Renewable energy

Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from ongoing natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. Most renewable forms of energy, other than geothermal and tidal power, ultimately come from the Sun. Some forms are stored solar energy such as rainfall and wind power which are considered short-term solar-energy storage, whereas the energy in biomass is accumulated over a period of months, as in straw, or through many years as in wood. Capturing renewable energy by plants, animals and humans does not permanently deplete the resource. Fossil fuels, while theoretically renewable on a very long time-scale, are exploited at rates that may deplete these resources in the near future (see: Hubbert peak). Renewable energy resources may be used directly, or used to create other more convenient forms of energy. Examples of direct use are solar ovens, geothermal heating, and water- and windmills. Examples of indirect use which require energy harvesting are electricity generation through wind turbines or photovoltaic cells, or production of fuels such as ethanol from biomass (see alcohol as a fuel). A parameter sometimes used in renewable energy is the tonne of oil equivalent (toe). This is equal to 10,000 megacal or 41,868 MJ of energy.[1] For aspects of renewable energy use in modern societies see Renewable energy development. For a general discussion, see future energy development.

Defining renewable
The concept of renewable energy was introduced in the 1970s as part of an effort to move beyond nuclear and fossil fuels. The most common definition is that renewable energy is from an energy resource that is replaced rapidly by a natural, ongoing process. Under this definition, neither fossil fuels nor nuclear power are renewable. Nuclear power and coal advocates disagree with this definition, arguing that some renewable energy sources can have as great an impact on the environment as energy sources that don't technically meet this definition.

Sustainable energy
All renewable energy sources are also by definition sustainable, meaning that they will be available far enough into the future that planning for their exhaustion is unnecessary. While neither nuclear power nor fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are regarded as renewable, nuclear power is claimed by its proponents to be sustainable with the use of breeder reactors using uranium-238 or thorium or both. On the other hand, many opponents of nuclear power use the term sustainable energy as a synonym for renewable energy, and exclude nuclear.

Modern sources of renewable energy Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy ultimately comes from radioactive decay in the core of the Earth, which heats the Earth from the inside out, and from the sun, which heats the surface. It can be used in three ways:

Geothermal electricity Geothermal heating, through deep Earth pipes Geothermal heating, through a heat pump.

Usually, the term 'geothermal' is reserved for the thermal energy from the core of the Earth. Geothermal electricity is created by pumping a fluid (oil or water) into the Earth, allowing it to evaporate and using the hot gases vented from the earth's crust to run turbines linked to electrical generators. The geothermal energy from the core of the Earth is closer to the surface in some areas than in others. Where hot underground steam or water can be tapped and brought to the surface it may be used to generate electricity. Such geothermal power sources exist in certain geologically unstable parts of the world such as Iceland, New Zealand, United States, the Philippines and Italy. The two most prominent areas for this in the United States are in the Yellowstone basin and in northern California. Iceland produced 170 MW geothermal power and heated 86% of all houses in the year 2000 through geothermal energy. Some 8000 MW of capacity is operational in total. Geothermal heat from the surface of the Earth can be used on most of the globe directly to heat and cool buildings. The temperature of the crust a few feet below the surface is buffered to a constant 714C (45-58F), so a liquid can be pre-heated or pre-cooled in underground pipelines, providing free cooling in the summer and, via a heat pump, heating in the winter. Other direct uses are in agriculture (greenhouses), aquaculture and industry. Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, eventually specific locations cool down. Some interpret this as meaning a specific geothermal location can undergo depletion. Others see such an interpretation as an inaccurate usage of the word depletion because the overall supply of geothermal energy on Earth, and its source, remain nearly constant. Geothermal energy depends on local geological instability, which, by definition, is unpredictable, and might stabilise. The present consumption of Geothermal energy does not in any way threaten or diminish the quality of life for future generations, consequently, it is considered a renewable energy source.

Solar energy
The solar panels (photovoltaic arrays) on this small yacht at sea can charge the 12 V batteries at up to 9 amperes in full, direct sunlight. Since most renewable energy is ultimately "solar energy" this term is slightly confusing and used in two different ways: firstly as a synonym for "renewable energies" as a whole and secondly for the energy that is directly collected from sunlight. In this section it is used in the latter category. Solar power can be used to:

generate electricity using solar cells generate electricity using thermal power plants generate electricity using solar towers

heat buildings, directly heat buildings, through heat pumps heat foodstuffs, through solar ovens.

Obviously the sun does not provide constant energy to any spot on the Earth, so its use is limited. Solar cells are often used to power batteries, as most other applications would require a secondary energy source, to cope with outages. Some homeowners use a solar system which sells energy to the grid during the day, and draw energy from the grid at night; this is to everyone's advantage, since power demand for air conditioning is highest during the day.

