UNIT II

BUSINESS AND ITS

LESSON 12: EXTERNAL EXCHANGES
DIMENSIONS OF POLLUTION CONTROL CHAPTER 3:
ETHICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Dear students, today we will talk about ethical perspectives on The moment you step out of the house and are on the road you
environmental pollution. can actually see the air getting polluted; a cloud of smoke from
the exhaust of a bus, car, or a scooter; smoke billowing from a
Points to be covered in this lesson:
factory chimney, fly ash generated by thermal power plants, and
• Concept of environmental ethics speeding cars causing dust to rise from the roads. Natural
• Pollution and its impacts phenomena such as the eruption of a volcano and even
someone smoking a cigarette can also cause air pollution.
Environmental Ethics
A study of conceptual and moral issues concerning the growth
of human population, consumption of resources, animal rights,
the moral status of nature and species, etc.
Some Issues in Environmental Ethics
• Why should we care about the planet? Or about its
nonhuman residents?
• Do we have any obligations to future generations?
• Who, or what, are the proper subjects of moral
Gaseous Composition of Unpolluted Air
considerations?
• Do animals have any serious moral standing? Do they have
moral rights? Gases Parts per million (vol.)
• Can we use animals and nature in any way that suits us? Nitrogen 756,500
Oxygen 202,900
• On what foundations should we rest our concern for rain
Water 31,200
forest, marine ecology, or natural landscapes?
Argon 9,000
Two kinds of Environmental Strategies Carbon Dioxide 305
• Morally-Indirect Environmental Strategies: Neon 17.4
• We ought to protect the natural environment because, in Helium 5.0
the long run, it is good for us. Methane 0.97-1.16
• Morally-Direct Environmental Strategies: Krypton 0.97
• We ought to protect the natural environment because it is Nitrous oxide 0.49
good for natural environment Hydrogen 0.49
• Or something which is part of natural environment Xenon 0.08
Organic vapours ca.0.02
• The nature contains something that is intrinsically good
• The natural environment itself, or some objects in it, or
some features of these objects, are intrinsically good) Air pollution is aggravated because of four developments:
increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic development,
What is Air Pollution?
and industrialization. The Industrial Revolution in Europe in
the 19th century saw the beginning of air pollution as we know
it today, which has gradually become a global problem.

I’ll go out for a breath of fresh air’ is an often-heard phrase. But

how many of us realize that this has become irrelevant in today’s
world, because the quality of air in our cities is anything but
fresh.

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Air and its Major Pollutants The Major Air Pollutants and their Sources Carbon
One of the formal definitions of air pollution is as follows – monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas that is
‘The presence of one or more contaminants in the atmosphere in produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels
such quality and for such duration as is injurious, or tends to be including petrol, diesel, and wood. It is also produced from the
injurious, to human health or welfare, animal or plant life.’ It is combustion of natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes.
the contamination of air by the discharge of harmful substances. It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. It can
Air pollution can cause health problems and it can also damage the slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy.
environment and property. It has caused thinning of the Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principle greenhouse gas emitted
protective ozone layer of the atmosphere, as a result of human activities such as the burning of coal, oil,
which is leading to climate change. and natural gases.
Modernization and progress have led to air getting more and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are gases that are released mainly
more polluted over the years. Industries, vehicles, increase in the from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration. When released
population, and urbanization are some of the major factors into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come in
responsible for air pollution. The following industries are among contact with few other gases, which lead to a reduction of the
those that emit a great deal of pollutants into the air: thermal ozone layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet
power plants, cement, steel, refineries, petro chemicals, and mines. rays of the sun.
Air pollution results from a variety of causes, not all of which are Lead is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye
within human control. Dust storms in desert areas and smoke products, etc. Lead affects children in particular. It can cause
from forest fires and grass fires contribute to chemical and nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some
particulate pollution of the air. The source of pollution may be in cases, cause cancer.
one country but the impact of pollution may be felt elsewhere.
Ozone occurs naturally in the upper layers of the atmosphere.
