Non Destructive Testing - Pressure Testing

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What is meant by Pressure Testing?

Pressure Testing is a non-destructive test performed to ensure the integrity of the pressure shell on new pressure equipment, or on previously installed pressure and piping equipment that has undergone an alteration or repair to its boundary(s). Pressure testing is required by most piping codes to verify that a new, modified, or repaired piping system is capable of safely withstanding its rated pressure and is leak tight. Compliance to piping codes may be mandated by regulatory and enforcement agencies, insurance carriers, or the terms of the contract for the construction of the system. Pressure testing, whether or not legally required, serves the useful purpose of protecting workers and the public. Pressure testing may also be used to establish a pressure rating for a component or special system for which it is not possible to establish a safe rating by calculation. A prototype of the component or system is subjected to a gradually increasing pressure until measurable yielding first occurs or, alternatively, to the point of rupture. Then by using derating factors specified in the code, or the standard, appropriate to the component or system, it is possible to establish a design pressure rating from the experimental data.

Piping Codes

There are a great many codes and standards relating to piping systems. Two codes of major importance for pressure and leak testing are the ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code and the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. While these two codes are applicable to many piping systems, other codes or standards may have to be met as required by the authorities, insurance companies, or the owner of the system. Examples might be AWWA standards for water transmission and distribution system piping. The ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code has several sections. They are: ASME B31.1 for Power Piping ASME B31.2 for Fuel Gas Piping ASME B31.3 for Process Piping ASME B31.4 for Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols ASME B31.5 for Refrigeration Piping ASME B31.8 for Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems ASME B31.9 for Building Services Piping ASME B31.11 for Slurry Transportation Piping Systems The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code also has several sections which contain pressure and leak testing requirements for piping systems, pressure vessels, and other pressure retaining items. These are: Section I for Power Boilers Section III for Nuclear Power Plant Components Section V for Non Destructive Examination Section VIII for Pressure Vessels Section X for Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels Section XI for In Service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components There is great similarity with respect to the requirements and procedures for testing among the many codes. Various leak-testing methods, planning, preparation, execution, documentation, and acceptance standards for pressure testing will be discussed in this chapter. Equipment, useful for pressure testing, will also be included in the discussion. The material that follows should not be considered a substitute for a complete knowledge or careful study of the particular code requirement that must be used to test a particular piping system.

Leak-Testing Methods

There are many different methods for pressure and leak testing in the field. Seven of these are: 1. Hydrostatic testing, which uses water or another liquid under pressure 2. Pneumatic or gaseous-fluid testing, which uses air or another gas under pressure 3. A combination of pneumatic and hydrostatic testing, where low pressure air is first used to detect leaks 4. Initial service testing, which involves a leakage inspection when the system is first put into operation 5. Vacuum testing, which uses negative pressure to check for the existence of a leak 6. Static head testing, which is normally done for drain piping with water left in a standpipe for a set period of time 7. Halogen and helium leak detection

Hydrostatic Leak Testing

Hydrostatic testing is the preferred leak-testing method and perhaps the most often used. The most important reason for this is the relative safety of hydrostatic testing compared to pneumatic testing. Water is a much safer fluid test medium than air because it is nearly incompressible. Therefore, the
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amount of work required to compress water to a given pressure in a piping system is substantially less than the work required to compress air, or any other gas, to the same pressure. The work of compression is stored in the fluid as a potential energy, which could be released suddenly in the event of a failure during a pressure test. A calculation of the potential energy of air compressed to a pressure of 1000 psig (6900 kPa) compared to the potential energy of the same final volume of water at 1000 psig (6900 kPa) shows a ratio of over 2500 to 1. Therefore, the potential damage to surrounding equipment and personnel resulting from a failure during a pressure test is far more serious when using a gaseous test medium. That is not to say that there is no danger at all in a hydrostatic leak test. There can be substantial danger in a hydrostatic test due to air trapped in the piping. Even if all air is vented from the piping before pressurizing, workers are well advised to conduct any high-pressure test with safety in mind.

Pneumatic Leak Testing

The fluid normally used for a pneumatic test is compressed air, or nitrogen if the source is bottled gas. Nitrogen should not be used in a closed area if the possibility exists that the escaping nitrogen could displace the air in the confined space. Persons have been known to become unconscious under such circumstances before realizing they were short of oxygen. Because of the greater danger of injury with a gaseous test medium, the pressure that may be used for visual examination for leaks is lower for some piping codes than is the case for a hydrostatic test. For example, for pneumatic tests, ASME B31.1 permits the pressure to be reduced to the lower of 100 psig (690 kPa) or the design pressure during the examination for leakage.

Combination Pneumatic and Hydrostatic Testing

A low air pressure, most often 25 psig, (175 kPa) is first used to see if there are major leaks. This low pressure reduces the danger of personal injury but still enables major leaks to be quickly located. Repairs, if needed, can then be done before the hydrostatic test. This method can be very effective in saving time, particularly if it takes a long time to fill a system with water only to find leaks on the first try. If leaks are found in a hydrostatic test, it will take longer to remove the water and dry the piping sufficiently to make repairs. Hydrostatic-pneumatic leak testing is different from the two-step test in the preceding paragraph. In this case the pressure test is conducted with a combination of air and water. For example, a pressure vessel designed to contain a process liquid with a vapor phase or air above the liquid may have been designed to support the weight of liquid to a certain maximumexpected height of liquid. If the vessel was not designed to support the weight when completely filled with liquid, it would be possible to test this vessel only if it was partially filled with process fluid to a level duplicating the effect of the maximum-expected level.