Wind energy
As the sun heats up the Earth unevenly, winds are formed. The kinetic energy in the wind can be used to run wind turbines, some capable of producing 5 MW of power. The power output is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so such turbines generally require a wind in the range 5.5 m/s (20 km/h), and in practice relatively few land areas have significant prevailing winds. Luckily, offshore or at high altitudes, the winds are much more constant. There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating in various parts of the world, with utility companies having a total capacity of over 47,317MW [2]. Capacity probably means maximum possible output which does not count load factor. It is worth to notice this number suggest much higher real percentage of power supply that it really have. New wind farms and offshore wind parks are being planned and built all over the world. This has been the most rapidly-growing means of electricity generation at the turn of the 21st century and provides a complement to large-scale base-load power stations. Most deployed turbines produce electricity about 25% of the time (load factor 25%), but some reach 35%. The load factor is generally higher in winter. It means that 5MW turbine can have average output of 1,7MW in the best case. Global winds long-term technical potential is believed 5 times current global energy consumption or 40 times current electricity demand. This requires 12.7% of all land area, or that land area with Class 3 or greater potential at a height of 80 meters. It assumes that the land is covered with 6 large wind turbines per square kilometer. Offshore resources experience mean wind speeds ~90% greater than that of land, so offshore resources could contribute substantially more energy.[3][4]. This number could also increase with higher altitude ground based or airborne wind turbines [5]. There is resistance to the establishment of land based wind farms owing initially to perceptions they are noisy and contribute to "visual pollution," i.e., they are considered to be eyesores. Many people also claim that turbines kill birds, and that they in general do little for the environment. Others have argued that they find the turbines beautiful, that turbines out at sea are invisible to anyone on the shore, that cars kill more birds annually and that turbines are continuing to evolve. Wind strengths vary and thus cannot guarantee continuous power. Some estimates suggest that 1,000MW of wind generation capacity can be relied on for just 333MW of continuous power. While this might change as technology evolves, advocates have suggested incorporating wind power with other power sources, or the use of energy storage techniques, with this in mind. It is best used in the context of a system that has significant reserve capacity such as hydro, or reserve load, such as a desalination plant, to mitigate the economic effects of resource variability. Wind power is renewable.

Water power
Energy in water can be harnessed and used, in the form of motive energy or temperature differences. Since water is about a thousand times heavier than air is, even a slow flowing stream of water can yield great amounts of energy. There are many forms:

Hydroelectric energy, a term usually reserved for hydroelectric dams. Tidal power, which captures energy from the tides in horizontal direction. Tides come in, raise waterlevels in a basin, and tides roll out. The water must pass through a turbine to get out of the basin. Tidal stream power, which does the same vertically, capturing the stream of water as it is moved around the world by the tides. Wave power, which uses the energy in waves. The waves will usually move large pontoons up and down. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), which uses the temperature difference between the warmer surface of the ocean and the cool (or cold) lower recesses. To this end, it employs a cyclic heat engine. Deep lake water cooling, not technically an energy generation method, though it can save a lot of energy in summer. It uses submerged pipes as a heat sink for climate control systems. Lake-bottom water is a year-round local constant of about 4 C.

Hydroelectric power is probably not a major option for the future of energy production in the developed nations because most major sites within these nations with the potential for harnessing gravity in this way are either already being exploited or are unavailable for other reasons such as environmental considerations. Building a dam often involves flooding large areas of land, changing habitats, and while hydroelectric energy produces essentially no carbon dioxide, recent reports have linked hydroelectric power to methane, which forms out of decaying submerged plants which grow in the dried up parts of the basis in times of drought. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas. The other methods of energy generation (and cooling) have had varying degrees of success in the field. Wave and tidal power prove hard to tap, while OTEC has not been field tested on a large scale. The general public mostly considers water power energy to be renewable.

Biomass
Plants partly use photosynthesis to store solar energy, water and CO2. Biofuel is any fuel that derives from biomass - recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. It is a renewable energy. Typically biofuel is burned to release its stored chemical energy. Research into more efficient methods of converting biofuels and other fuels into electricity utilizing fuel cells is an area of very active work. Biomass, also known as biomatter, can be used directly as fuel or to produce liquid biofuel. Agriculturally produced biomass fuels, such as biodiesel, ethanol and bagasse (often a byproduct of sugar cane cultivation) can be burned in internal combustion engines or boilers. A drawback is that all biomass needs to go through some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. Biomatter energy, under the right conditions, is considered to be renewable.

Liquid biofuel Liquid biofuel is usually bioalcohol such as methanol, ethanol and biodiesel. Biodiesel can be used in modern diesel vehicles with little or no modification and can be obtained from waste and crude vegetable and animal oil and fats (lipids). In some areas corn, sugarbeets, cane and grasses are grown specifically to produce ethanol (also known as alcohol) a liquid which can be used in internal combustion engines and fuel cells. The EU plans to add 5% bioethanol to Europe's petrol by 2010. For the UK alone the production would require 12,000 square kilometres of the country's 65,000 square kilometres of arable land. Other, more efficient sources of biofuel, such as palm and soya oil, would probably have a significant negative environmental impact due to habitat damage in the areas in which they are grown. Solid biomass Direct use is usually in the form of combustible solids, either firewood or combustible field crops. Field crops may be grown specifically for combustion or may be used for other purposes, and the processed plant waste then used for combustion. Most sorts of biomatter, including dried manure, can actually be burnt to heat water and to drive turbines. Sugar cane residue, wheat chaff, corn cobs and other plant matter can be, and is, burnt quite successfully. The process releases no net CO2. Solid biomass can also be gasified, and used as described in the next section. Biogas Many organic materials can release gases, due to metabolisation of organic matter by bacteria (fermentation). Landfills actually need to release this gas to prevent dangerous explosions. Animal feces releases methane under the influence of anaerobic bacteria. Also, under high pressure, high temperature, anaerobic conditions many organic materials such as wood can be gasified to produce gas. This is often found to be more efficient than direct burning. The gas can then be used to generate electricity and/or heat. Biogas can easily be produced from current waste streams, such as: paper production, sugar production, sewage, animal waste and so forth. These various waste streams have to be slurried together and allowed to naturally ferment, producing methane gas. We just need to convert current sewage plants to biogas plants, build more locally centered smaller biogas plants and plan for the future. Biogas production has the capacity to provide us with about half of our energy needs, either burned for electrical productions or piped into current gas lines for use. It just has to be done and made a priority. Besides, when a plant has extracted all the methane it can, we are left with a better fertilizer for our farms than we started with.