The discovery of pesticides in Antarctica, where they have never
This important gas shields the earth from the harmful ultravio-
been used, suggests the extent to which aerial transport can carry
let rays of the sun. However, at the ground level, it is a
pollutants from one place to another. Probably the most
pollutant with highly toxic effects. Vehicles and industries are
important natural source of air pollution is volcanic activity,
the major source of ground-level ozone emissions. Ozone
which at times pours great amounts of ash and toxic fumes into
makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers our resistance to
the atmosphere. The eruptions of such volcanoes as Krakatoa in
colds and pneumonia.
Indonesia, Mt. St. Helens in Washing- ton, USA and Katmai in
Alaska, USA, have been related to measurable climatic changes. Nitrogen oxide (Nox) causes smog and acid rain. It is
produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory
diseases in winters.
Suspended particulate matter
POLLUTANT AVERAGE TIME CONCENTRATION (SPM) consists of solids in the
air in the form of smoke, dust,
and vapor that can remain
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Annual average 60 µg/m3 suspended for extended periods
and is also the main source of
24 hour 80 µg/m3 haze which reduces visibility. The
Annual average 60 µg /m3 finer of these particles, when
Oxides of nitrogen (NO2)
breathed in can lodge in our
24 hour 80 µg /m3 lungs and cause lung damage
and respiratory problems.
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Annual average 140 µg/m3 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a gas
produced from burning coal,
24 hour 200 µg/m3 mainly in thermal power plants.
Annual average 0.75 µg/m 3 Some industrial processes, such
Lead
as production of paper and
24 hour 1.0 µg/m3 smelting of metals, produce
Annual average 2.0 µg/m3 Sulphur dioxide. It is a major
Carbon monoxide
contributor to smog and acid
24 hour 4.0 µg/m3 rain. Sulfur dioxide can lead to
lung diseases.
Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM) Annual average 60 µg/m3

24 hour 100 µg/m3

32 11.292
Acid Rain
Another effect of air pollution is acid rain. The phenomenon
occurs when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the
burning of fossil fuels such as, petrol, diesel, and coal combine
with water vapor in the atmosphere and fall as rain, snow or fog.
These gases can also be emitted from natural sources like
volcanoes. Acid rain causes extensive damage to water, forest, soil
resources and even human health. Many lakes and streams have
been contaminated and this has led to the disappearance of some
species of fish in Europe, USA and Canada as also extensive
damage to forests and other forms of life. It is said that it can
corrode buildings and be hazardous to human health. Because
the contaminants are carried long distances, the sources of acid
rain are difficult to pinpoint and hence difficult to control. For
example, the acid rain that may have damaged some forest in
Canada could have originated in the industrial areas of USA. In
fact, this has created disagreements between Canada and the
United States and among European countries over the causes of
and solutions to the problem of acid rain. The international
scope of the problem has led to the signing of international
agreements on the limitation of sulphur and nitrogen oxide
emissions.
Smog
The term smog was first used in 1905 by Dr H A Des Voeux to
describe the conditions of fog that had soot or smoke in it. Smog
is a combination of various gases with water vapor and dust. A
large part of the gases that form smog is produced when fuels are
burnt. Smog forms when heat and sunlight react with these gases
and fine particles in the air. Smog can affect outlying suburbs and
rural areas as well as big cities. Its occurrences are often linked to
heavy traffic, high temperatures, and calm winds. During the
winter, wind speeds are low and cause the smoke and fog to
stagnate; hence pollution levels can increase near ground level.
This keeps the pollution close to the ground, right where people
are breathing. It hampers visibility and harms the environment.
Heavy smog is greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation. In fact, in the
early part of the 20th century, heavy smog in some parts of
Europe resulted in a decrease in
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the production of natural vitamin D leading to a rise in the
cases of rickets. Smog causes a misty haze similar to fog, but
very different in composition. In fact the word smog has been
coined from a combination of the words fog and smoke. Smog
refers to hazy air that causes difficult breathing conditions.
The most harmful components of smog are ground-level ozone
and fine airborne particles. Ground-level ozone forms when
pollutants released from gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles
and oil-based solvents react with heat and sunlight. It is harmful
to humans, animals, and plants.
The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the beginning
of air pollution in Europe on a large scale and the presence of
smog mainly in Britain. The industries and the households
relied heavily on coal for heating and cooking. Due to the
burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions
of smoke and Sulphur dioxide were much greater in urban areas
than they were during the summer months. Smoke particles
trapped in the fog gave it a yellow/black color and this smog
often settled over cities for many days.