Initial Service Leak Testing

This category of testing is limited by the codes to certain situations. For example, ASME B31.3 limits the use of this technique to category D fluid service. Category D fluid services are defined as nonhazardous to humans and must operate below 150 psi (1035 kPa) and at temperatures between 20 and 366F (-29 and 185C). ASME Code B31.1, section 137.7.1, does not allow initial service testing of boiler external piping. However, that same section of ASME B31.1 permits initial service testing of other piping systems if other types of leak testing are not practical. Initial service testing is also applicable to inspection of nuclear power plant components by Section XI of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. As indicated, this test is usually run when the system is first put into operation. The system is gradually raised to normal operating pressure as required in ASME B31.1 or design pressure as required in ASME B31.3. It is then maintained at that pressure while an examination for leaks is conducted.

Vacuum Leak Testing

Vacuum leak testing is an effective way to determine whether or not there is a leak anywhere in the system. This is normally done by drawing a vacuum on the system and trapping the vacuum within the system. A leak is indicated if the trapped vacuum rises toward atmospheric pressure. A manufacturer of components quite often uses this type of leak test as a production leak test. However, it is very difficult to determine the location or locations of a leak if one exists. Smoke generators have been used to determine the piping location where smoke is drawn into the piping. This is very difficult to utilize unless the leak is sufficiently great to draw all or most of the smoke into the pipe. If there is substantially more smoke generated than can be drawn into the pipe, the smoke that dissipates into the surrounding air can easily hide the leak location. Obviously, this method is not suitable for testing the piping at or above the operating pressure unless the piping is to be operated at a vacuum.

Static-Head Leak Testing

This test method is sometimes called a drop test because a drop in the water level in the open standpipe, added to the system to create the required pressure, is an indication of a leak. Once the system and standpipe is filled with water, the standpipe level is measured and noted. After a required hold period, the height is rechecked and any decrease in level and the hold period are recorded. Any leak location is determined by visual inspection.

Halogen and Helium Leak Testing

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These test methods use a tracer gas to identify leakage location and leakage quantity. In the case of halogen leak detection, the system is charged with halogen gas. A halogen detector probe is used to sense leakage of the tracer gas from any exposed joint. The halogen leak detector, or sniffer, consists of a tubular probe which sucks a mixture of leaking halogen gas and air into an instrument sensitive to small amounts of halogen gas. This instrument employs a diode to sense the presence of halogen gas. The leaking halogen gas is passed over a heated platinum element (the anode). The heated element ionizes the halogen gas. The ions flow to a collector plate (the cathode). Current proportional to ion formation rate, and thus to leakage flow rate, is indicated by a meter. The halogen detector probe is calibrated using an orifice that passes a known leakage flow. The detector probe is passed over the orifice at the same rate that will be used to examine the system for leakage. The preferred tracer gas is refrigerant 12, but refrigerants 11, 21, 22, 114, or methylene chloride may be used. Halogens should not be used with austenitic stainless steels. Helium leak testing may also be done in the sniffer mode, as explained above for halogens. However, in addition, helium leak testing may be performed using two other methods that are more sensitive in detecting leakage. These are the tracer mode and the hood or closed system mode. In the tracer mode a vacuum is drawn on the system, and helium is sprayed onto the outside of joints to be inspected for leakage. The system vacuum draws helium through any leaking joint and delivers it to a helium mass spectrometer. In the hood mode, the system to be tested is surrounded by concentrated helium. The hood mode of helium leak testing is the most sensitive method for detecting leaks and the only method accepted by ASME Code Section V as quantitative. Manufacturers of components requiring a hermetic seal will use the hood method of helium leak detection as a production leak test. In these cases, the component may be surrounded by helium in a chamber.A connection to the component is made to a helium leak detector, which attempts to draw the internals of the component to a vacuum close to absolute zero. Any leakage of helium from the surrounding chamber into the component will de drawn into the helium leak detector by the vacuum it is producing. The helium leak detector contains a mass spectrometer configured to sense the presence of helium molecules. This closed-system testing method is capable of sensing leaks as small as 1X10 -10cc/sec (6.1X10-12 cubic in/sec), standard atmospheric air equivalent. The closed-system method is not appropriate to measuring a large leak that would flood the detector and render it useless for further measurement until every helium molecule could be withdrawn from the detector. The closed-system method is not appropriate to a piping system in the field because of the large volumes. Also it does not show the location of the leak or leaks. Finally, the sensitivity of leak detection, using the closed system, is many orders of magnitude greater than normally required. The helium sniffer is the least sensitive method and is subject to false indications if helium from a large leak at one location in the system diffuses to other locations. A large leak can also flood the detector, temporarily rendering it useless until all the helium is removed from the mass spectrometer. The helium pressure used in all these methods is normally one or two atmospheres, which is sufficient to detect the presence of very small leaks. The low pressure also serves to reduce the amount of helium required for the test. Helium leak testing is rarely, if ever, used to demonstrate that the system can safely withstand the design pressure rating. Helium leak detectors will not be successful in finding leaks unless the component or piping system is completely dry. Liquid contained in a small leakage path, due to capillary action, may seal the leak because of the low pressure of the helium and the surface tension of the liquid. Therefore great care is required to use this approach under completely dry conditions. Otherwise this system may be even less sensitive in detecting a leak than a high-pressure hydrostatic test. Furthermore, the helium leak detector is easily contaminated by oils and other compounds and rendered inaccurate. Field conditions are normally not free of the possibility for contamination of the leak detector.

