Stress, Strain, & Elasticity

Mostly from Dieter

Stress
Nine quantities are required to define the
state of stress at a point.
Moment balance shows; t
ij
= t
ji
Six independent quantities
zx yz xy z y x
t t t o o o , , , , ,
(
(
(

z yz zx
yz y xy
zx xy x
o t t
t o t
t t o
Plane Stress
2-D state of stress
Approached when one dimension of the
body is relatively small (example: thin
plates loaded in the plane of the plate) plates loaded in the plane of the plate)
Plane stress when s
3
= 0
Only three stresses are required
xy y x
and t o o , ,
Principal Stresses
For any state of stress, we can find a set of
planes on which only normal stresses act and
the shearing stresses are zero.
Called Principal Planes and the normal
stresses acting on these planes are Principal stresses acting on these planes are Principal
Stresses denoted as s
1
, s
2
and s
3
Convention, s
1
> s
2
> s
3
The principal directions are orthogonal to each
other
( ) | |
( )
( ) | |
2 / 1
2 2
2 / 1
2 2
4
2 /
2 cos
4
2 sin
xy y x
y x
xy y x
xy
t o o
o o
u
t o o
t
u
+

=
+
=
Orientation
Magnitude
2 / 1
2
2
2 min
1 max
2 2
(
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
=
=
xy
y x y x
t
o o o o
o o
o o
Magnitude
2
2 1
max
o o
t

=
State of stress in 3-D
If , triaxial state of stress
If , cylindrical state of stress
0
3 2 1
= = = o o o
3 2 1
o o o = = If , cylindrical state of stress
If , hydrostatic state of stress
3 2 1
o o o = =
3 2 1
o o o = =
Invariants
2 2 2
3
2 2 2
2
1
2
xy z zx y yz x zx yz xy z y x
zx yz xy x z z y y x
z y x
t o t o t o t t t o o o
t t t o o o o o o
o o o
+ =
+ + =
+ + =
I
I
I
The sum of normal stresses for any orientation
in the coordinate system is equal to the sum of the
normal stresses for any other orientation
Stress Tensor
Stress is a second-rank tensor quantity
Vector is a first-rank tensor quantity
j ij i
S a S =
'
(
(

(
(

(
(

1 13 12 11
'
1
S a a a S
A scalar, which remains unchanged with transformation of
axes, is a zero-rank tensor
No. components =3
n
n tensor-rank
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

3
2
1
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
'
3
'
2
1
S
S
S
a a a
a a a
a a a
S
S
S
Kronecker delta, d
ij
A second-rank unit isotropic tensor
j i =

=
(
(

=
1
0 1 0
0 0 1
o
If we multiply a tensor of n
th
rank with d
ij
,
the product tensor will have (n-2)
th
rank
j i
j i
ij
=
=

=
(
(
(

=
0
1
1 0 0
0 1 0 o
Components of a stress tensor, s
ij
Stress is a symmetric tensor
First invariant of the stress tensor, I
1
I
1
is a scalar
Second Invariant, I
2
, is the sum of principal
minors
Third Invariant, I
3
, is the determinant of the
matrix.
The three invariants are given by the roots
of the following equation.
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(

+
+
=
(

2
2
2
0
0
2
y x
xy
xy
y x
y x
y x
y xy
xy x
o o
t
t
o o
o o
o o
o t
t o
Hydrostatic stress is given by
Decomposition of the stress tensor:
J
1
, J
2
, and J
3
are the principal values of the
deviatoric stress tensor.
J
1
is the sum of the diagonal terms:
J
2
is the sum of the principal minors:
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1
= + + =
m z m y m x
J o o o o o o
(
+ +
=
) ( ) ( ) (
1
2 2 2
y x x z z y
o o o o o o
J
3
is the determinant of the deviatoric stress matrix.
(
(

+ + +
+ +
=
) ( 6
) ( ) ( ) (
6
1
2 2 2
2
xz yz xy
y x x z z y
J
t t t
o o o o o o
Strain
A point can be displaced by translation,
rotation, and deformation.
Deformation can be made up of Deformation can be made up of
dilatation---change in volume
distortion-change in shape
Displacement, u
i
Q(x,y,z) to Q(x+u, y+v, z+w)
u =f(u, v, w)
1-D Strain
u
AB
AB B A
L
L
e
x
c

=
A
=
' '
x
u
dx
dx dx
x
u
dx
c
c
=

c
c
+
=
u = e
x
x
Generalization to 3-D
For 1-D, u = e
x
x
Generalize
xz xy xx
z e y e x e u + + =
j ij i
zz zy xz
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
x e u
z e y e x e w
z e y e x e v
z e y e x e u
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
e
ij
= cu
i
/ c x
j
Displacement Tensor
Produces both shear strain and rigid body rotation
Is e
ij
a satisfactory measure of the strain?
If yes, e
ij
=0 when there is no distortion
Consider a rigid body rotation
(

