them more suitable for battery-powered devices.
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IMPORTANT FEATURES
The 8051 architecture provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in a single package

8-bit ALU, Accumulator and 8-bit Registers; hence it is an 8-bit microcontroller 8-bit data bus It can access 8 bits of data in one operation 16-bit address bus It can access 216 memory locations 64 KB (65536 locations) each of RAM and ROM
On-chip RAM 128 bytes (data memory) On-chip ROM 4 kByte (program memory) Four byte bi-directional input/output port UART (serial port) Two 16-bit Counter/timers Two-level interrupt priority Power saving mode (on some derivatives)
For any electronics project the power supply plays a very important role in its proper functioning. In this project we are using external A.C supply (220 v) as input, this high voltage is converted into 12 Volts A.C by step down transformer, then we use voltage regulators and filters with bridge rectifier to convert the A.C into D.C voltage. For voltage regulation we are using LM 7805 and 7812 to produce ripple free 5 and 12 volts D.C constant supply. MCS-51 based microcontrollers typically include one or two UARTs, two or three timers, 128 or 256 bytes of internal data RAM (16 bytes of which are bit-addressable), up to 128 bytes of I/O, 512 bytes to 64 kB of internal program memory, and sometimes a quantity of extended data RAM (ERAM) located in the external data space. The original 8051 core ran at 12 clock cycles per machine cycle, with most instructions executing in one or two machine cycles. With a 12 MHz clock frequency, the 8051 could thus execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second or 500,000 two-cycle instructions per second. Enhanced 8051 cores are now commonly used which run at six, four, two, or even one clock per machine cycle, and have clock frequencies of up to 100 MHz, and are thus capable of an even greater number of instructions per second Features of the modern 8051 include built-in reset timers with brown-out detection, onchip oscillators, self-programmable Flash ROM program memory, built-in external RAM,
extra internal program storage, SPI, and USB host interfaces, CAN or LIN bus, PWM generators, analog comparators, A/D and D/A converters, RTCs, extra counters and timers, more interrupt sources, and extra power saving modes.
POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

There are two things worth attention concerning the microcontroller power supply circuit: Brown out is a potentially dangerous state which occurs at the moment the microcontroller is being turned off or when power supply voltage drops to the lowest level due to electric noise. As the microcontroller consists of several circuits which have different operating voltage levels, this can because its out of control performance. In order to prevent it, the microcontroller usually has a circuit for brown out reset built-in. This circuit immediately resets the whole electronics when the voltage level drops below the lower limit. Reset pin is usually referred to as Master Clear Reset (MCLR) and serves for external reset of the microcontroller by applying logic zero (0) or one (1) depending on the type of the microcontroller. In case the brown out is not built in the microcontroller, a simple external circuit for brown out reset can be connected to this pin.
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HOW TO START WORKING?