Test Pressures

The selected test method and fluid test medium, together with the applicable code, will also establish the rules to be followed in calculating the required test pressure. In most cases a pressure greater than the design pressure rating is applied for a short duration, say at least 10 minutes. The magnitude of this initial test pressure is often at least 1.5 times the design pressure rating for a hydrostatic test. However, it may be different, depending upon which code is applicable and whether the test is hydrostatic or pneumatic. Furthermore, the test pressure must never exceed a pressure that would cause yielding, or the maximum allowable test pressure of some component exposed to the test. In the case of ASME B31, section 137.1.4, and the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes, the maximum test pressure must not exceed 90 percent of yield for any component exposed to the test. The test pressure is needed to demonstrate that the system can safely withstand the rated pressure. Following this period of greater than design pressure, it is often permissible to reduce the pressure to a lower value for examination of leaks. The examination pressure is maintained for the length of time necessary to conduct a thorough
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Code ASME B31.1

Test type Hydrostatic (1)

Test pressure minimum 1.5 times design

ASME B31.1

Pneumatic

1.2 times design

ASME B31.1

Initial service

Normal operating pressure 1,5 times design (2)

Test pressure maximum Max allowable test pressure any component or 90 percent of yield 1.5 times design or max allowable test pressure any componenet Normal operating pressure Not to exceed yield stress

Test pressure hold time 10 minutes

Examination pressure Design pressure Lower of 100 psig or design pressure Normal operating pressure 1.5 times design

10 minutes

ASME B31.3

Hydrostatic

ASME B31.3

Pneumatic

1.1 times design

ASME B31.3 ASME I

Initial service (3) Hydrostatic

Design pressure 1.5 times max allowable working pressure (4) 1.25 times system design pressure (5)

1.1 times design plus the lesser of 50 psi or 10 percent of test pressure Design pressure Not to exceed 90 percent yield stress Not to exceed stress limits of design section NB-3226 or maximum test pressure of any system componenet (5) Not to exceed stress limits of design section NB-3226 or maximum test pressure of any system componenet If minimum test pressure exceeded by 6 percent establish limit by the lower of analysis of all test loadings or maximum test pressure of any componenet If minimum test pressure exceeded by 6 percent establish limit by the lower of analysis of all test loadings or maximum test pressure of any componenet If minimum test pressure exceeded by 6 percent establish limit by the lower of analysis of all test loadings or maximum test pressure of any componenet If minimum test pressure exceeded by 6 percent

10 minutes or time to complete leak examination Time to complete leak examination but at least 10 minutes 10 minutes

Design pressure Design pressure Max allowable working pressure (4) Greater of design pressure or 0,75 times test pressure Greater of design pressure or 0,75 times test pressure Greater of design pressure or 0,75 times test pressure

Time to complete leak examination Not specified, typically 1 hr 10 minutes

ASME III Division 1 Subsection NB

Hydrostatic

ASME III Division 1 Subsection NB

Pneumatic

1.25 times system design pressure (6)

10 minutes

ASME III Division 1 Subsection NC

Hydrostatic

1.5 times system design pressure

10 or 15 minutes per inch of design minimum wall thickness for pumps and Valves 10 minutes

ASME III Division 1 Subsection NC

Pneumatic

1.25 times system design pressure

Greater of design pressure or 0,75 times test pressure

ASME III Division 1 Subsection ND

Hydrostatic

1.5 times system design pressure for completed components, 1,25 times system design pressure for piping systems 1.25 times system design pressure

10 minutes

Greater of design pressure or 0,75 times test pressure

ASME III Division 1 Subsection ND

Pneumatic

10 minutes

Greater design pressure

of or

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establish limit by the lower of analysis of all test loadings or maximum test pressure of any componenet

0,75 times test pressure

Notes:

1.

2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

Pressure Equipment Failure

Boiler external piping must be hydrostatic tested in accordance with PG-99 of ASME Code SectionI. ASME B31.3 hydrostatic pressure must be raised above 1.5 times design pressure in proportion to yield strength at test temperature divided by strength at design temperature but not to exceed yield strength at test temperature. Where a vessel is involved whose design pressure is less than the piping and where vessel cannot be isolated, the piping and vessel can be tested together at vessel test pressure provided vessel test pressure is not less than 77 percent of piping test pressure. ASME B31.3 initial service testing permitted only for piping in category D service. ASME Code Section I hydrostatic test pressure at temperature of at least 70F (21C) and examination pressure at temperature less than 120F (49C). For a forced-flow steam generator with pressure parts designed for different pressure levels, the test pressure should be at least 1.5 times the maximum allowable working pressure at the superheater outlet but not less than 1.25 times the maximum allowable working pressure of any part of the boiler. ASME Code Section III, Division 1, subsection NB, test pressure limits defined in section NB3226; also components containing brazed joints and Valves to be tested at 1.5 times system-design pressure prior to installation. ASME Code Section III, Division 1, subsection NB, pneumatic test pressure for components partially filled with water shall not be less than 1.25 times system-design pressure.