=
0
0
|
|
ij
e
Decomposition
e
ij
needs to be decomposed into shear strain and
rigid-body rotation
Any second-rank tensor can be decomposed into
a symmetric and an anti-symmetric tensor.
e + = = c
( ) ( )
ji ij ij ji ij ij
ij ij ij
e e and e e
e
= + =
+ =
2
1
2
1
= c
= c
Strain Tensor
Rotation Tensor
Generalized Displacement Relation:
j ij j ij i
x x u = c + =
Principal Strains
Similar in concept to principal stresses
Can identify, principal axes along which there
are no shear strains or rotations, only pure
extension or contraction.
For isotropic solids, principal strain axes For isotropic solids, principal strain axes
coincide with the principal stress axes
Definition of principal strain axes: Three
mutually perpendicular directions in the body
which remain mutually perpendicular during
deformation.
Remain unchanged if and only if v
ij
=0
Dilatation, D
Volume change or dilatation
Note D is the first invariant of the strain tensor
Mean Strain, e = D/3
1 '
1 ) 1 )( 1 )( 1 (
3 2 1
3 2 1
<< + + =
+ + + = A
s for c c c c
c c c
Mean Strain, e
m
= D/3
Strain deviator, e
ij
, is the part of the strain tensor
that represents shape change at constant volume
|
.
|

\
|
A
= =
ij ij m ij j
o c c c c
3
'
Engineering Shear Strains
h
Shear Strain, g = a/h = tanq ~ q
h
Simple Shear
+
Rotation
=
Pure Shear
xy
yx xy
yx xy xy
e e
c
c c

2 =
+ =
+ =
Tensor shear strains
Elasticity (for isotropic solids)
Equations that relate stresses to strains are
known as Constitutive Equations
Hookes law: s
x
=Ee
x
Poissons Relation:
E
x
x z y
vo
vc c c = = =
zx zx yz zy xy xy
G G G t t t = = = ; ;
Need only two elastic constants, E and n
) 1 ( 2 v +
=
E
G
Shear Modulus,
ij kk ij ij
E E
o o
v
o
v
c
+
=
1
Other Elastic Constants
Bulk Modulus,
A

=
A
=
p
K
m
o
=
E
K
Compressibility, b = 1/K
Lams Constant,
) 2 1 ( 3 v
=
E
K
) 2 1 (
2
v
v

=
G
Inversion
A + = c o
ij ij
E
ij kk ij ij
E E
o o
v
o
v
c
+
=
1
E
|
.
|

\
|
A
= =
ij ij m ij j
o c c c c
3
'
A +
+
= c
v
o
ij ij
1
ij ij
Gc o
'
=
'
2
kk ii
Kc o 3 =
Distortion:
Dilatation:
) 1 ( 2 v +
=
E
G
A

=
A
=
p
K
m
o
Plane Stress (s
3
=0):
Plane Strain (e =0):
( )
( )
1 2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
1
vc c
v
o
vc c
v
o
+

=
+

=
E
E
( ) | |
2 1 3 3
0
1
o o v o c = + =
E
Plane Strain (e
3
=0):
( ) | |
( )
2 1 3
2 1 3 3
0
o o v o
o o v o c
+ =
= + =
E
( ) | |
( ) | |
1 2
2
2
2 1
2
1
) 1 ( 1
1
) 1 ( 1
1
o v v o v c
o v v o v c
+ =
+ =
E
E
Strain Energy
Elastic strain energy, U = energy spent by the
external forces in deforming an elastic body
dU=0.5P du = 0.5(s
x
A)(e
x
dx) = 0.5(s
x
e
x
)Adx
Strain Energy/vol.,
1
2 2
x x
E
U
c o
c o = = =
Strain Energy/vol.,
2 2 2
1
0
x x
x x
E
E
U
c o
c o = = =
ij ij
zx zx yz yz xy xy
z z y y x x
U c o
t t t
c o c o c o
2
1
2
1
0
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ + +
=
( ) ( )
1 v
zx zx
yz zy
xy xy
G
G
G
t
t
t
=
=
=
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
0
2
1
2
1
zx yz xy
x z z y y x z y x
G
E E
U
t t t
o o o o o o
v
o o o
+ + +
+ + + + =
ij
ij
U
o
c
=
c
c
0
Atomistic Aspects
(from Ashby and Jones)
E is influenced by two factors
(a) the interatomic bonds spring constant
(b) the packing of atoms no. of springs
Different types of Bonds
Primary: Metallic, ionic, and covalent Primary: Metallic, ionic, and covalent
Strong
Secondary: van der Waals and Hydrogen
Weak
Ionic Bond
n
i
r
B
r
q
U r U + =
0
2
4
) (
tc
Attractive
part
Repulsive
part
q-charge
e -permitivity e
0
-permitivity
of vacuum
n~12
Lacks Directionality
Covalent Bond
) ( ) ( n m
r
B
r
A
r U
n m
< + =
Highly Highly
directional
Metallic bond is
similar
Interatomic
Forces
dr
dU
F = , Force
( )
0
r r F
for small displacements
2
2
dr
U d
dr
dF
S = = Stiffness,
When stretching is small, S is a constant
2
| |
0
2
2
0
r r
dr
U d
S
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Spring Constant
of the Bond
( )
0 0
r r S F =
( )
0 0
r r NS = o
0
0
r
r r
n