A microcontroller is a good-natured genie in the bottle and no extra knowledge is required to use it. In order to create a device controlled by the microcontroller, it is necessary to provide the simplest PC, program for compiling and simple device to transfer the code from PC to the chip itself. Even though the whole process is quite logical, there are often some queries, not because it is complicated, but for numerous variations. Lets take a look. Writing program in assembly language In order to write a program for the microcontroller, a specialized program in the Windows environment may be used. It may, but it does not have to... When using such a software, there are numerous tools which facilitate the operation (simulator tool comes first), which is an obvious advantage. But there is also another ways to write a program. Basically, text is the only thing that matters. Any program for text processing can be used for this purpose. The point is to write all instructions in such an order they should be executed by the microcontroller, observe the rules of assembly language and write instructions exactly as they are defined. In other words, you just have to follow the program idea. Thats all! To enable the compiler to operate successfully, it is necessary that a document containing this program has the extension, .asm in its name, for example: Program asm. When a specialized program (mplab) is used, this extension will be automatically added. If any other program for text processing (Notepad) is used then the document should be saved and renamed. For example: Program.txt -> Program.asm. This procedure is not necessarily performed. The document may be saved in original format while its text may be copied to the programmer for further use. Compiling a program The microcontroller cannot understand the assembly language. That is why it is necessary to compile the program into machine language. It is more than simple when a specialized program (mplab) is used because a compiler is a part of the software. Just one click on the appropriate icon solves the problem and a new document with .hex extension appears. It is actually the same program, only compiled into machine language which the microcontroller perfectly understands. Such documentation is commonly named hex
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code and seemingly represents a meaningless sequence of numbers in hexadecimal number system. In the event that other software for program writing in assembly language is used, special software for compiling the program must be installed and used as follows - set up the compiler, open the document with .asm extension and compile. The result is the samea new document with extension .hex. The only problem now is that it is stored in your PC. Programming a microcontroller In order to transfer a hex code to the microcontroller, it is necessary to provide a cable for serial communication and a special device, called programmer, with software. There are several ways to do it. A large number of programs and electronic circuits having this purpose can be found on the Internet. Do as follows: open hex code document, set a few parameters and click the icon for compiling. After a while, a sequence of zeros and ones will be programmed into the microcontroller through the serial connection cable and programmer hardware. What's left is to place the programmed chip into the target device. In the event that it is necessary to make some changes in the program, the previous procedure may be repeated an unlimited number of times.
Development systems A device which in the testing program phase can simulate any environment is called a development system. Apart from the programmer, the power supply unit and the microcontrollers socket, the development system contains elements for input pin activation and output pin monitoring. The simplest version has every pin connected to one push button and one LED as well. A high quality version has LED displays, LCD displays, temperature sensors and all other elements which can be supplied with the target
device. These peripherals can be connected to the MCU via miniature jumpers. In this way, the whole program may be tested in practice during its development stage, because the microcontroller doesn't know or care whether its input is activated by a push button or a sensor built in a real device.
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PART 2: MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
MECHANISMS
Mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion converters in that they transform motion from one form to some other required form. They might, for example, transform linear motion into rotational motion, or motion in one direction into a motion in a direction at right angles, or perhaps a linear reciprocating motion into rotary motion, as in the internal combustion engine where the reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted into rotation of the crank and hence the drive shaft.
Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack-and-pinion, chains drives, belt drives, etc. For example, the rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to linear motion. Parallel shaft gears might be used to reduce a shaft speed. Bevel gears might be used for the transmission of rotary motion through 900. A toothed belt or chain drive might be used to transform rotary motion about one axis to motion about another. Cams and linkages can be used to obtain motions which are prescribed to vary in a particular manner. Many of actions which previously were obtained by the use of mechanisms are, however, often nowadays being obtained, as a result of a mechatronics approach, by the use of microprocessor systems. For example, cams on a rotating shaft were previously used for domestic washing machines in order to give a timed sequence of actions such as
opening a valve to let water into the drum, switching the water off, switching a heater on, etc. Modern washing machines use a microprocessor-based system with the microprocessor programmed to switch on outputs in the required sequence. While electronics might now be used often for many functions that previously were fulfilled by mechanisms, mechanisms might still be used to provide such functions as: 1. Force amplification, e.g. that given by levers. 2. Change of speed, e.g. that given by gears. 3. Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another, e.g. a timing belt. 4. Particular types of motion, e.g. that given by a quick-return mechanisms.
TYPES OF MOTION
The motion of any rigid body can be considered to be a combination of translational and rotational motions. By considering the three dimensions of space, a translation motion can be considered to be a movement which can be resolved into components along one or more of the three axes. A rotational motion can be considered as a rotation which has components rotating about one or more of the axes. A complex motion may be a combination of translational and rotational motions. For example, think of the motion which is required for you to pick up a pencil from a table. This might involve your hand moving at a particular angle towards the table, rotation of the hand, and then all the movement associated with opening your fingers and moving them to complex motions.
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
An important aspect in the design of mechanical elements is the orientation and arrangement of the elements and parts. A body that is free in space can move in three, independent, mutually perpendicular directions and rotate in three ways about those directions. It is said to have six degrees of freedom (DOF). The number of degrees of freedom is the number of components of motion that are required in order to generate the motion.
The problem is design is often to reduce the number of degrees of freedom and this then requires an appropriate number and orientation of constraints. Without any constraints a body would have six degrees of freedom. A constraint is needed for each degree of freedom that is to be prevented from occurring. Provided we have no redundant constraints then the number of degrees of freedom would be 6 minus the number of constraints. However, redundant constraints often occur and so for constraints on a single rigid body we have the basic rule. 6 number of constraints = number of degrees of freedom number of redundancies Thus if a body is required to be fixed, i.e. have zero degrees of freedom, then if no redundant constraints are introduced the number of constraints required is 6. A concept that is used in design is that of the principle of least constraint. This states that in fixing a body or guiding it to a particular type of motion, the minimum number of constraints should be used, i.e. there should be no redundancies. This is often referred to as kinematic design.
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CHAPTER 2: CAMS
A cam is a body which rotates or oscillates and in doing so impacts a reciprocating or oscillatory motion to a second body, called the follower, with which it is in contact.
As the cam rotates so the follower is made to rise, dwell and fall, the lengths of times spent at each of these positions depending on the shape of the cam. The rise section of the cam is the part that drives the follower upwards, its profile determining how quickly the cam follower will be lifted. The fall section of the cam is the part that lowers the follower, its profile determining how quickly the cam follower will fall. The dwell section of the cam is the part that allows the followers to remain at the same level for a significant period of time. The dwell section of the cam is where it is circular with a radius that does not change. The cam shape required to produce a particular motion of the follower will depend on the shape of the cam and the type of follower used. The radial distance from the axis of rotation of the cam to the point of contact of the cam with the follower gives the displacement of the follower with reference to the axis of rotation of the cam.
ECCENTRIC CAM
The eccentric cam is a circular cam with an offset centre of rotation. It produces an oscillation of the follower which is simple harmonic motion and is often used with pumps. The diagrams (1 to 7) which are seen below show the cam rotating in an anticlockwise
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direction. As it rotates it pushes the flat follower upwards and then allows it to drop downwards. The movement is smooth and at a constant speed.
A mechanical toy based on a series of eccentric cams is seen below. As the handle is turned, the shaft and the cams fixed to it rotate. Placed above the cams are a number of segments representing a snake. As the cams rotate some of the flat followers are pushed upwards whilst others drop down. This gives the impression that the snake is moving.
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DROP CAM
Eccentric cams generally allow for a slow rise and fall of the follower. However, a snail drop cam is used where the drop or fall of the follower must be sudden. The example snail/drop cam shown opposite rotates in an anticlockwise direction. Rotating in a clockwise direction would probably lead to the entire mechanism jamming. This highlights one possible disadvantage of using this type of cam profile. Also, to ensure the rotation is smooth, the vertical centre line of the snail/drop cam is positioned slightly to the left of the slide (see diagram).
The diagrams below show the rotation of the snail/drop cam. When rotating for one complete revolution the follower stays level for approximately the first 120 degrees (diagrams 1 to 4). The follower then rises slowly (diagrams 5 to 6) and then suddenly drops when it reaches and passes the peak (diagram 7).
The mechanical toy seen below has a snail/drop cam as its main part. The follower is connected to the characters arm by a wire link. As the cam rotates, the follower rises and the wire link lifts the characters arm. This gives the appearance of the character lifting a
fork full of food towards his mouth. As the cam continues to rotate the follower suddenly falls and also the characters arm and fork.
FLAT CAM
The diagram below shows a basic example of a flat plate cam / linear cam. As the flat plate cam profile moves to the left the follower moves up and down, matching the shape of the profile. The flat plate cam then reverses in the opposite direction and the follower drops and rises again. A more sophisticated example of a flat plate / linear cam is shown below. The follower is unusual because it has a roller / wheel to help the smooth movement of the flat profile cam and follower. It also has a return spring that pushes the follower against the profile, ensuring that it always runs against it and follows the shape precisely.
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The machine seen below is a mechanical paper punch. As the lever is pushed down a gear system (called a rack and pinion) moves the flat plate profile to the left. In turn this pushes down the followers which punch two holes in a piece of paper / card. The edge of the flat plate cam can be shaped to give different vertical movements of the cam follower. Flat plate / linear cams are used frequently in machines that carry out the same repetitive movements.
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CHAPTER 3: GEARS
Gear chains are mechanisms which are very widely used to transfer and transform rotational motion. They are used when a change in speed or torque of a rotating device is needed. For example, the car gearbox enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with engine power available.
When two gears are in mesh, the larger gear wheel is often called the spur or crown wheel and the smaller one is the pinion. Consider two meshed gear wheels A and B.
If there are 20 teeth on wheel A and 40 teeth on wheel B, then wheel A must rotate through two revolutions in the same time as wheel B rotates through one. Thus the angular velocity A of the wheel A must be twice that B of wheel B, i.e.
A number of teeth on B 40 2 B number of teeth on A 20
Since the number of teeth on a wheel is proportional to its diameter, we can write
A number of teeth on B d B B number of teeth on A d A
Thus for the data we have been considering, wheel B must have twice the diameter of wheel A. The term gear ratio is used for the ratio of the angular speeds of a pair of intermeshed gear wheels. Thus the gear ratio for this example is 2.
SPUR GEAR
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with the teeth projecting radically, and although they are not straight-sided in form, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.
Spur gears are used in many devices such as the electric screwdriver, dancing monster, oscillating sprinkler, windup alarm clock, washing machine and clothes dryer. But you won't find many in your car.
This is because the spur gear can be really loud. Each time a gear tooth engages a tooth on the other gear, the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise. It also increases the stress on the gear teeth. To reduce the noise and stress in the gears, most of the gears in your car are helical.
HELICAL GEAR
Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in a parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are nonparallel, and in this configuration are sometimes known as "skew gears". The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth causing them to run more smoothly and quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually across the tooth face to a maximum then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In spur gears teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width causing stress and noise. Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the application involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important. The speed is considered to be high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s. A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs to be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often addressed with additives in the lubricant.
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DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR

Double helical gears, or herringbone gear, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented by "single" helical gears by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V shape. Each gear in a double helical gear can be thought of as two standard mirror image helical gears stacked. This cancels out the thrust since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction. Double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more complicated shape. For each possible direction of rotation, there are two possible arrangements of two oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. In one possible orientation, the helical gear faces are oriented so that the axial force generated by each is in the axial direction away from the center of the gear; this arrangement is unstable. In the second possible orientation, which is stable, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is toward the mid-line of the gear. In both arrangements, when the gears are aligned correctly, the total (or net) axial force on each gear is zero. If the gears become misaligned in the axial direction, the unstable arrangement generates a net force for disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement generates a net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is reversed, a stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice versa. Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need for different bearings.
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BEVEL GEAR
A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears. The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut in a variety of other shapes. Spiral bevel gear teeth are curved along the tooth's length and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur gear teeth. Zerol bevel gears have teeth which are curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.
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WORM GEAR
Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or a helical gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel. Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, large gear ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1. A disadvantage is the potential for considerable sliding action, leading to low efficiency. Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes which give it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called multiple threads or multiple starts. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given.
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In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Worm-andgear sets that do lock are called self locking, which can be used to advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is the machine head found on some types of stringed instruments. If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact will be achieved. If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop each other. This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a cone-drive. Worm gears can be right or left-handed following the long established practice for screw threads.
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RACK AND PINION