Pressure vessel and piping systems are widely used throughout industry and contain a very large concentration of energy. Despite the fact that their design and installation comply with federal, state and local regulations and recognized industrial standards, there continue to be serious pressure equipment failures. There are many reasons for pressure equipment failure: degradation and thinning of materials during peration, aging, hidden flaws during fabrication, etc.. Fortunately, periodic testing and internal and external inspections significantly improve the safety of a pressure vessel or piping system. A good testing and inspection program is based on development of procedures for specific industries or types of vessels. A number of accidents has served to focus attention on the hazards and risks associated with storage, handling, and transfer of fluids under pressure. When pressure vessels do fail, it is typically the result of shell failure resulting from corrosion and erosion (more than 50 percent shell failures).

New constructed vessel ripped open during a hydrotest

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All pressure vessels have their own peculiar hazards, including great stored potential force, points of wear and corrosion, and possible failure of overpressure and temperature control safety devices. Government and industry have responded to the need for improved pressure systems testing by producing standards and regulations specifying general pressure safety requirements (ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, DOE Pressure Safety Guidelines and others). These regulations outline requirements for implementation of a pressure testing safety program. It is critical that design and operating personnel use these standards as benchmark criteria for writing and implementing a pressure testing safety program.

Pressure Testing Program

A good pressure testing safety program should detect fabrication defects and deterioration from aging, cracking, corrosion and other factors before they cause vessel failure and to determine (1) if the vessel can continue to be operated at the same pressure, (2) what measures of control and repair may be needed so that the pressure system can be operated at the original pressure, and (3) whether pressure must be reduced in order to operate the system safely. All companies, working with pressurized equipment, almost all have expanded engineering guidelines for testing of pressure vessels and piping systems. These guidelines are prepared in accordance with the pressure safety standards of OSHA, DOT, ASME, local, state, and other federal codes and standards. The documentation includes definition of the responsibilities of engineering, management, and safety personnel; the general requirements for equipment and materials; procedures for hydrostatic and pneumatic testing to verify the integrity of a system and its components; and guidelines for a pressure testing plan, emergency procedures, documentation, and hazard control measures. These measures include pressure release control, protection against the effects of noise exposure, environmental and personal monitoring, and protection from the presence of toxic or flammable gases and high pressures.

Launch of a newly manufactured tank during a pneumatic pressure test with air

Pressure Testing Definitions

Alteration - An alteration is a physical change in any component that has design implications which affect the pressure containing capability of a pressure vessel beyond the scope of the items described in existing data reports. Corrosion Allowance - The extra thickness of material added by design to allow for material loss from corrosive or erosive attack. Corrosive Service - Any pressure system service that, because of chemical or other interaction with the container's materials of construction, contents, or external environment, causes the pressure container to crack, to become embrittled, to lose more than 0.01 in. of thickness per year of operation, or to eteriorate in any way. Design Pressure - the pressure used in the design of a pressure component together with the coincident design metal temperature, for the purpose of determining the minimum permissible thickness or physical characteristics of the pressure boundary. Design pressure for vessels is shown on the fabrication drawings and for piping, the maximum operating pressure is indicated on the line list. The design pressure for piping is the larger of 110% of the maximum operating pressure or 25 psi over the maximum operating pressure. Engineering Safety Note (ESN) - A management-approved document describing the anticipated hazards sociated with equipment and the design parameters that will be used. High Pressure - Gas Pressure greater than 20 MPa gauge (3000 psig) and liquid pressure greater than 35 MPa gauge (5000).
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Intermediate Pressure - Gas Pressure from 1 to 20 MPa gauge (150 to 3000 psig) and liquid pressure from 10 to 35 MPa gauge (1500 to 5000 psig). Leak Test - A pressure or vacuum test to determine the existence, rate, and/or location of a leak. Low Pressure-Gas Pressure less than 1 MPa gauge (150 psig) or liquid pressure less than 10 MPa (1500 psig). Manned-area operation - A pressure operation, that may be conducted (within specified limits) with personnel present. Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) - maximum pressure permissible at the top of a vessel in its normal operating position at the operating temperature specified for the pressure. It is the least of the values found for maximum allowable working pressure for any of the essential parts of the vessel by the principles established in ASME Section VIII. The MAWP is shown on the vessel nameplate. The MAWP may be taken same as the design pressure, but for the most part the MAWP is based on the fabricated thickness minus the corrosion allowance. MAWP applies to pressure vessels only. Maximum Design Temperature - is the maximum temperature used in the design and shall not be less than the maximum operating temperature. Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP) - The highest pressure expected during operation. This is usually 10-20% below the MAWP. Minimum Allowable Metal Temperature (MAMT) - The minimum temperature for an existing vessel to sustain the testing or operating conditions with a low risk of brittle fracture. The MAMT is determined by an evaluation for pressure vessels built prior to 1987. This term is used in API RP 579 for the brittle fracture evaluation of existing equipment. It may be a single temperature, or an envelope of acceptable operating temperatures as a function of pressure. Minimum Design Metal Temperature (MDMT) - The minimum metal temperature used in the design of a pressure vessel. The MDMT is an ASME Code term and normally shown on the vessel nameplate or U-1 Form for vessels designed per ASME Section VIII, Division 1, 1987 edition or later. Mpa - Absolute pressure in SI units. 1 atmosphere (14.7 psig) is equal to 0.1 MPa. Operational Safety Procedure (OSP) - The Document used to describe the controls necessary to ensure that the risks associated with a potentially hazardous research project or unique activity are at an acceptable level. Pressure Equipment - Any equipment, e.g., vessels, manifolds, piping, or other components, that operates above or below (in the case of vacuum equipment) atmospheric pressure. Pressure Vessel - A relatively high-volume pressure component (such as a spherical or cylindrical container) with a cross section larger than the associated piping. Proof Test - A test in which equipment prototypes are pressurized to determine the actual yield or failure (burst) pressure (used to calculate the MAWP). Remote Operation - A pressure operation, that may not be conducted with personnel present. The equipment must be installed in test cells, behind certified barricades, or be operated from a safe location. Safety Factor (SF) - The ratio of the ultimate (i.e., burst or failure) pressure (measured or calculated) to the MAWP. A Safety Factor related to something other than the failure pressure should be identified with an appropriate subscript.