Small scale energy sources

There are many small scale energy sources that generally cannot be scaled up to industrial size. A short list:

Piezo electric crystals generate a small voltage whenever they are mechanically deformed. Vibration from engines can stimulate piezo electric crystals, as can the heels of shoes Some watches are already powered by kinetics, in this case movement of the arm Electrokinetics generate electricity from the kinetic energy in water that is pumped through tiny channels

Special antennae can collect energy from stray radio waves or theoretically even light (EM radiation).

Issues
Aesthetics, habitat hazards and land use
Some people dislike the aesthetics of wind turbines or bring up nature conservation issues when it comes to large solar-electric installations outside of cities. Some people try to utilize these renewable technologies in an efficient and aesthetically pleasing way: fixed solar collectors can double as noise barriers along highways, roof-tops are available already and could even be replaced totally by solar collectors, amorphous photovoltaic cells can be used to tint windows and produce energy etc. Some renewable energy capture systems entail unique environmental problems. For instance, wind turbines can be hazardous to flying birds, while hydroelectric dams can create barriers for migrating fish - a serious problem in the Pacific Northwest that has decimated the numbers of many salmon populations. Burning biomass and biofuels causes air pollution similar to that of burning fossil fuels, although it causes a lower greenhouse effect since the carbon placed in the atmosphere was already there before the plants were grown, rather than being "new" carbon from fossil fuels . Another problem with many renewables, especially biomass and biofuels, is the large amount of land required, which otherwise could be left as wilderness.

Concentration
Another inherent difficulty with renewables is their variable and diffuse nature (the exception being geothermal energy, which is however only accessible in exceptional locations). Since renewable energy sources are providing relatively low-intensity energy, the new kinds of "power plants" needed to convert the sources into usable energy need to be distributed over large areas. Electrical power consumption in Western countries averages about 100 watts per person (i.e. about 1000 kWh per year). In cloudy Europe this would require about eight square meters of solar panels, assuming a below-average solar conversion rate of 12.5%. Systematic electrical generation requires reliable overlapping sources or some means of storage on a reasonable scale (pumped-storage hydro systems, batteries, hydrogen fuel cells, etc). So, because of current costs of such energy storage systems, a stand-alone system is only economic in rare cases, or where a connection to a public grid would be impractical.

Proximity to demand
The geographic diversity of resources is also significant. Some countries and regions have significantly better resources than others in particular RE sectors. Some nations have significant resources at distance from the major population centers where electricity demand exists. Exploiting such resources on a large scale is likely to require considerable investment in transmission and distribution networks as well as in the technology itself.

Availability
One recurring criticism of renewable sources is their intermittant nature. Solar insolation, for example can only be expected to be available during the day (50% of the time). Wind energy is

somewhat more available, while geothermal and wave energy are available all of the time, although the intensity of the waves varies season to season. A wave energy scheme installed in Austrailia is generating electricity with an 80% availability factor.

Fossil fuels
Renewable energy sources are fundamentally different from fossil fuel or nuclear power plants because the Sun will 'power' these 'power plants' (meaning sunlight, the wind, flowing water, etc.) for the next 4 billion years. They also do not directly produce greenhouse gases and other emissions, as fossil fuel combustion does. Most do not introduce any global new risks such as nuclear waste. Fossil fuels are not considered a renewable energy source, but are often compared and contrasted with renewables in the context of future energy development. The traditionally, though not universally, held Western (biogenic) theory postulates that fossil fuels are the altered remnants of ancient plant and animal life deposited in sedimentary rocks. They were formed millions of years ago and have rested underground, mostly dormant, since that time. In contrast, the Abiogenic petroleum origin theory states that petroleum (or crude oil) is primarily created from non-biological sources of hydrocarbons located deep in the Earth. This view was championed by Fred Hoyle in his book The Unity of the Universe. Though it is possible to produce complex hydrocarbons artificially by using the Fischer-Tropsch process, this process does not generate energy, and cannot be considered a large scale solution to the energy problem. The coal industry in the US is publicly claiming coal is renewable energy because the coal was originally biomass. However, the biomass of fossil fuels was produced on the time scale of millions of years through a series of events and it is considered to be a deposit of energy, not an energy flow. Some scientist hold the view that the formation of fossil fuels was a one-time event, made possible by unique conditions during the Devonian period, such as increased oxygen levels and huge swamps. When the term renewable was introduced (see Defining renewable within this article), it was a generally held belief that the Earth's sources would be depleted within some 50 years. Since then, large deposits of deep-Earth oil have been found, which has extended this timetable. Because the current rate of consumption exceeds the rate of renewal (if, indeed, there is renewal of fossil fuels), the Earth will eventually run out of fossil fuels (see peak oil).