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear type is employed in a rack railway.
The rack and pinion arrangement is commonly found in the steering mechanism of cars or other wheeled, steered vehicles. This arrangement provides a lesser mechanical advantage than other mechanisms such as recalculating ball, but much less backlash and greater feedback, or steering "feel". A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter. Many machines, such as milling machines and grinders, have movable tables. How these work is that a pinion is attached to a crank handle, and the rack is attached to the underside of the machine table. When the operator turns the handle, the pinion moves the rack in a linear motion, thus moving the table in a linear (back and forth) motion. This is particularly useful in grinders and milling machines, where the cutting head is stationary, and the workpiece that is attached to the table is moved back and forth.
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GEAR TRAIN
The term gear train is used to describe a series of intermeshed gear wheels. The term simple gear train is used for a system where each shaft carries only one gear wheel.
For the such a gear train, the overall gear ratio is the ratio of angular velocities at the input and output shafts and is thus A / C , i.e.
G
A C
Consider a simple gear train consisting of wheels A, B and C, as in the upper figure, with A having 9 teeth and C having 90 teeth. Then, as the angular velocity of a wheel is inversely proportional to the number of teeth on the wheel, the gear ration is 90/9 = 10. The effect of wheel B is purely to change the direction of rotation of the output wheel compared with what it would have been with just the two wheels A and C intermeshed. The intermediate wheel, B, is termed the idler wheel. We can rewrite this equation for the overall gear ratio G as
G
A A B C B C
A simple gear of spur, helical or bevel gears is usually limited to an overall gear ratio of about 10. This is because of the need to keep the gear train down to a manageable size if the number of teeth on the pinion is to be kept above a minimum number which is usually about 10 to 20. Higher gear ratio can, however, be obtained with compound gear
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trains. This is because the gear ratio is the product of the individual gear ratios of parallel gear sets. The term compound gear train is used to describe a gear train when two wheels are mounted on a common shaft. When two gear wheels are mounted on the same shaft they have the same angular velocity. Thus, for both of the compound gear train in the below figure, B C . The overall gear ratio G is thus
G
A A B C A C D B C D B D
Consider a compound gear train with A, the first driver, having 40 teeth, B 20 teeth, C 30 teeth and D, the final driven wheel, 10 teeth. Since the angular velocity of a wheel is inversely proportional to the number of teeth on the wheel, the overall gear ratio is
G 20 10 1 40 30 6
Thus, if the input to wheel A is an angular velocity of 40 rpm, then the output angular velocity of wheel is 40:(1/6) = 160 rpm. For the arrangement shown in below figure, for the input and output shafts to be in line we must also have for the radius of the gears rA + rB = rC + rD
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CHAPTER 4: BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys in the same direction, or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the shafts is opposite. As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to continuously carry a load between two points.
PROS AND CONS