Codes, Standards and References

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section VIII Pressure Vessels ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping ASME B16.5 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) ASTM E 1003 Standard Test Method for Hydrostatic Leak Testing American Petroleum Institute (API) RP 1110 Pressure Testing of Steel Pipelines for the Transportation of Gas, Petroleum Gas, Hazardous Liquids... API 510 Maintenance, Inspection, Rating, Repair, and Alteration API 560 Fired Heaters for General Refinery Services API 570 Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of In-Service Piping Systems API 579 Draft of API Recommended Practice for Fitness-For-Service Robert B. Adams President and CEO EST Group, Inc. Harleysville, Pennsylvania Interesting articles about pressure testing failure Pressure Vessel Failure during Pneumatic Test Pressure Vessel Failure during Hydro Test Pressure Vessel Failure during Air Test Remark(s) of the Author...
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Pressure Testing according to ASME B31.3

Piping systems are typically designed and built per an applicable code. Certainly the use of ASME B31.3 could be applicable to ships carrying oil, but you should really be following the code that the piping system was designed to. Since I'm familiar with B31.3 and not the European (or other country's) equivalent, I'll base this response on B31.3. ASME B31.3 requires "leak testing" of the piping system. This is not a structural test, it is only a test to determine if there are points within the system that are leaking.* On the other hand, there are codes which may require a structural test such as is done by the boiler and pressure vessel code. In that case, the hydrostatic test is performed to verify that the vessel and attached piping is structurally sound, not just leak tight.

ASME B31.3, Para. 345.1 states:

Prior to initial operation, and after completion of the applicable examinations required by para. 341, each piping system shall be tested to ensure tightness. The test shall be a hydrostatic leak test in accordance with para. 345.4 except as provided herein. Where the owner considers a hydrostatic leak test impractical, either a pneumatic test in accordance with para. 345.5 or a combined hydrostatic-pneumatic test in accordance with para. 345.6 may be substituted, recognizing the hazard of energy stored in compressed gas. So per the code, a leak test using air may be performed if the system owner considers the hydrostatic test to be impractical. It's important to understand that the pressure at which the test is performed is a function of the design pressure. Design pressure is a function of the allowable stress limits on the piping which is also a function of operating temperature. For a hydrostatic test, para. 345.4.2 requires a pressure of not less than 1.5 times the design pressure. For a pneumatic test, para. 345.5.4 requires a pressure of not less than 110% of design pressure. Next step is for an engineer (preferably the piping system designer or stress analyst) to create pressure test procedures. These pressure test procedures look at the possibility of low temperature brittle failure, which may be a concern at the temperatures you're referring to. The pressure test procedures are actually a set of procedures (typically) which include such things as method of pressurizing system, valve positions, removal of relief devices, isolation of portions of the piping system, etc. Regarding the low temperature, para. 345.4.1 states: "The fluid shall be water unless there is a possibility of damage due to freezing or to adverse effects of water on the piping or the process (see para. F345.4.1). In that case, another suitable non-toxic liquid may be used." So glycol/water is allowed. If the test is to be done pneumatically, test pressure should be raised to 25 psi at which time a preliminary check shall be made, including examination of all joints. The use of a low temperature bubble fluid is highly advisable.

So to conclude:
1. If the specification you've been given is to perform a hydro test at 16 bar, then that should be 1.5 times the design pressure of 10.67 bar. Per B31.3, a pneumatic test should therefore be performed not at 16 bar, but at 1.1 times the design pressure or 11.7 bar. Run the pneumatic pressure only as high as 11.7 bar. 2. The possibility of brittle failure should be reviewed by the appropriate engineer. In the case of temperature below 0 C, the material used should be examined to verify it is not below the minimum useable temperature for that steel. 3. A cognizant engineer needs to produce a set of pressure test procedures. Those procedures need to indicate what sections of pipe are being tested, what positions valves should be placed in, what relief devices need to be removed (or installed), etc. 4. The pneumatic test needs to start at 25 psig and a preliminary examination for leaks performed prior to increasing pressure. 5. Most important, the cognizant engineer must also examine the piping design specification for all requirements pertaining to leak or pressure testing. 6. Although B31.3 describes this as a "leak test", when performed hydrostatically at 1.5 times design, it is in affect, a structural test.