The effects of smog on human health were evident, particularly
when smog persisted for several days. Many people suffered
respiratory problems and increased deaths were recorded,
notably those relating to bronchial causes. A haze of dense
harmful smog would often cover the city of London. The first
smog-related deaths were recorded in London in 1873, when it
killed 500 people. In 1880, the toll was 2000. London had one
of its worst experiences with smog in December 1892. It lasted
for three days and resulted in about 1000 deaths. London
became quite notorious for its smog. By the end of the 19th
century, many people visited London to see the fog. Despite
gradual improvements in air quality during the 20th century,
another major smog occurred in London in December 1952.
The Great London Smog lasted for five days and resulted in
about 4000 more deaths than usual. In response to the Great
London Smog, the government passed its first Clean Air Act in
1956, which aimed to control domestic sources of smoke
pollution by introducing smokeless zones. In addition, the
introduction of cleaner coals led to a reduction in sulphur
dioxide pollution. In the 1940s, severe smog began covering the
city of Los Angeles in the USA.
Relatively little was done to control any type of pollution or to
promote environmental protection until the middle of the 20th
century. Today, smoke and sulphur dioxide pollution in cities is
much lower than in the past, as a result of legislation to control
pollution emissions and cleaner emission technology.
Major Air Pollutants and Associated Health Hazards
Pollutant Health Impacts
RSPM Respiratory illness, including chronic bronchitis and
asthma; heart diseases
SO2 Heart diseases, respiratory problems including pulmonary
emphysema; cancer, eye burning, headache etc.
NO2 Lung irritation, viral infection, chest tightness etc.
SPM Pneumoconiosis, restrictive lung diseases etc.
Benzene Immunotoxicity, asthma, anemia etc.
Ozone Impaired lung function, chest pain, coughing etc.
CO Cherry lips, unconsciousness, asphyxiation etc.
Lead Decreased hemoglobin synthesis, anemia etc.
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Water Pollution
When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and
other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water or
get deposited on the bed. This results in the pollution of water
whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic
ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down and affect the
groundwater deposits.
Water pollution has many sources. The most polluting of them
are the city sewage and industrial waste discharged into the rivers.
The facilities to treat wastewater are not adequate in any city in
India. Presently, only about 10% of the wastewater generated is
treated; the rest is discharged as it is into our water bodies. Due to
this, pollutants enter groundwater, rivers, and other water bodies.
Such water, which ultimately ends up in our households, is often
highly contaminated and carries disease- causing microbes.
Agricultural run-off, or the water from the fields that drains into
rivers, is another major water pollutant as it contains fertilizers and
pesticides.
Domestic sewage refers to wastewater that is discarded from
households. Also referred to as sanitary sewage, such water
contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities. It
amounts to a very small fraction of the sewage by weight.
But it is large by volume and contains impurities such as organic
materials and plant nutrients that tend to rot. The main organic
materials are food and vegetable waste, plant nutrient come from
chemical soaps, washing powders, etc. Domestic sewage is also
very likely to contain disease-causing microbes. Thus, disposal of
domestic waste water is a significant technical problem. Sewage
generated from the urban areas in India has multiplied manifold
since 1947.
Today, many people dump their garbage into streams, lakes, rivers,
and seas, thus making water bodies the final resting place of cans,
bottles, plastics, and other household products. The various
substances that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water
pollution as they contain harmful chemicals. In the past, people
mostly used soaps made from animal and vegetable fat for all
types of washing. But most of today’s cleaning products are
synthetic detergents and come from the petrochemical industry.
Most detergents and washing powders contain phosphates, which
are used to soften the water among other things. These and other
chemicals contained in washing powders affect the health of all
forms of life in the water. Agricultural Run-off
The use of land for agriculture and the practices followed in
cultivation greatly affect the quality of groundwater. Intensive
cultivation of crops causes chemicals from fertilizers (e.g. nitrate)
and pesticides to seep into the groundwater, a process com- monly
known as leaching. Routine applications of fertilizers
and pesticides for agriculture and indiscriminate disposal of
industrial and domestic wastes are increasingly being recognized
as significant sources of water pollution.