Transmission
If renewable and distributed generation were to become widespread, electric power transmission and electricity distribution systems might no longer be the main distributors of electrical energy but would operate to balance the electricity needs of local communities. Those with surplus energy would sell to areas needing "top ups". That is, network operation would require a shift from 'passive management' - where generators are hooked up and the system is operated to get electricity 'downstream' to the consumer - to 'active management', wherein generators are spread across a network and inputs and outputs need to be constantly monitored to ensure proper balancing occurs within the system. Some Governments and regulators are moving to address this, though much remains to be done. One potential solution is the increased use of active management of electricity transmission and distribution networks. This will require significant changes in the way that such networks are operated. However, on a small scale, use of renewable energy that can often be produced "on the spot" lowers

the requirements electricity distribution systems have to fulfill. Current systems, while rarely economically efficient, have proven an average household with a solar panel array and energy storage system of the right size needs electricity from outside sources for only a few hours every week. Hence, advocates of renewable energy believe electricity distribution systems will become smaller and easier to manage, rather than the opposite.

Historical usage of renewable energy

Throughout history, various forms of renewable and non-renewable energies have been employed.

Wood was the earliest manipulated energy source in human history, being used as a thermal energy source through burning, and it is still important in this context today. Burning wood was important for both cooking and providing heat, enabling human presence in cold climates. Special types of wood cooking, food dehydration and smoke curing, also enabled human societies to safely store perishable foodstuffs through the year. Eventually, it was discovered that partial combustion in the relative absence of oxygen could produce charcoal, which provided a hotter and more compact and portable energy source. However, this was not a more efficient energy source, because it required a large input in wood to create the charcoal. Animal power for vehicles and mechanical devices was originally produced through animal traction. Animals such as horses and oxen not only provided transportation but also powered mills. Animals are still extensively in use in many parts of the world for these purposes. Water power eventually supplanted animal power for mills, wherever the power of falling water in rivers was exploitable . Water power through hydroelectricity continues to be the least expensive method of storing and generating dispatchable energy throughout the world. Historically as well as presently, hydroelectricity provides more renewable energy than any other renewable source. Animal oil, especially whale oil was long burned as an oil for light. Wind power has been used for several hundred years. It was originally used via large sailblade windmills with slow-moving blades, such as those seen in the Netherlands and mentioned in Don Quixote. These large mills usually either pumped water or powered small mills. Newer windmills featured smaller, faster-turning, more compact units with more blades, such as those seen throughout the Great Plains. These were mostly used for pumping water from wells. Recent years have seen the rapid development of wind generation farms by mainstream power companies, using a new generation of large, high wind turbines with two or three immense and relatively slow-moving blades. Today, wind power is the fastest growing energy source in the world. Solar power as a direct energy source has been not been captured by mechanical systems until recent human history, but was captured as an energy source through architecture in certain societies for many centuries. Not until the twentieth century was direct solar input extensively explored via more carefully planned architecture (passive solar) or via heat capture in mechanical systems (active solar) or electrical conversion (photovoltaic). Increasingly today the sun is harnessed for heat and electricity. Attempts to harness the power of ocean waves appears in drawings and patents back to the 19th century. Modern attempts to capture wave power began in the 1970's by Professor Steven Salter who started the Wave Energy Group at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. There are several pilot plants generating power into the grid, and many new and curious designs are in various stages of development and testing.

Terjemahan Bahan-Bakar nuklir digunakan untuk menghasilkan daya nuklir. Isotop spesifik dibakar ke dalam

butir/pil dan yang ditempatkan di (dalam) pipa logam, yang (mana) kemudian adalah memasukkan/menyisipkan ke dalam reaktor inti. [Yang] sekarang ini satu-satunya isotop menggunakan sebagai bahan-bakar nuklir adalah Uranium U-235, Uranium U-238 dan Plutonium Pu-239, walaupun bahan bakar Siklus torium yang diusulkan mempunyai keuntungan. Heavy-Water reaktor dan reaktor graphite-moderated dapat menggunakan uranium karena (itu) adanya ditambang dan disuling, hanyalah mayoritas luas/sangat-banyak reaktor dunia memerlukan [bahwa/yang] perbandingan Uranium-235 ( 235U) ke Uranium-238 ( 238U) ditingkatkan. Di (dalam) reaktor warganegara [adalah] pengayaan ditingkatkan untuk sebanyak . seperti 5% 235U dan 95% 238U, tetapi di (dalam) reaktor kelautan ada sebanyak . seperti 93% 235U.

[yang] digunakan Yang metal untuk tabung tergantung pada disain dari reaktor- baja tahan-karat digunakan di masa lalu, tetapi kebanyakan reaktor sekarang menggunakan Zirconium. Karena jenis [yang] yang paling umum reaktor ( BWRS dan PWRS) tabung dirakit ke dalam bundel ( lihat gambar-an di (dalam) [ 1]) dengan tabung yang spaced jarak tepat terpisah. Bundel ini kemudian adalah memberi suatu nomor;jumlah identifikasi unik, yang (mana) memungkinkan [mereka/nya] untuk;menjadi tracked dari pembuatan melalui/sampai penggunaan dan ke dalam penjualan ( lihat bahan-bakar nuklir beredar). Istilah bahan-bakar nuklir adalah tidak secara normal digunakan untuk kuasa peleburan, yang (mana) memadukan isotop hidrogen ke dalam helium untuk melepaskan energi. Batubara adalah suatu bahan bakar fosil menyadap dari landasan oleh pekerjaan tambang dalam, penambangan batubara ( open-pit [yang] menambang atau potongan [yang] menambang). [Ini] merupakan suatu hitam [yang] gampang menyala atau brownish-black sedimentary batu karang. [Itu] terdiri terutama semata hidrokarbon dan karbon, bersama dengan membagi-bagi unsur-unsur lain, mencakup belerang. Sering yang dihubungkan dengan Revolusi industri, batubara tinggal suatu bahan bakar [yang] penting dan adalah sumber listrik [yang] [yang] umum meliputi seluruh dunia. Di (dalam) Amerika Serikat, sebagai contoh, terbakar batubara menghasilkan (di) atas separuh listrik yang dikonsumsi oleh bangsa.