Non Destructive Testing-Risks of Pneumatic testing

Many people do not know or are not realize that a Pneumatic pressure test can be very Dangerous. Pneumatic testing is widely used to achieve minimum down time and economy and convenience of testing as compared to hydrostatic tests. It is also useful to detect very fine leak paths which may not be found in Hydrostatic testing. Pneumatic pressure testing of piping and vessels at moderate-to-high test pressures or at low test pressures with high volume is more hazardous than hydrostatic pressure testing because the stored energy is much greater with compressed gases. Air, however, (like all gases) is compressible and, as a result, much more energy has to be put into the gas to raise its
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pressure. In fact, at the pressure ranges normally used for testing water-piping systems 200 times more energy is stored in compressed gas compared to water at the same pressure and volume. So, should a joint, pipe, or any other component fail under test pressure when using compressed gas, the energy can be released with deadly force! Hazards from loss of containment during pneumatic pressure testing include both blast overpressure and missiles. In applications where pressure testing with liquids is undesirable, such as in cryogenic piping systems and vessels, pneumatic pressure testing can only be justified when care in fabrication and in non-destructive examination of vessels and piping reduces the probability of loss of containment to such a small value that risk is acceptable.

Hazards from overpressure from a ruptured vessel or piping system

The atmospheric boiling point of LNG is approximately -160C, any residual water left in the equipment, such as by hydraulic pressure testing, is undesirable. Pneumatic pressure testing is therefore frequently used for LNG and other piping and vessels in which moisture must be avoided. As mentioned, the stored energy of compressed gas is very high, so rupture of a piping test system during a pneumatic pressure test can release much energy. Damage due to rupture can result from shock waves, flying projectile fragments from the ruptured piping, and unrestrained movement of piping and equipment propelled by escaping gas. In fact, the cryogenic gas industries have experienced pneumatic pressure testing incidents in the past, sometimes resulting in serious injuries and major equipment damage. To address the risks associated with pneumatic pressure testing, many companies attempt to limit the amount of stored energy in the test system to a prescribed maximum value by limiting the size of each test system. This approach is often impractical for high pressure piping of typical diameters because of the severe limitation that it places on the size of each test system. Consequently, this approach may result in an unreasonably large number of test systems. Attempting to isolate and test a large number of test systems may prove to be impractical. When the approach of limiting the amount of stored energy becomes impractical, an alternative approach, such as that described herein, may offer the best option. Regardless of which approach is taken, many of the considerations outlined in this article must be taken into account to safely execute high-pressure, pneumatic pressure testing. A variety of measures can increase the safety of pneumatic testing. Of first importance are measures to ensure the mechanical integrity of the vessels and piping systems undergoing testing. These measures include design, fabrication, and inspection methods. It is also necessary to bar personnel from exclusion zones (an area where personnel are prohibited to enter) surrounding the vessel or piping system under test, and to conduct tests at night or on weekends when few people are in the vicinity of the test site.

Hazards from overpressure

Rupture of a piping system under pressure produces a blast wave. The pneumatic pressure tests planned for the piping systems for one LNG terminal were as high as 121 barg, depending on the class and size of piping under test. Pressures this high can produce a damaging overpressure in the atmosphere within the exclusion zone due to the blast wave or shock wave that results upon rupture of a piping system under test. Lower test pressures can also present significant hazards. For example, rupture of a specific 8in pipe segment at a test pressure of 18 barg could result in a blast overpressure of 0.5 psig (0.0345 barg) at a distance of 28 m. Overpressure can injure personnel and damage facilities. Overpressure is the localized increase in the atmospheric air pressure associated with the passage of a shock wave. The overpressure that accompanies failure of a
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piping system causes harm that is a function of the magnitude and the duration of the shock wave. Typical damaging effects from overpressures are listed below: 0.4 psig (0.0276 barg) - Limited minor structural damage to buildings 0.5 to 1 psig (0.0345 to 0.0690 barg) - Glass shattering with body penetrating velocities 0.7 psig (0.0483 barg) - Minor damage to house structures 1 psig (0.0690 barg)- Partial damage of house structures; made uninhabitable 1 psig (0.0690 barg) - 95% eardrum protection with ear plugs 1 psig (0.0690 barg) - People knocked down with potential of significant resulting injuries Overpressure has the potential to affect most of the nearby area surrounding the piping under test. Therefore, the minimum exclusion zone in this work is defined as a zone within a radius beyond which the overpressure from rupture of the piping system under test will not exceed 0.5 psig (0.0345 barg).

Interesting articles about pressure testing failure Pressure Vessel Failure during Pneumatic Test Pressure Vessel Failure during Hydro Test Pressure Vessel Failure during Air Test

Pneumatic Pressure Testing Failure

A good example of the potential Dangers associated with Pneumatic Testing Feb 07 2009 ONE worker was killed and 15 injured in an explosion on a construction site at Shanghai's

Yangshan Deep Water Port. The man who died was pierced by a flying steel rod while lying in his dormitory bed. He was pronounced dead at the scene, his co-workers told reporters. The injured were having lunch when they were hit by flying cement, stone and metal fragments from the blast, which occurred just after noon.

"There was a big bang that sounded like an explosion," said a worker who declined to be named. The worker who died was employed by China National Chemical Engineering No. 14 Construction Co Ltd. Two men suffered fractures and were in stable condition last night, said Nanhui District Central Hospital. The others were released after treatment for bruises.

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The accident happened at a Shanghai LNG Co Ltd work site on Ximentang Isle, north of the Yangshan Deep Water Port, an international shipping center about 45 kilometers from Pudong International Airport.

The explosion occurred when workers were adjusting equipment, according to a spokesman for the municipal work safety authority. The men were working on a liquefied natural gas terminal that is expected to receive 3 million tons of the fuel annually after the first phase becomes operational this year.

