Meaningful Verbal Learning Meaning is created through some form of representational equivalence between language (symbols) and mental

context. Two processes are involved: 1. Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning, and 2. Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving. Ausubel's work has frequently been compared with Bruner's. The two held similar views about the hierarchical nature of knowledge, but Bruner was strongly oriented toward discovery processes, where Ausubel gave more emphasis to the verbal learning methods of speech, reading and writing. Subsumption Theory To subsume is to incorporate new material into one's cognitive structures. From Ausubel's perspective, this is the meaning of learning. When information is subsumed into the learner's cognitive

structure it is organized hierarchically. New material can be subsumed in two different ways, and for both of these, no meaningful learning takes place unless a stable cognitive structure exists. This existing structure provides a framework (scaffolding) into which the new learning is related, hierarchically, to the previous information or concepts in the individual's cognitive structure. When one encounters completely new unfamiliar material, then rote learning, as opposed to meaningful learning, takes place. This rote learning may eventually contribute to the construction of a new cognitive structure which can later be used in meaningful learning. The two types of subsumption are: 1. Correlative subsumption - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is already known. (Basic concept such as tree: a tree has a trunk, branches, green leaves, and may have some kind of

fruit. Suppose a new kind of tree that has red leaves, rather than green. In order to accommodate this new information, we have to alter or extend the concept of tree to include the possibility of red leaves.) 2. Derivative subsumption - new material or relationships can be derived from the existing structure. Information can be moved in the hierarchy, or linked to other concepts or information to create new interpretations or meaning. From this type of subsumption, completely new concepts can emerge, and previous concepts can be changed or expanded to include more of the previously existing information. This is "figuring out". (This describes the situation in which the new information learnt is an instance or example of a concept that has already learned. E.g. 1: concept of aerofoil, the shape of the wings of an aero-plane. E.g. 2: concept of dog, Rottweiler is one type of dog.) Ausubel is a proponent of didactic, expository teaching methods. From this perspective, expository (verbal) learning approaches encourage rapid learning and retention, whereas discovery learning

(Bruner) facilitates transfer to other contexts. Advanced Organizers Ausubel contributed much to the theoretical body of cognitive learning theory, but not as much to the practical classroom aspects as Bruner and others. Ausubel's most notable contribution for classroom application was the advance organizer. The advance organizer is a tool or a mental learning aid to help students integrate new information with their existing knowledge, leading to "meaningful learning" as opposed to rote memorization. It is a means of preparing the learner's cognitive structure for the learning experience about to take place. It is a device to activate the relevant schema or conceptual patterns so that new information can be more readily `subsumed' into the learner's existing cognitive structures. Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to provide a preview of information to be learned. Teachers could do this by providing a brief

introduction about the way that information that is going to be presented is structured. This would enable students to start with a "Big Picture" of the upcoming content, and link new ideas, concepts, vocabulary, to existing mental maps of the content area.