Batubara merupakan batuan hidrokarbon padat yang terbentuk dari tetumbuhan dalam lingkungan bebas oksigen, serta terkena pengaruh tekanan dan panas yang berlangsung sangat lama. Proses pembentukan (coalification) memerlukan jutaan tahun, mulai dari awal pembentukan yang menghasilkan gambut, lignit, subbituminus, bituminous, dan akhirnya terbentuk antrasit. Di Indonesia, endapan batubara yang bernilai ekonomis terdapat di cekungan Tersier, yang terletak di bagian barat Paparan Sunda (termasuk Pulau Sumatera dan Kalimantan), pada umumnya endapan batubara tersebut tergolong usia muda, yang dapat dikelompokkan sebagai batubara berumur Tersier Bawah dan Tersier Atas. Potensi batubara di Indonesia sangat melimpah, terutama di Pulau Kalimantan dan Pulau Sumatera, sedangkan di daerah lainnya dapat dijumpai batubara walaupun dalam jumlah kecil, seperti di Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Papua, dan Sulawesi.

Minyak bumi Minyak tanah ( dari Yunani Petra batu karang dan oleum minyak), minyak mentah, kadangkadang secara berolok-olok [memanggil/hubungi] emas hitam, adalah suatu warna coklat atau kehijau-hijauan cairan tebal, [yang] gelap. Suatu dongeng [yang] dipercaya adalah [bahwa/yang] minyak [dirinya] sendiri mudah terbakar, bagaimanapun [itu] benar-benar gas yang menguapkan dari minyak yang mudah terbakar. Minyak tanah ada di [dalam] strata [yang] bagian atas beberapa area Bumi kulit keras. Nama yang lain adalah minyak nafta, dari naft Persia atau naft ( untuk mengalir). [Itu] terdiri dari suatu campuran [yang] kompleks berbagai hidrokarbon, [yang] sebagian besar (menyangkut) alkane rangkaian, tetapi boleh bertukar-tukar banyak di (dalam) penampilan, komposisi, dan kemurnian. Adalah suatu [yang] penting " energi utama" sumber ( IEA Menyetem Statistik Energi Dunia). Minyak tanah adalah juga bahan baku untuk banyak bahan kimia produk, mencakup bahan pelarut, pupuk, pestisida, dan plastik.

Teori Biogenic Kebanyakan geolog memandang minyak mentah, [seperti;suka] gas-alam dan batubara, [seperti;sebagai;ketika] produk tekanan dan pemanasan [dari;ttg] tumbuh-tumbuhan jaman kuno (di) atas timbangan waktu berhubungan geologi. Menurut teori ini, [itu] dibentuk dari sisa [yang] yang membusuk [dari;ttg] angkatan laut binatang prasejarah dan [pabrik/tumbuhan] terestrial. (Di) atas banyak berabad-abad [yang] perihal organik ini, lumpur yang bergaul dengan, dikuburkan di

bawah sedimentary lapisan material tebal. Menghasilkan untuk tingkat tinggi panas dan memaksa penyebab [adalah] sisa untuk berubah bentuk, pertama ke dalam suatu material dari lilin mengenal sebagai kerogen, dan kemudian ke dalam cairan dan hidrokarbon berupa gas di (dalam) suatu proses mengenal sebagai catagenesis. Ini kemudian berpindah tempat melalui/sampai batu karang lapisan bersebelahan sampai mereka menjadi bawah tanah terjerat di (dalam) batu karang menyerap [memanggil/hubungi] reservoir, membentuk suatu ladang minyak, dari yang mana cairan dapat disadap oleh mengebor;drill dan memompa. Energi yang diperbaharui Energi dapat diperbaharui ( sumber) atau ULANG menangkap energi mereka dari arus tenaga ada, dari proses alami berkesinambungan, seperti sinar matahari, angin, mengalir air, proses biologi, dan aliran bahang panas bumi. bentuk energi [yang] paling Dapat diperbaharui, selain dari geothermal dan pasang surut kuasa, [yang] akhirnya datang dari matahari. Beberapa format disimpan energi matahari seperti curah hujan dan memutar kuasa yang (mana) dipertimbangkan solar-energy [gudang/penyimpanan] jangka pendek, sedangkan energi di (dalam) biomass ter/dikumpulkan (di) atas masa bulan, seperti di jerami, atau melalui banyak tahun seperti di kayu. Menangkap energi dapat diperbaharui [oleh/dengan] [pabrik/tumbuhan], manusia dan binatang tidak untuk selamanya menghabiskan sumber daya itu. Bahan bakar fosil, [selagi/sedang] [yang] dapat diperbaharui pada [atas] suatu time-scale sangat panjang, dimanfaatkan pada tingkat tarip yang boleh menghabiskan sumber daya ini di masa dekat mendatang ( lihat: Hubbert puncak). Sumber daya energi dapat diperbaharui mungkin (adalah) digunakan secara langsung, atau digunakan untuk menciptakan bentuk energi menyenangkan lebih lain. Contoh [dari;ttg] penggunaan langsung adalah tungku matahari, geothermal [yang] memanaskan, dan air- dan kincir angin. Contoh [dari;ttg] penggunaan tidak langsung yang (mana) memerlukan pemanenan energi adalah generasi listrik melalui/sampai turbin angin atau sel photovoltaic, atau produksi bahan bakar seperti ethanol dari biomass ( lihat alkohol sebagai bahan bakar). Suatu parameter kadang-kadang yang digunakan di (dalam) energi dapat diperbaharui adalah ton padanan minyak ( jari kaki). Ini memadai;sama dengan 10,000 megacal atau 41,868 MJ energy.[1] Karena aspek [dari;ttg] energi dapat diperbaharui menggunakan di (dalam) masyarakat modern