The high nitrate content in groundwater is mainly from
irrigation run-off from agricultural fields where chemical
fertilizers have been used indiscriminately.
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Industrial Effluents
Waste water from manufacturing or chemical processes in
industries contributes to water pollution. Industrial waste water
usually contains specific and readily identifiable chemical
compounds. During the last fifty years, the number of
industries in India has grown rapidly. But water pollution is
concentrated within a few subsectors, mainly in the form of
toxic wastes and organic pollutants. Out of this a large portion
can be traced to the processing of industrial chemicals and to
the food products industry. In fact, a number of large- and
medium-sized industries in the region covered by the Ganga
Action Plan do not have adequate effluent treatment facilities.
Most of these defaulting industries are sugar mills, distilleries,
leather processing industries, and thermal power stations. Most
major industries have treatment facilities for industrial effluents.
But this is not the case with small-scale industries, which cannot
afford enormous investments in pollution control equipment as
their profit margin is very slender.
Effects of Water Pollution
The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to
people but also to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is
unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry. It
diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More
seriously, contaminated water destroys aquatic life and reduces
its reproductive ability. Eventually, it is a hazard to human
health. Nobody can escape the effects of water pollution. The
individual and the community can help minimize water
pollution. By simple housekeeping and management practices
the amount of waste generated can be minimized.
Oil Spills
Among the most dangerous of all water pollutants is fuel oil.
Oil spills from tankers at sea or leaks from underground storage
tanks on land are very difficult to control as oil tends to spread
very fast, affecting a large area in a very short time. They are a major
menace to the environment as they cause severe damage to
surrounding ecosystems. Oil spills at sea decrease the oxygen
level in the water and cause grave harm to the creatures living in
the sea. Since crude oil is lighter than water, it floats on the
surface and poses the threat of swift-spreading fire. Oil spills are
rather common as oil tankers can meet with accidents either in
deep sea or offshore, while waiting to be loaded or unloaded.
During the Gulf War, several oil reservoirs were destroyed at sea
and the effect on marine life was devastating. Seabirds and fish
were washed ashore, their bodies covered with oil. On land crude
is transported through pipelines or tankers which can get
damaged and spew out crude oil over the land, thereby
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contaminating it. Bioremediation is a method that is now being
use to put a check to the damage done by this oil spill.
Health Impacts of Water Pollution
It is a well-known fact that clean water is absolutely essential for
healthy living. Adequate supply of fresh and clean drinking water
is a basic need for all human beings on the earth, yet it has been
observed that millions of people worldwide are deprived of this.
Freshwater resources all over the world are threatened not only by
over exploitation and poor management but also by ecological
degradation. The main source of freshwater pollution can be
attributed to discharge of untreated waste, dumping of industrial
effluent, and run-off from agricultural fields. Industrial growth,
urbanization and the increasing use of synthetic organic
substances have serious and adverse impacts on freshwater bodies.
It is a generally accepted fact that the developed countries suffer
from problems of chemical dis- charge into the water sources
mainly groundwater, while developing countries face problems of
agricultural run-off in water sources. Polluted water like chemicals
in drinking water causes problem to health and leads to water-
borne diseases which can be prevented by taking measures can be
taken even at the household level.
Groundwater and its Contamination
Many areas of groundwater and surface water are now contami-
nated with heavy metals, POPs (persistent organic pollutants),
and nutrients that have an adverse affect on health. Water-borne
diseases and water-caused health problems are mostly due to
inadequate and incompetent management of water resources. Safe
water for all can only be assured when access, sustainability, and
equity can be guaranteed. Access can be defined as the number of
people who are guaranteed safe drinking water and sufficient
quantities of it. There has to be an effort to sustain it, and there
has to be a fair and equal distribution of water to all segments of
the society. Urban areas generally have a higher coverage of safe
water than the rural areas. Even within an area there is variation:
areas that can pay for the services have access
to safe water whereas areas that cannot pay for the services have
to make do with water from hand pumps and other sources. In
the urban areas water gets contaminated in many different ways,
some of the most common reasons being leaky water pipe joints
in areas where the water pipe and sewage line pass
close together. Sometimes the water gets polluted at source due
to various reasons and mainly due to inflow of sewage into the
source.