Belt drive, moreover, is simple, inexpensive, and does not require axially aligned shafts. It helps protect the machinery from overload and jam, and damps and isolates noise and vibration. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency (90-98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are inexpensive if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be obtained by step or tapered pulleys.
The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley diameters, due to slip and stretch. However, this problem has been largely solved by the use of toothed belts. Temperatures range from 31 F (35 C) to 185 F (85 C). Adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch. As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt drives have the advantage that the length of the belt can easily be adjusted to suit a wide range of shaft-to-shaft distances and the system is automatically protected against overload because slipping occurs if the loading exceeds the maximum tension that can be sustained by the friction forces. If the distances between shafts are large, a belt drive is more suitable than gears, but over small distances gears are to be preferred. Different-size pulleys can be used to give a gearing effect. However, the gear ratio is limited to about 3 because of the need to maintain an adequate arc of contact between the belt and the pulleys.
FLAT BELTS
Flat belts were used early in line shafting to transmit power in factories. They were also used in countless farming, mining, and logging applications, such as bucksaws, sawmills, threshers, silo blowers, conveyors for filling corn cribs or haylofts, balers, water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), and electrical generators. The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission that was well suited for its day. It delivered high power for high speeds (500 hp for 10,000 ft/min), in cases of wide belts and large pulleys. These drives are bulky, requiring high tension leading to high loads, so V-belts have mainly replaced the flat-belts except when high speed is needed over power. The Industrial Revolution soon demanded more from the system, and flat belt pulleys needed to be carefully aligned to prevent the belt from slipping off. Because flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with a slightly convex or "crowned" surface (rather than flat) to keep the belts centered. Flat belts also tend to slip on the pulley face when heavy loads are applied and many proprietary dressings were available that could be applied to the belts to increase friction, and so power transmission. Grip was better if the belt was assembled with the hair (i.e. outer) side of the leather against the pulley although belts were also often given a half-twist before joining the ends (forming a Mbius strip), so that wear was evenly distributed on both sides of the belt
(DB). Belts were joined by lacing the ends together with leather thonging, or later by steel comb fasteners. A good modern use for a flat belt is with smaller pulleys and large central distances. They can connect inside and outside pulleys, and can come in both endless and jointed construction.
ROUND BELTS
Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60 degree V-groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-ring type belts are used. The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus increasing friction. Nevertheless, round belts are for use in relatively low torque situations only and may be purchased in various lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, a metallic connector (in the case of hollow plastic), glueing or welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to a great effect.
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VEE BELTS
Vee belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. The V-belt was developed in 1917 by John Gates of the Gates Rubber Company. They are generally endless, and their general cross-section shape is trapezoidal. The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases the greater the load, the greater the wedging action improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width and tension than flat belts. Vbelts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 10007000 ft/min. V-belts need larger pulleys for their larger thickness than flat belts. They can be supplied at various fixed lengths or as a segmented section, where the segments are linked (spliced) to form a belt of the required length. For high-power requirements, two or more Vee belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. The strength of these belts is obtained by reinforcements with fibers like steel, polyester or aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar). This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive"). When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. However they are weaker and only usable at speeds up to 4000 ft/min. A link v-belt is a number of rubberized fabric links held together by metal fasteners. They are length adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed
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TIMING BELTS
Timing belts, (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a positive transfer belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their name). They are often used in lieu of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary. Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts. Timing belts need the least tension of all belts, and are among the most efficient. They can bear up to 200 hp (150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min. Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical offset tooth design forms a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage progressively. The chevron pattern design is self-aligning. The chevron pattern design does not make the noise that some timing belts make at idiosyncratic speeds, and is more efficient at transferring power (up to 98%). Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially fabricated toothed pulleys, less protection from overloading and jamming, and the lack of clutch action.
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CHAIN DRIVE
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles. Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain or transmission chain, passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain putting mechanical force into the system. Slip can be prevented by the use of chains which lock into teeth on the rotating cylinders to give the equivalent of a pair of intermeshing gear wheels. A chain drive has the same relationship for gear ratio as a simple gear train. Chains enable a number of shafts to be driven by a single wheel and so give a multiple drive. They are not as quite as timing belts but can be used for larger torques.
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CHAINS VERSUS BELTS

Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts are often rubber, plastic, or other substances. Although well-made chains may prove stronger than belts, their greater mass increases drive train inertia. Drive belts can often slip (unless they have teeth) which means that the output side may not rotate at a precise speed, and some work gets lost to the friction of the belt against its rollers. Teeth on toothed drive belts generally wear faster than links on chains, but wear on rubber or plastic belts and their teeth is often easier to observe. Conventional roller chain drives suffer the potential for vibration, as the effective radius of action in a chain and sprocket combination constantly changes during revolution. If the chain moves at constant speed, then the shafts must accelerate and decelerate constantly. If a drive sprocket rotates at constant RPM, then the chain (and probably the driven sprocket) must accelerate and decelerate constantly. This is usually not an issue with many drive systems, however most motorcycles are fitted with a rubber bushed rear wheel hub to virtually eliminate this vibration issue. Toothed belt drives are designed to avoid this issue by operating at a constant pitch radius. Chains are often narrower than belts, and this can make it easier to shift them to larger or smaller gears in order to vary the gear ratio. Multi-speed bicycles with derailleurs make use of this. Also, the more positive meshing of a chain can make it easier to build gears that can increase or shrink in diameter, again altering the gear ratio. Both can be used to move objects by attaching pockets, buckets, or frames to them; chains are often used to move things vertically by holding them in frames, as in industrial toasters, while belts are good at moving things horizontally in the form of conveyor belts. It is not unusual for the systems to be used in combination; for example the rollers that drive conveyor belts are themselves often driven by drive chains. Drive shafts are another common method used to move mechanical power around that is sometimes evaluated in comparison to chain drive; in particular shaft drive versus chain drive is a key design decision for most motorcycles. Drive shafts tend to be even tougher and more reliable than chain drive, but weigh even more (robbing more power), and impart rotational torque. Virtually all high performance motorcycles use chain drive, with shaft driven arrangements generally used for many non-sporting machines. Toothed belt drives are used for many lower power motorcycles.
CHAPTER 5: BEARINGS
Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with another, either by rotating of sliding, the resulting frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy and results in wear. The function of a bearing is to guide with minimum friction and maximum accuracy the movement of one relative to another. Of particular importance is the need to give suitable support to rotating shafts, i.e. support radial loads. The term thrust bearing is used for bearings that are designed to withstand forces along the axis of a shaft when the relative motion is primarily rotation. There are two common type of bearing, which are ball bearing and roller bearing. With this type of bearing, the main load is transferred from the rotating shaft to its support by rolling contact rather than sliding contact. A rolling element bearing consists of four main elements: an inner race, an outer race, the rolling element of either balls or rollers, and a cage to keep the rolling element apart. The inner and outer races contain hardened tracks in which the rolling elements roll.
There are a number of forms of ball bearings and roller bearings:
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DEEP-GROOVE
This is good at withstanding radial loads but is only moderately good for axial loads. It is a versatile bearing which can be used with a wide range of load and speed. Deep Groove Ball Bearings are cost-effective and maintenance free. They are basically used when axial loads from two directions have to be transmitted & there is not enough space to allow installation of matched spindle bearings and when speed is less important when compared to required guidance of the rotating parts. Physical Characteristics

Comprises of deep uninterrupted raceways Ring grooves are circular arcs made slightly larger than the radius of the ball The balls make point contact with the raceways The inner ring shoulders are of equal height
Advantages of Deep Groove Ball Bearings

Sustain radial, axial, or composite loads. Provide both high-running accuracy & high-speed operation Can replace high speed angular contact ball bearings Simple design Maintenance free Longer service life
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FILLING - SLOT
Filling slot bearings have a higher radial load carrying capacity than bearings without filling slots, but their axial load carrying capacity is small. They are also unable to operate at such high speeds as bearings without filling slots. Depending on the main application for which they are used, deep groove ball bearings with filling slots have a cage or no cage. The raceways in both of the rings are in arc groove form, which can carry radial and axial load in double directions. They can be applied in situations where high-rotating speed and low noise and low vibration are required. When the outer diameter is less than (inclusive) 400mm, they use pressed cage with steel sheet. When the outer diameter is bigger than 400mm, they use brass cages. Can be found in automobiles, machine tools, motors, instruments, construct machines, railway vehicles, agricultural machines and various other special machines.
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ANGULAR CONTACT
This is good for both radial and axial loads and is better for axial loads than the deepgroove equivalent. The angular contact ball bearing is termed thrust ball bearing. Because doing so can fill many precious metal balls, the load capacity of that diameter is definitely greater than that of the common impact. At the same time it may possibly support a really great axial fill or absolute axial load. Relatively, its doing work rotate velocity is similar to that relating to deep rhythm ball showing but its muscle is more demanding than the deep groove a single. When people mount the angular contact ball bearing, it should be set up effectively because this bearing is very sensitive to the error in the axial line. In the common predicament, this displaying is not used to help alone offer the radial load. Whether it is used to tolerate the radial download, it must add to the axial load. Design Attributes
Specific geometry of angular contact bearing raceways and shoulders creates ball contact angles that support higher axial loads.
Expanded options include special lubricants, cage materials, preloads and coatings for additional corrosion resistance.
Applications Angular contact ball bearings are engineered for use in high-speed, high precision applications for:

Agriculture Chemical General industry Utilities
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DOUBLE-ROW
Double row deep groove ball bearings feature higher load ratings than single row bearings, but are very sensitive to misalignments. These bearings have deep uninterrupted raceways and high conformity between the balls and raceways. Besides this, Double Row Deep Groove Ball Bearing is able to carry axial loads acting in both directions in addition to radial loads. Features: - Deep groove ball bearings mainly take radial load as well as take moderate axial load - With less coefficient of friction, high limiting speed, large size range and various structure - They are suitable of precision instruments, low noise motors, automobiles, motorcycle, and other common machinery. - A widely used type of bearings in machinery industry. Applications: Double-row deep-groove ball bearings are engineered for use in electric motors, automotive applications, home appliances, industrial equipment.
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SELF-ALIGNING
Single-row bearings can withstand a small amount of shaft misalignment but where there can be serve misalignment a self-aligning bearing is used. They are suitable for applications where misalignment can arise from errors in mounting or shaft deflection. The steel balls, cage, and inner ring can rotate freely at a certain angle, as it is stated that the bearings have self-aligning features. Accordingly, misalignment of the bearing shaft due to the machining and installation of the shaft and housing will be automatically adjusted.
Physical Characteristics

The self-aligning ball bearing has two rows of balls. A common concave sphere raceway in the outer ring. The center of whose curvature meets that of the bearing itself, so that the inner ring, balls and cage continue to rotate
The self-aligning ball bearing with a tapered bore can easily be fit to the shaft with an adapter assembly.
Advantages of Self Aligning Ball Bearings

Have the lowest friction of all rolling bearings. Run cooler even at high speeds. Easy mounting and dismounting. The permissible operating speed is not dependent on the common criteria like heat generation or cage stability and strength.
Application of Self Aligning Ball Bearings

Self-aligning ball bearings are used for commercial ground shafting applications. Since axial load capacity is limited, self-aligning ball bearings are not suitable for applications with heavy axial loads.
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All bearing products are popular among different industries. They have various characteristics and functions. Compared to ball bearings, roller bearings have higher radial load capacity. Roller bearings can be future divided into many types. When compared to the same-sized sleeve bearings, they are capable of higher rotational speeds.
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STRAIGHT-ROLLER BEARING
The straight-roller bearing has a larger carrying capacity of axial load compare with the deep-groove ball bearings. The structure of the bearing shows that it runs very well under high rotational speed. It is a separable bearing. It is especially convenient for the assembly and disassembly. It has advantages in a condition that the interference is required and assorted with inner ring, outer ring and housing. Also, it will carry a greater load than ball bearings of the same size because of their greater contact area. However, they are not tolerant of misalignment. Straight roller bearings mostly consist of three main sections: The inner bearing race fits snugly on the turning shaft, or can actually be the shaft itself if the shaft metal is hard enough. The outer race is a uniform and hardened collar that fits inside the bearing holder bore. Finally, there should be a sufficient number of uniform straight rollers to completely fill the space between the two races without binding together. These bearings will last almost forever if sealed, kept very clean, and lubricated with high film strength-bearing grease. This type of bearing product has various applications. They are suitable for electric motors, automobiles, transmission shafts, gear shafts and so on. On vehicles, they are ideal axle bearings for dump trucks, cement mixers, bulldozers, load haulers, and lifts. Besides, they can also be applied in very large industrial machines such as presses, forges, conveyors, gear boxes and rolling mills, etc.
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TAPER ROLLER
Tapered roller bearings are separable bearings, bearing inner and outer rings with tapered raceways are, for the circular conical roller. Roller in line contact with the raceway, can withstand heavy radial and axial joint load, but also bear the pure axial load. Contact angle decreases, the higher the axial load capacity. The taper roller bearings can carry combinations of large radial and thrust loads or thrust load only. Because of the difference between the inner and outer raceway contact angles, there is a force component, which drives the tapered rollers against the guide flange. The relatively large sliding friction generated at this flange makes this bearing typically unsuitable for high-speed applications without special consideration to coolant / lubricant. Typical applications include construction machinery, gear construction, vehicle manufacture and rolling mills. Physical Characteristics of Taper Roller Bearings
Taper roller bearings have tapered inner and outer ring raceways between which
tapered rollers are arranged.
The projection lines of all the tapered surfaces meet at a common point on the
bearing axis. Their design makes taper roller bearings particularly suitable for the accommodation of combined (radial and axial) loads.
The axial load carrying capacity of the bearings is largely determined by the
contact angle. The larger the angle, the higher the axial load carrying capacity.
Taper roller bearings have the logarithmic contact profile that provides for
optimum stress distribution over the roller/raceway contacts
The special design of the sliding surfaces of the guide flange and large roller ends
considerably promotes lubricant film formation in the roller end/flange contacts. Advantages of Taper Roller Bearings

Dimensional Stability Long Life Even In Contaminated Lubricant Durable Steel Cage Dimensionally Interchangeable With Other Bearing Manufacturers
Applications of Taper Roller Bearings
In many applications taper roller bearings are used in back-back pairs so that axial
forces can be supported equally in either direction.