lihat pengembangan energi Dapat diperbaharui. Karena suatu diskusi umum, lihat masa depan energi pengembangan.

Geothermal Penjelasan dapat diperbaharui Konsep [dari;ttg] energi dapat diperbaharui diperkenalkan di 1970s sebagai bagian dari suatu usaha untuk pindah;gerakkan di luar nuklir dan bahan bakar fosil. definisi [yang] Yang paling umum adalah energi [yang] dapat diperbaharui itu adalah dari suatu sumber daya energi yang digantikan dengan cepat oleh suatu proses alami, [yang] berkelanjutan. Di bawah definisi ini, [bukan/tidak] bahan bakar maupun daya nuklir fosil dapat diperbaharui. Daya nuklir dan batubara advokat tidak setuju dengan definisi ini, membantah bahwa beberapa sumber energi dapat diperbaharui dapat mempunyai [sebagai/ketika/sebab] agung suatu dampak pada [atas] lingkungan [sebagai/ketika] sumber energi yang tidak secara teknis temu definisi ini. [ mengedit] Energi bisa menopang Semua sumber energi dapat diperbaharui adalah juga menurut definisi bisa menopang, maksud/arti yang mereka akan [jadi] jauh tersedia cukup ke masa depan perencanaan itu untuk kelelahan mereka tak perlu. [Selagi/Sedang] [bukan/tidak] daya nuklir maupun fosil bahan bakar seperti batubara, minyak, dan gas-alam dihormati [ketika;seperti] dapat diperbaharui, daya nuklir diklaim oleh penganjur nya untuk bisa menopang dengan penggunaan reaktor pembiak yang menggunakan uranium-238 atau torium atau kedua-duanya. Pada sisi lain, banyak lawan daya nuklir menggunakan istilah energi bisa menopang sebagai sinonim untuk energi dapat diperbaharui, dan mengeluarkan/meniadakan nuklir.

Geothermal energi Artikel utama: Geothermal energi Geothermal energi [yang] akhirnya datang dari pelapukan radioaktif di [dalam] inti Bumi, yang (mana) memanaskan bumi dari di dalam ke luar, dan dari matahari, yang (mana) memanaskan permukaan itu. [Itu] dapat digunakan di (dalam) tiga jalan:

Geothermal listrik Geothermal [yang] memanaskan, melalui/sampai Pipa bumi dalam Geothermal [yang] memanaskan, melalui suatu pompa bahang. [Yang] pada umumnya, istilah ' geothermal' disediakan untuk energi yang yang berkenaan dengan panas dari inti dari Bumi. Geothermal listrik diciptakan dengan pemompaan suatu cairan ( meminyaki atau TERPOTONG. ALINEA TERLALU BESAR) Karena;Sejak] energi [yang] paling dapat diperbaharui akhirnya " energi matahari" istilah ini adalah sedikit mengacaukan dan yang digunakan di (dalam) dua jalan berbeda: [yang] pertama-tama sebagai sinonim untuk " energi dapat diperbaharui" secara keseluruhan dan yang kedua untuk energi yang secara langsung dikumpulkan dari cahaya matahari. Di (dalam) bagian ini [itu] digunakan kemudian kategori. Kuasa matahari dapat digunakan untuk: Sungguh-Sungguh matahari tidak menghasilkan energi tetap [bagi/kepada] manapun noda pada [atas] bumi, sangat penggunaannya terbatas. Sel matahari adalah sering digunakan untuk menggerakkan baterei, [seperti/ketika] hampir semua aplikasi akan memerlukan suatu sumber energi sekunder, untuk mengatasi outages. Beberapa pemilik rumah menggunakan suatu sistem matahari yang (mana) menjual energi kepada panggangan sepanjang hari, dan [menggambar/menarik] energi dari panggangan pada malam hari; ini akan keuntungan semua orang, karena kuasa menuntut untuk proses pengaturan suhu adalah paling tinggi sepanjang hari. Energi angin angin Energi [Sebagai/Ketika/Sebab] matahari memanaskan bumi [yang] tidak samarata, angin dibentuk. Tenaga gerak di (dalam) angin dapat digunakan untuk turbin angin lari, beberapa mampu untuk memproduksi 5 MW kuasa. Keluaran kuasa adalah suatu fungsi (menyangkut) pangkat tiga dari kecepatan angin, maka turbin seperti (itu) biasanya memerlukan suatu angin di (dalam) cakupan 5.5 m/s ( 20 km/h), dan dalam praktek secara relatif sedikit area daratan mempunyai angin umum penting. [Yang] sungguh beruntung, lepas pantai atau pada ketinggian tinggi, angin jauh lebih tetap. Sekarang ada banyak beribu-ribu turbin angin yang beroperasi dalam berbagai bagian-bagian dari dunia, dengan perusahaan kegunaan [yang] mempunyai;nikmati suatu total kapasitas (di) atas 47,317MW [ 2]. Kapasitas [yang] mungkin berarti keluaran mungkin maksimum yang tidak menghitung faktor pembebanan. [Itu] adalah berharga untuk berpesan nomor;jumlah ini menyarankan persen dari riil jauh lebih tinggi kuasa menyediakan bahwa itu benar-benar