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Ground water can be contaminated through various sources
and some of these are mentioned below.
Pesticides. Run-off from farms, backyards, and golf courses
contain pesticides such as DDT that in turn contaminate the
water. Its effects on the ecosystems and health are endocrine and
reproductive damage in wildlife. Groundwater is susceptible to
contamination, as pesticides are mobile in the soil. It is a matter
of concern as these chemicals are persistent in the soil and water.
Sewage. Untreated or inadequately treated municipal sewage is a
major source of groundwater and surface water pollution in the
developing countries. The organic material that is discharged with
municipal waste into the watercourses uses substantial oxygen
for biological degradation thereby upsetting the ecological
balance of rivers and lakes. Sewage also carries microbial
pathogens that are the cause of the spread of disease. Nutrients.
Domestic waste water, agricultural run-off, and industrial
effluents contain phosphorus and nitrogen, fertilizer run-off,
manure from livestock operations, which increase the level of
nutrients in water bodies and can cause eutrophication in the
lakes and rivers and continue on to the coastal areas. The nitrates
come mainly from the fertilizer that is added to the
fields. Excessive use of fertilizers cause nitrate contamination of
groundwater, with the result that nitrate levels in drinking water
is far above the safety levels recommended. Good agricultural
practices can help in reducing the amount of nitrates in the soil
and thereby lower its content in the water.
Synthetic Organics. Many of the 100 000 synthetic com-
pounds in use today are found in the aquatic environment and
accumulate in the food chain. POPs or Persistent organic
pollutants represent the most harmful element for the ecosys-
tem and for human health, for example, industrial chemicals
and agricultural pesticides. These chemicals can accumulate in fish
and cause serious damage to human health. Where pesticides
are used on a large-scale, groundwater gets contami- nated and
this leads to the chemical contamination of drinking water.
Acidification. Acidification of surface water, mainly lakes and
reservoirs, is one of the major environmental impacts of
transport over long distance of air pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide from power plants, other heavy industry such as steel
plants, and motor vehicles. This problem is more severe in the
US and in parts of Europe.
Chemicals in Drinking Water
Chemicals in water can be either naturally occurring or intro-
duced by human interference and can have serious health effects.
Fluoride. Fluoride in the water is essential for protection against
dental caries and weakening of the bones, but higher levels can
have an adverse effect on health. In India, high fluoride content
is found naturally in the waters in Rajasthan. Arsenic. Arsenic
occurs naturally or is possibly aggravated by over powering
aquifers and by phosphorus from fertilizers. High concentrations
of arsenic in water can have an adverse effect on health. A few
years back, high concentrations of this element was found in
drinking water in six districts in West Bengal. A majority of
people in the area was found suffering from arsenic skin lesions.
It was felt that arsenic contamination
35
in the groundwater was due to natural causes. The government is
trying to provide an alternative drinking water source and a
method through which the arsenic content from water can be
removed.
Lead. Pipes, fittings, solder, and the service connections of some
household plumbing systems contain lead that contami- nates
the drinking water source.
Recreational use of water. Untreated sewage, industrial efflu-
ents, and agricultural waste are often discharged into the water
bodies such as the lakes, coastal areas and rivers endangering
their use for recreational purposes such as swimming and
canoeing.
Petrochemicals. Petrochemicals contaminate the groundwater
from underground petroleum storage tanks.
Other heavy metals. These contaminants come from mining
waste and tailings, landfills, or hazardous waste dumps.
Chlorinated solvents. Metal and plastic effluents, fabric cleaning,
electronic and aircraft manufacturing are often discharged and
contaminate groundwater.
Disease
Water-borne diseases are infectious diseases spread primarily
through contaminated water. Though these diseases are spread
either directly or through flies or filth, water is the chief medium
for spread of these diseases and hence they are termed as water-
borne diseases.
Cause Water-borne disease
Bacterial Typhoid, Cholera, Paratyphoid Fever,
infections Bacillary Dysentry
Viral infections Jaundice, Poliomyelitis
Protozoal Amoebic Dysentry
infections
Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious and are transmit-
ted through faecal waste. Pathogens – which include virus,
bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic worms – are disease-producing
agents found in the faeces of infected persons. These diseases are
more prevalent in areas with poor sanitary conditions. These
pathogens travel through water sources and interfuses directly
through persons handling food and water. Since these diseases are
highly infectious, people looking after an infected patient should
maintain extreme care and hygiene. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery,
and typhoid are the more common water-borne diseases that
affect large populations in the tropical regions.