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When the facility is finished, LNG shipped by sea from Malaysia will be transformed into a gaseous state and sent to downtown Shanghai through pipes. The explosion occurred during a pressure test of the equipment, according to the city government media office. Workers were pumping air into a gasifier when some 500 meters of the piping network burst into fragments, buckling cement crossbeams.

The cause of the rupture was still under investigation last night, the Shanghai Commission of Safety Production said. The general contractor team includes Japan-based Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co Ltd, Taiwan's CTCI Co and Wuhuan Engineering Co Ltd, said the media office. A few more pieces of information about the explosion according to a report (in Chinese) issued by the owner and construction contractor a couple of days after the accident:

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The explosion was caused by a sudden flange failure while the workers were conducting pneumatic testing of a 36 inch diameter line, 600m long segment, laid out in an S shape. The testing pressure was 15.6MPa (2,262psi), and the explosion occurred when the system pressure reached 12.3 MPa (1,784psi).

The explosion was caused by the rupture of a flange at the end of the test section. The 2nd and 3rd last pictures in the attachment show the face of rupture. The flange was for future connection.

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The rupture occurred in the flange body, 30 to 40 mm from the flange to pipe weld. It's a "clean" break, i.e., brittle failure. The cause of the flange failure was under investigation.

The worker killed by a piece of flying scaffold pipe was outside the entrance door to the dorm (not lying in his bed according to news below), 350 m away from the explosion.

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The injured workers were about 100m away from the explosion (installing insulation). The explosion is likely to delay start up of the project by 6 months. The LNG terminal was to be ready to receive shipment in a couple of months.

Pressure Vessel Failure during Hydro Test

28 November 2007 Nanjing Yuchuang Co, China Please find attached a couple of photos of a pressure

vessel that recently failed whilst under hydrotest during post fabrication testing. This vessel was manufactured by Nanjing Yuchuang Co. in China and the plate was of Chinese mill origin. Unfortunately this is another example of serious equipment/material failures with equipment being sourced out of the rapidly developing economies such as China, Eastern Bloc and others. These examples are becoming almost a weekly occurrence now and are exhibiting failure modes not seen in the mature manufacturing economies since the 1930's. Again we need to ensure vigilance in the acceptance of manufacturers and once more I stress the need to know where the base materials are sourced from. Apparently this pressure vessel had reached fifty percent of the required test pressure when the shell ruptured. A metallurgical failure report is not available however from the photographs a number of observations could be made regarding the quality of the material and the welding. If you check out the welding (undercut/poor visual/arc strikes) it is unlikely that this vessel would have be conforming to any Pressure Vessel code, let alone be ready for a hydro. As others have said in relation
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to this particular failure example I bet there would be more than the one contributing factor ("The Material") associated with this failure.

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Pressure Vessel Failure during Air Test

Please find attached a couple of photos of a Pneumatic Test Incident

Airfrom pipe work around a tank. There were no blind flanges are placed in order to isolate the pipe work to the tank, only the valves were closed. Probably has one or more valves failed, or were not closed, and the tank also has undergone a pressure test. As a result, there has been a tremendous energy built up in the tank, and the tank "launched" and ended up on top of the installation.
Jan 26 2006 Accident occurred in a factory in Brazil, during pneumatic pressure testing with

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Non Destructive Testing - Testing Equipment Testing-equipment for pressure systems

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Pressure Gauge
Pressure gauges are relatively inexpensive mechanical devices that, for the most part, are read manually. One of the most well-known types is called the Bourdon gauge, which was patented in France by Eugene Bourdon in 1849. Bourdon gauges contain a thin-walled metal tube that is typically threaded into the compartment where pressure is being measured. As pressure increases in the tube, the tube begins to straighten. On the other end of the tube is a lever system that contains a pointer. As the tube straightens, the pointer moves around a dial, indicating pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). Common tube shapes include curved or C-shaped, spiral and helical. This is a mechanical device that is manually read. Another type of mechanical gauge that operates in a similar fashion and also contains a pointer is called a diaphragm gauge. Traditional gauges, such as the Bourdon and diaphragm gauges, are sensitive to vibration and condensation. Another type is called a "filled" pressure gauge, and it is filled with a viscous oil. This design has fewer moving parts than the traditional pressure gauges and is more reliable. This design dampens pointer vibration and is not susceptible to condensation.

Temperature and pressure recorder-receiver

A temperature and pressure recorder-receiver is an instrument designed for general temperature and pressure applications and IT records controlled temperature and pressure on a graph. The static pressure system consists of a helical bourdon tube connected to a piping system, and measure the static pressure. The thermal system consists of a spiral bourdon tube, a capillary, and a bulb. Usually all parts made of stainless steel. The recording mechanism often is a pen system that continuously records data. It converts the mechanical input of the pressure and temperature into lines on a rotating chart.

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Hydrostatic Test Pumps

A Hydrostatic Test Pump is a self-contained, portable, low volume, high pressure pump powered by hand, air, electric, or gas engines, and with a high pressure hose connected to the equipment. The pump is used to check the component to be tested, is being filled up with an incompressible liquid, usually water. With the help of the pump incorporating appropriate safety relief and controls, the pressure of the test component is slowly increased to a predetermined set point and held for a predetermined time. Visual inspection is subsequently performed to determine whether any leakage exists or the pressure reduces from set pressure point. This hydrostatic pressure test equipment is compact, efficient & cost effective, available in different combinations of pressure and flow (pressures to 1000 bar (14,500 psi) are possible). Though theoretically water is considered as non compressible fluid, it requires considerable amount of feeding to raise the pressure.