= c
No. of bonds/area,
2
0
/ 1 r N =
0
r
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
0
0
r
S
E
n
c
o
Generalized Hookes Law
Fourth-rank tensors (81 components)
Symmetry: s = s and e = e
kl ijkl ij
kl ijkl ij
C
S
c o
o c
=
=
S
ijkl
Compliance Tensor
C
ijkl
Stiffness Tensor
(from Nye: Physical Properties of Crystals)
Symmetry: s
ij
= s
ji
and e
ij
= e
ji
ijlk ijkl lk ijlk kl ijkl
lk ijlk ij kl ijkl ij
S S S S
S S
= =
= =
o o
o c o c
Reduces the no. independent
components from 81 to 36
Contracted Notation
(
(
(

(
(
(

3 4 5
4 2 6
5 6 1
33 23 13
23 22 12
13 12 11
o o o
o o o
o o o
o o o
o o o
o o o
(
(

5 6 1
1 1
c c c
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(

3 4 5
4 2 6
5 6 1
33 23 13
23 22 12
13 12 11
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

66 65 64 63 62 61
56 55 54 53 52 51
46 45 44 43 42 41
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
66 65 64 63 62 61
C C C C C C
Energy consideration
C
mn
=C
nm
Reduces the no. of independent constants to 21
Possible to reduce no. of independent constants
further by considering crystal symmetry
n mn m
S o c =
Tensor notation 11 22 33 23, 32 31, 13 12, 21
Matrix notation 1 2 3 4 5 6
S
ijkl
= S
mn
when m and n are 1, 2, or 3 S
ijkl
= S
mn
when m and n are 1, 2, or 3
2S
ijkl
= S
mn
when either m or n is 4, 5, or 6
4S
ijkl
= S
mn
when both m and n are 4, 5, or 6
S
1111
= S
11
2S
1123
= S
14
4S
2323
= S
44
Example
Measures extension in Ox
3
direction when the
crystal is sheared about the Ox direction
S
34
in orthorhombic crystal
Possible to reduce no. of
independent constants further by
considering crystal symmetry
crystal is sheared about the Ox
1
direction
Operate a diad axis parallel to Ox
2
direction
Crystal remains unaltered because of symmetry
So does extension parallel to Ox
3
, now under
reverse forces
Implies that S
34
has to be necessarily equal to zero
33
Cubic Crystals
Let Ox, Oy, and Oz be parallel to [100],
[010] and [001], respectively.
Rotate by 90. The crystal will look the
same.
33 22 11
C C C = =

66 55 44
31 23 12
33 22 11
C C C
C C C
C C C
= =
= =
= =
Remaining constants
vanish

( )( )
( )( )
12 11 12 11
12
12
12 11 12 11
12 11
11
2
2
S S S S
S
C
S S S S
S S
C
+

=
+
+
=
44
44
12 11 12 11
1
S
C =
Isotropic Solids
Form of the matrix can be obtained from the
cubic matrix by requiring that the components
should be unaltered by a 45 rotation
G
S
E
S
E
S
1 1
44 12 11
=

= =
v
( )
12 11
2 S S X
CompositesIsostrain Analysis
Compatibility:
P
E E E
m
m
f
f
c
c
m f c
= =
= =
o
o
o
c c c
f A A f A A
P P P
E A
P
E A
P
E A
P
c m c f
m f c
m m
m
f f
f
c c
c
= =
+ =
= =
1 / ; /
m f c
E f fE E ) 1 ( + =
Rule-of-Mixtures
Isostress Ananlysis
m f c
m f c
m f c
E
f
E
f
E
f f
o o o
c c c
o o o o
) 1 (
) 1 (

+ =
+ =
= = =
m f c
E E E
f m
m f
c
E f fE
E E
E
) 1 ( +
=
Upper and Lower Bounds