A large number of chemicals that either exist naturally in the land
or are added due to human activity dissolve in the water, thereby
contaminating it and leading to various diseases. Pesticides. The
organophosphates and the carbonates present in pesticides affect
and damage the nervous system and can cause cancer. Some of
the pesticides contain carcinogens that exceed recommended
levels. They contain chlorides that cause reproductive and
endocrinal damage.
Lead. Lead is hazardous to health as it accumulates in the body
and affects the central nervous system. Children and pregnant
women are most at risk.
36
Fluoride. Excess fluorides can cause yellowing of the teeth and
damage to the spinal cord and other crippling diseases.
Nitrates. Drinking water that gets contaminated with nitrates
can prove fatal especially to infants that drink formula milk as it
restricts the amount of oxygen that reaches the brain causing
the ‘blue baby’ syndrome. It is also linked to digestive tract
cancers. It causes algae to bloom resulting in eutrophication in
surface water.
Petrochemicals. Benzene and other petrochemicals can cause
cancer even at low exposure levels.
Chlorinated solvents. These are linked to reproduction
disorders and to some cancers.
Arsenic. Arsenic poisoning through water can cause liver and
nervous system damage, vascular diseases and also skin cancer.
Other heavy metals. –Heavy metals cause damage to the
nervous system and the kidney, and other metabolic disrup-
tions.
Salts. It makes the fresh water unusable for drinking and
irrigation purposes.
Exposure to polluted water can cause diarrhoea, skin irritation,
respiratory problems, and other diseases, depending on the
pollutant that is in the water body. Stagnant water and other
untreated water provide a habitat for the mosquito and a host
of other parasites and insects that cause a large number of
diseases especially in the tropical regions. Among these, malaria
is undoubtedly the most widely distributed and causes most
damage to human health.
Toxic Substances
Hazardous or toxic substances are substances that can cause an
increase in mortality rates or an increase in irreversible or
incapacitating illness, or that have other seriously adverse health
or environmental effects. These include acidic chemicals,
inorganic metals (such as mercury or arsenic), flammable
solvents’, pesticides, herbicides, phenols, explosives, and so on.
(Radioactive wastes are also classified as hazardous substances,
but these will be discussed separately later.)
Silvex and 2, 4, 5- T, for example, are two widely used her-
bicides that contain dioxin-a deadly poison (one hundred times
more deadly than strychnine) and a carcinogen. Until 1979 these
herbicides were being sprayed on forests in Oregon where they
are believed to have led to an ab-normal number of miscar-
riages in local women and to have caused a range of
reproductive defects in animals. A second example: In the late
1970s, toxic chemicals buried by Hooker Chemical Company at
sites near Niagara Falls. New York, were found to have leaked
from the sites and to have contaminated the surrounding
residential are as, including homes, schools, playing fields, and
underground water supplies. The chemicals included dioxin,
pesticides, carbon tetrachloride, and other carcinogenic or toxic
chemicals that were suspected of having induced spontaneous
abortions, nerve damage, and congenital malformations among
families living nearby.
The government estimates that over 58,000 different chemical
compounds are currently being used in the United States and
that their number is growing each year. Ten times more
chemicals, many of them toxic, were being used in the mid-
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1980s than in 1970. Among the most common of the toxic
chemicals produced by industry is acrylonitrile, which is used in
the manufacture of plas-tics (used in appliances, luggage,
telephones, and numerous common household and industrial
products) and whose production is currently rising by 3 percent a
year. Acrylonitrile is a suspected carcinogen and it releases the toxic
chemi-cal hydrogen cyanide when _plastic containing it is bumed.
Benzene is another common industrial toxic chemical used in
plastics, dyes, nylon, food additives, detergents., drugs,
Fungicides and gasoline. Benzene is a cause of anemia, bone
marrow damage, and leukemia. Recent stud-ies have shown
that benzene workers are several times more likely than the
general population to get leukemia.