Non Destructive Testing - Hydrostatic testing Hydrostatic testing of pressure piping systems in practice
Hydrostatic testing of pressure piping is a mandatory activity before finalization of any new or modified piping system. It is the final check of mechanical integrity of the whole system and should be followed religiously as after this activity the piping system has to be commissioned. This test is carried out at a pressure 1.5 times higher than the design pressure of a system regardless of the service conditions of a piping system. This article discuss some of the major requirements of hydrostatic testing of pressure piping as per ASME B31.3 for process piping and specifically provides guidelines on some issues not directly addressed in the code.

Some guidelines
All joints in a test section shall be accessible during tests and shall not be painted, insulated,
backfilled or otherwise covered until satisfactory completion of testing in accordance with the requirements in the specification. All equipment and piping to be pressure tested shall be thoroughly cleaned of all dirt, welding slag, construction debris, or other foreign matter. All vents and other connections which can serve as vents shall be open during filling so that all air is vented prior to applying test pressure to the system. Test vents shall be installed at high points. Drain points for fluid disposal after testing, shall be provided. Equipment which is not to be subjected to pressure test shall be either disconnected from the piping or blocked off during the test. Temporary spades and blanks installed for testing purposes shall be designed to withstand the test pressure without distortion. Presence of spades shall be clearly visible during testing. The recommended practice is to use standard blind flanges as per ASME B16.5 or B16.47 and spades acc. to ASME B16.48. Spring supports shall be restrained or removed and expansion bellows removed during hydrostatic testing. Piping which is spring or counterweight supported shall be blocked up temporarily to a degree sufficient to sustain the weight of the test medium. Holding pins shall not be removed from spring supports until testing is completed and the system is drained. Care shall be taken to avoid overloading any parts of the supporting structures during hydrostatic testing. Barriers shall be erected and where practical, Public Address announcements made and access restriction procedures such as permit to work implemented prior to any pressurisation commencing. Under no circumstances should anyone other than an authorised person be allowed within the safety barriers.
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 An important aspect is, that materials used in pressure systems comply with all the required tests,

all materials are certified and that the engineer has made the right choice of materials. ( see main Menu "Societies" numerous ASTM material standards) Hydrostatic test has to be performed after all hot works have been completed on a certain piping system. Hot work includes everything related to welding or the post weld heat treatment (PWHT). All radiographic and ultrasonic inspections should be carried out before the pressure test is started. Conducting 100% radiography of all the weld joints assure that your weld joints are defect free but can never provide you with the assurance of mechanical integrity of a system. This is also to be noted that radiography / ultrasonic inspection shall also not to be waived off if the pipeline is to be hydrostatically tested. The individual system documentation i.e. test pack shall be available prior to any testing and shall include information such as test limits, test pressure, test medium, duration, test blinds, blind flanges, vents and drains. The use of marked up P&Ids coupled with isolation registers should be utilised to identify the locations of blinds, Valves, vents and drains. Testing equipment such as pumps, manifold, pressure and temperature recorders, pressure gauges should be within calibration/certification (as per company procedures) and connected to the lowest convenient connection within the system to ensure best results. Control Valves and soft-seal block Valves shall be removed from the piping prior to the test and replaced with pipe spools. Check Valves shall have the flap or piston removed for testing, where pressure can not be located on the upstream side of the Valve. The locking device of the flap pivot pin shall be reinstated together with the flap and a new cover gasket shall be installed after completion of the test. Piping which is normally open to the atmosphere, such as drains, vents, discharge piping from pressure relieving devices, sewers, and stack downstream of the seal drum, shall not be subjected to the piping test pressure Rotating machinery, such as pumps, turbines, and compressors. Machinery lube and seal oil systems which could be impaired by the presence of water, shall not be subjected to the piping test pressure. Strainer elements, filter elements, expansion joints, and pressure relieving devices, such as rupture discs and pressure Relief Valves. All locally mounted indicating pressure gauges.

Preparation and Testing

1. Pressure gauges should be fitted at both low and high point when testing large volume systems. 2. The system shall be filled from the lowest available point; all vents and high point connections shall be open during this operation to allow the air in the system to vent off. 3. After the system has been completely vented all vents and drains should be plugged or blinded. Verify that Valves are in place and open/closed as required. 4. Maintain pressure for 10 minutes and then gradually increase pressure in steps of one tenth of the test pressure until the test pressure is attained. The recommended practice of a QC inspector is to walk through the whole piping system and check for leaks. Every single length of piping, welds, bolted connections shall be visually examined for any leakage. Duration of this activity varies with the span of piping system. For larger piping system time taken for this activity is enough to clear the hydrostatic test. In case of piping system having smaller span, 1 hour time may be made as standard practice. 5. Whenever a leak is found from flanged connection, it is advisable not to perform any tightening before the system pressure is brought down to at least 70%. A leak from a weld joint, piping base metal or any other location which may require hot work shall only be addressed after depressurizing the piping under test. 6. After any leaks have been repaired the system shall again be pressurised to the test pressure in stages. 7. The test should be witnessed and accepted by a third party, client representative or a responsible person within the company and signed as accepted. 8. Pressure and ambient temperatures should be recorded throughout the complete test cycle. These charts should form part of the Hydrostatic Test Documentation. 9. On completion of the test, the system shall be depressurised by controlled means and all vents opened prior to draining of the system to avoid any vacuum within the system.

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