mempunyai. Angin baru bertani dan taman angin lepas pantai sedang direncanakan dan dibangun seluruh penjuru dunia. Ini telah (menjadi) paling rapidly-growing alat-alat generasi listrik di putaran dari abad 21 dan menyediakan suatu komplemen ke base-load pembangkit listrik besar-besaran. turbin [yang] paling Menyebar menghasilkan listrik tentang 25% tentang waktu ( faktor pembebanan 25%), tetapi beberapa jangkauan 35%. Faktor pembebanan yang lebih tinggi biasanya pada waktu musim dingin. Ini berarti 5MW turbin itu dapat mempunyai rata-rata keluaran 1,7MW di (dalam) kasus yang terbaik. Angin global yang jangka panjang potensi teknis dipercaya 5 kali arus konsumsi energi global atau 40 kali permintaan listrik arus. Ini memerlukan 12.7% dari semua area daratan, atau area daratan itu dengan Kelas 3 atau potensi lebih besar pada suatu tingginya 80 meter. [Itu] berasumsi bahwa daratan mempunyai sejumlah 6 besar TERPOTONG. ALINEA TERLALU BESAR. Ada perlawanan kepada penetapan [dari;ttg] kebun angin berpangkalan di darat berhutang pada awalnya ke persepsi [yang] mereka adalah ribut dan berperan untuk " polusi visuil," yaitu., mereka dianggap sebagai perusak pemandangan. Banyak orang juga mengakui burung-burung mangsa turbin itu, dan bahwa mereka di dalam umum lakukan [yang] sedikit/kecil untuk lingkungan.

(Orang) yang lain sudah berargumentasi bahwa mereka temukan keindahan turbin, yang [itu] turbin ke luar sedang di laut adalah tak kelihatan ke seseorang pada [atas] pantai, yang [itu] [kereta;mobil] membunuh lebih [] burung-burung [yang] tiap-tiap tahun dan turbin itu sedang melanjutkan untuk meningkatkan. Kekuatan angin bertukar-tukar dan begitu tidak bisa menjamin kuasa berlanjut. Beberapa perkiraan menyatakan bahwa 1,000MW kapasitas generasi angin dapat didasarkan pada untuk [hanya;baru saja] 333MW [dari;ttg] kuasa berlanjut. [Selagi/Sedang] ini mungkin ber;ubah [ketika;seperti] teknologi meningkatkan, advokat sudah mengusulkan menemani angin menggerakkan dengan sumber kuasa lain, atau penggunaan teknik [gudang/penyimpanan] energi, dengan pemikiran ini. [Itu] terbaik digunakan dalam konteks suatu sistem yang mempunyai cadangan kapaisitas penting seperti hidro, atau beban cadangan, seperti suatu desalination [pabrik/tumbuhan], untuk mengurangi efek sumber daya variabilitas yang ekonomi. Kuasa angin dapat diperbaharui.

Energi air

Tenaga air Artikel utama: Tenaga air Energi di (dalam) air dapat dimanfaatkan dan digunakan, dalam wujud tenaga gerak atau temperatur perbedaan. [Karena;Sejak] air adalah sekitar seribu [kali;zaman] yang lebih berat dibanding udara adalah, bahkan suatu arus air [yang] mengalir lambat dapat menghasilkan sejumlah energi agung. Ada banyak format: Energi listrik tenaga air, suatu istilah [yang] pada umumnya menyediakan untuk tanggul listrik tenaga air. pasang surut Kuasa, yang (mana) menangkap energi dari pasang di (dalam) arah horisontal. Pasang masuk, menaikkan waterlevels di (dalam) suatu kolom/dok/bak, dan pasang meratakan/melicinkan. Air harus menerobos suatu turbin untuk lepas dari (menyangkut) kolom/dok/bak. Kuasa arus pasang surut, . yang manakah yang sama dengan tegak lurus, menangkap arus air karena (itu) adanya gelisah dunia oleh pasang. Kuasa gelombang/lambaian, yang (mana) menggunakan energi di (dalam) ombak. Ombak akan pada umumnya pindah;gerakkan ponton besar naik turun. Samudra konversi energi yang berkenaan dengan panas ( OTEC), yang (mana) menggunakan perbedaan temperatur antar[a] permukaan lebih hangat dari samudra dan yang dingin ( atau dingin) istirahat/ruang kecil yang lebih rendah. Sampailah di sini, [itu] mempekerjakan suatu mesin kalori siklis. Air danau dalam [yang] mendingin, tidak secara teknis suatu metoda generasi energi, meskipun [demikian] [itu] dapat [menyelamatkan;menabung] banyak energi di (dalam) musim panas. [Itu] penggunaan menyelam pipa sebagai sungap bahang untuk sistem kontrol iklim. Lake-Bottom air adalah suatu sepanjang tahun [yang] tetap lokal untuk sekitar 4 C. Kuasa listrik tenaga air mungkin tak satu pilihan utama pun untuk masa depan produksi energi di (dalam) bangsa-bangsa maju sebab lokasi [yang] paling utama di dalam negara-negara ini dengan potensi untuk pemanfaatan gaya berat dengan cara ini adalah yang manapun telah yang sedang