Pairs of taper roller bearings are used in car and vehicle wheel bearings where they
must cope simultaneously with large vertical (radial) and horizontal (axial) forces.

Agriculture, Construction and Mining Equipment Various Axle Systems Conveyance Vehicles Gear Box, Engine Motors, Reducers
Taper Roller Bearings Design Tapered roller bearings consist of four basic components including the cone (inner ring), the cup (outer ring), tapered rollers, and a cage (roller retainer). Tapered roller bearings are designed such that their conical rollers and raceways are arranged so that all elements of the roller and raceway cones meet at a common apex on the bearing axis. The rollers are guided by the contact between the large end of the roller and the rib on the inner ring (cone). This construction provides a high capacity for radial loads, axial loads, and combined loads. The larger the contact angle, the greater the loading capacity becomes. When a pure radial load is placed on the bearing, an induced load in the axial direction is also generated. So, these bearings are generally used in pairs opposing each other. Proper running clearance or preload can be obtained by adjusting the distance of the two bearings against one another. Since the inner (cone) and outer (cup) rings are separable, each ring can be mounted individually, allowing both rings to use tight fitting practices, if desired.
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NEEDLE ROLLER
Needle roller bearings use needle rollers as rolling elements. The needle rollers are a maximum of 5 mm in diameter and are 3 to 10 times as long as they are in diameter. Because the bearings use needle rollers as rolling elements, the cross-section is thin, but they have a high load capacity for their size. Because of the large number of rolling elements, the bearings have high rigidity and are ideally suited to wobbling or pivoting motion. Physical Characteristics
Its cylindrical rollers, which are thin and long in relation to their diameter. They are referred to as needle rollers.
Needle Rollers are used for needle roller bearings and are rigid and highly accurate.
In spite of their low cross section the bearings have a high load carrying capacity. Available with or without an inner ring. The needle rollers are a maximum of 5 mm in diameter and are 3 to 10 times as long as they are in diameter.
Application of Needle Roller Bearings Needle roller bearings contain precision needle rolling elements, which have multiple uses in a variety of industries including automotive, truck, farm and construction equipment, two-cycle engines, outboard engines and consumer durables. Needle rollers are mainly used as bearing rolling elements to transmit torque and reduce friction. They can also serve as precision shafts or as precision locating pins. Other uses for needle roller bearings include crank pins, precision shafts and as locating pins. Advantages of Needle Roller Bearings
Due to the smaller cross-section, greater rigidity, higher load-carrying capacity and lower inertia of the needle roller bearings help size and weight reductions in the machinery.
Though they are less wide, their load carrying capacity is high and is most suitable for applications where the load is high and the radial space is less.
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Needle roller bearings, which are designed to withstand oscillation can operate under severe conditions and interchange with sliding bearings.
Typical Applications

Transmissions, transfer cases, engines and valve trains Steering and braking systems Axle support Outboard engines Power tools Copiers, fax machines, paper-moving equipment Appliances
Expanded Options

Assemblies with bearings Engineered polymer cages Bearings with one or two seals Closed end bearings Oil holes Drawn sleeves
Types of Needle Roller Bearings Different types of Needle roller bearings involved in general engineering are:

Drawn cup needle roller bearings Drawn cup needle roller bearings with closed ends With and without inner rings
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................... 1 PART 1: DIGITAL LOGIC .................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER 2: APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES ................................................ 8

CHAPTER 3: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS .......................................... 10

PART 2: MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS ....................................... 26

CHAPTER 2: CAMS .................................................................................................. 29

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DROP CAM ................................................................................................................... 31 FLAT CAM.................................................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER 4: BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES ............................................................. 44

CHAPTER 5: BEARINGS .......................................................................................... 51

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PART 1: DIGITAL LOGIC

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(a) Represented by switches

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(a) Represented by switches

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The Boolean equation describing the NAND gate is:

The Boolean equation for NOR gate is:

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CHAPTER 2: APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

Figure 1: Integrated circuit (a) 7408, (b) 7402

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Figure 3: The traffic lights

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CHAPTER 3: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

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5th Band (Tolerance)

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HW: Describing the basic operation of Diode Bridge?

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LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

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POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

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HOW TO START WORKING?

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PART 2: MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

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A number of teeth on B d B B number of teeth on A d A

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DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR

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RACK AND PINION

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