Vinyl chloride is another common industrial chemical used in the
produc-tion of plastics, whose production is rising by 3, percent
per year. Vinyl chloride, which is released in small amounts when
plastic products deteriorate, causes liver damage, birth anomalies,
liver, respiratory, brain, and ‘lymph cancers, and bone damage
Phthalates are resins used in industry to produce model cement,
paints and finishes. They damage the central nervous system of
humans and are toxic to fish and bird life’
Although the health effects of some substances are now known,
the tox-icity of many others is unknown and difficult to
determine. Many chemicals cause chronic diseases only after a long
period following a person’s first exposure to the chemical. For
example, most human cancers caused by exposure to toxic
chemicals take 15 to 30 years to show up, which makes it difficult
to identify the original causes of the disease.
Solid Waste
The sight of a dustbin overflowing and the stench rising
from it, the all too familiar sights and smells of a crowded
city. You look away from it and hold your nose as you cross
it. Have you ever thought that you also have a role to play in
the creation of this stench? That you can also play a role in
the lessening of this smell and making this waste bin look a
little more attractive if you follow proper methods of
disposal of the waste generated in the house?
Since the beginning, humankind has been generating waste, be it
the bones and other parts of animals they slaughter for their
food or the wood they cut to make their carts. With the progress
of civilization, the waste generated became of a more complex
nature. At the end of the 19th century the industrial revolution
saw the rise of the world of consumers. Not only did the air get
more and more polluted but the earth itself became more
polluted with the generation of non biodegrad- able solid waste.
The increase in population and urbanization was also largely
responsible for the increase in solid waste.
Each household generates garbage or waste day in and day out.
Items that we no longer need or do not have any further use for
fall in the category of waste, and we tend to throw them away.
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There are different types of solid waste depending on their
source. In today’s polluted world, learning the correct methods
of handling the waste generated has become essential. Segrega-
tion is an important method of handling municipal solid
waste. Segregation at source can be understood clearly by
schematic representation. One of the important methods of
managing and treating wastes is composting.
As the cities are growing in size and in problems such as the
generation of plastic waste, various municipal waste treatment
and disposal methods are now being used to try and resolve
these problems. One common sight in all cities is the rag picker
who plays an important role in the segregation of this waste.
Garbage generated in households can be recycled and reused to
prevent creation of waste at source and reducing amount of
waste thrown into the community dustbins.
Depletion of Species
It is well known that human beings have depleted dozens of
plant and animal species to the point of extinction. Since 1600
A.D, at least thirty-six major identifiable species of mammals and
ninety-four major identifiable species of birds are known to have
become extinct. Several hundred more species, such, as whales
and salmon, today find themselves threatened by commercial
predators. Forests are also being decimated by the timber indus-
try. Between the years 1600 and 1900 half of .the forested’ land
area in the United States was cleared.56 Experts estimate that the
planet’s rain forests. are being destroyed at the rate of about 1
percent a year.57 If present trends con-tinue, total forest_ cover
will decrease by 40 percent by the end of toe century. The loss of
forest habitats -combined with the effects of pollution is
expected to lead to _the possible’ extinction of between half a
million to two million species-IS to 20 percent
of all species on earth-by the beginning of the next century.
Depletion of Fossil Fuels
Over the last decade the non-conventional and renewable energy
sources have been occupying the central place in the area of energy
generation and supply due to fast depletion of fossil fuels.
According to reports, the conventional energy sources would
likely to be exhausted globally by 2050. With such a deadline
looming over the head, the technological experts are busy finding
viable means of sustaining the existing and discovering new
sources of energy.
As many researchers argue, however, our consumption of fossil
fuels could not continue rising at historical exponential rates As
reserves of any resource shrink, they become increasingly
difficult, and therefore more costly to extract. Consequently
although the rates at which reserves are depleted may rise
exponentially for a period, the rising costs of extraction
eventually cause the rates to peak and then begin to decline,
without complete depletion ever being attained.
Overview
• Environmental ethics is the study of conceptual and moral
issues concerning the growth of human population,
consumption of resources, animal rights, the moral status
of nature and species, etc.
• Pollution can seriously damage health and environment.
Resources are finite.
37
Activity
What is environmental ethics? What are the issues related to
environmental ethics? What are the two kinds of environmen-
tal strategies?

38 11.292
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