dimanfaatkan atau adalah tak tersedia untuk pertimbangan [yang] lain seperti pertimbangan lingkungan. Bangunan suatu tanggul sering melibatkan menggenangi area daratan besar, mengubah tempat kediaman, dan TERPOTONG. ALINEA TERLALU BESAR, Biomass Biomass Artikel utama: Biofuel Menanam sebagian menggunakan fotosintesis untuk menyimpan energi matahari, air dan CO2. Biofuel adalah manapun bahan bakar yang berasal dari biomass- baru-baru ini [hidup/tinggal] organisma atau [yang] berkenaan dengan metabolisme mereka byproducts, seperti pupuk dari para sapi. [Ini] merupakan suatu energi dapat diperbaharui. [Yang] secara khas biofuel dibakar untuk melepaskan bahan kimia energi disimpan nya. MeRisetlah metoda [yang] [yang] efisien dalam mengubah biofuels dan bahan bakar lain ke dalam listrik yang memanfaatkan sel bahan-bakar adalah suatu area [dari;ttg] pekerjaan [yang] sangat aktip. Biomass, juga mengenal sebagai biomatter, dapat digunakan secara langsung [sebagai/ketika] bahan bakar atau untuk menghasilkan cairan biofuel. dengan cara agraris Diproduksi biomass bahan bakar, seperti biodiesel, ethanol dan ampas tebu ( sering suatu hasil sampingan tebu penanaman) dapat dibakar di (dalam) mesin pembakaran bag. dalam atau ketel uap. Suatu kelemahan adalah bahwa semua biomass harus [berhasil; keliling] sebagian dari langkahlangkah ini: [itu] perlu untuk tumbuh, dikumpulkan, mengeringkan, dibakar dan fermented. Semua langkah-langkah ini memerlukan sumber daya dan suatu infrastruktur. Biomatter energi, di bawah [hak/ kebenaran] kondisi-kondisi, dianggap sebagai dapat diperbaharui.

Energi fosil Bahan bakar fosil Artikel utama: Bahan bakar fosil Sumber energi dapat diperbaharui pada dasarnya berbeda dari bahan bakar atau daya nuklir fosil menanam sebab matahari akan ' kuasa' ini ' pembangkit tenaga listrik' ( cahaya matahari maksud/arti, angin, mengalir air, dll.) untuk/karena [yang] yang berikutnya 4 milyar (Am.) tahun.

Mereka juga tidak secara langsung menghasilkan rumah kaca memasang gas dan emisi/ pancaran lain, [sebagai/ketika/sebab] bahan bakar pembakaran fosil mengerjakan. Kebanyakan tidak memperkenalkan manapun resiko [yang] baru global seperti barang sisa nuklir. Bahan bakar fosil adalah tidak dipertimbangkan suatu sumber energi dapat diperbaharui, tetapi adalah sering dibandingkan dan dibandingkan dengan dalam konteks dapat diperbaharui masa depan energi pengembangan. Secara kebiasaan, meskipun [demikian] tidak yang bersifat universal, Film koboi/ buku koboi yang dipegang ( biogenic) teori mendalilkan bahan bakar fosil itu adalah sisa-sisa [yang] yang diubah [dari;ttg] kehidupan hewan dan [pabrik/tumbuhan] jaman kuno disimpan di (dalam) sedimentary batu karang. Mereka dibentuk berjuta-juta tahun yang lalu dan sudah beristirahat bawah tanah, kebanyakan tidur, sejak itu. Di (dalam) kontras, minyak tanah asal teori negara Yang Abiogenic yang minyak tanah ( atau minyak mentah) apakah terutama semata diciptakan dari sumber hidrokarbon [yang] tidak biologi menempatkan asyik bumi. Pandangan ini adalah championed oleh Hoyle Fred di (dalam) buku nya Kesatuan dari Alam semesta. Meskipun [demikian] adalah mungkin untuk menghasilkan hidrokarbon kompleks [yang] secara palsu [oleh/dengan] penggunaan Fischer-Tropsch proses, proses ini tidak menghasilkan energi, dan tidak bisa dipertimbangkan suatu solusi besar-besaran kepada masalah energi. Industri batubara di (dalam) AS didepan umum batubara mengakui adalah energi dapat diperbaharui sebab batubara mula-mula biomass. Bagaimanapun, biomass bahan bakar fosil diproduksi pada [atas] skala waktu berjuta-juta tahun melalui suatu rangkaian peristiwa dan [itu] dianggap sebagai suatu deposito energi, [yang] bukan suatu energi TERPOTONG. ALINEA TERLALU BESAR.