Identifications: Aztec Empire - (1200-1500) Located in central Mexico.

Not too unlike other civilizations the Aztecs had a division of "classes". There were the lowly "peasants" and the "nobles". All of their accomplishments were by hand as they did not have large exploration boats, guns, iron weapons, etc. They did have trade of goods, though. Their ceremonies to their gods included human sacrifice. Their capital was Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs were attacked by Hernn Corts and the Spanish in 1520. Though the Aztecs were able to fight them off at that time, they returned and conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521. The Aztecs were grossly under equipped to match the Spanish. Not to mention, many of the Aztecs fell victim to disease. Quetzalcoatl Indulgence - The sale of Indulgences by the Catholics was seemingly the straw that broke the camel's back and sparked the Protestant Reformation. The issuance of penance for forgiveness of sins was frowned upon by Martin Luther who preached forgiveness comes from Christ Jesus and there is no need for penance. Further the act of being able to earn or buy one's way into heaven also rubbed Luther the wrong way. Hence, the branching out of the Protestant faith and the long dispute between the Catholics and Protestants began. English Civil War - (1642) The English Civil War began with King Charles I who denied the constitutional right of Parliament. Instead, the king did as he wished without consulting with that body of representatives. His poor decisions were frowned upon and Parliament made every attempt to thwart his efforts to no avail. Further, the king attempted to detain those who had spoken out against him hence starting the war. He was executed and his successor also refused to work with parliament. This continued a few generations until 1688 with the Glorious Revolution and the English Bill of Rights in 1689. Holy Roman Empire - (962 - 1806) A united group in which Emperors were elected, the first being Charles V (1519) who came from the Habsburg family along with many others of the Holy Roman Empire Emperors. It was not unusual during this time of great dissimilarity for groups to rise up and claim their own sovereignty. The difference in politics, faith based beliefs, and rationale caused much conflict, often times at great cost. Encomienda - (Spanish Colonies ca. 1540's) The right to force the Amerindians to work under a taskmaster despite conditions or detriment to the Amerindians. It allowed for gross mistreatment and oppression of the Amerindians. Some tried to dissolve the law in an effort to save the Amerindians. Chartered companies - (Ca. 1614) In order to monopolize trade in the Caribbean, France and England began to charge a fee to investors to be in an exclusive group that helped build up the colonies. This organization also had a hand in developing mercantilist capitalism. They blossomed in 1621 with taking over sugar and slaves from the Portuguese. Was used by Jean Baptiste Colbert (1661-1683). And after 1713, benefits were greatly reduced by the French and English.

Atlantic Circuit (or System) - (ca. 1700) Exploration of new continents and an explosion in trade meant new routes (better, quicker, more efficient courses) were available for the taking. Silver, silks, spices, porcelain, furs, tobacco, sugar, colonial products, manufactured goods, gold, metals, hardware, guns, cotton textiles, ivory, timber, rum, and slaves were all "goods" being moved from one location to another. The most used passages were known as the Atlantic Circuit. Each country had items that were in excess and wanted other things that were limited. With sea travel taking weeks or months, the fastest, least dangerous ways were coveted. Plantocracy - (18th century) Colonies were built up in the Caribbean consisting mainly of slaves. A middle class was present who managed things and kept order and then there was the "upper class" minority made up of wealthy men to whom the land and slaves belonged. It was this group (plantocracy) who controlled the day to day dealings in these communities. Conquistadors - (Early 16th century) Conquistadors were Spanish explorers, leaders of explorations. The name means, "conqueror". During the climb to power by Spain and Portugal, there was much exploration in an effort to find better trade routes, religious freedom, gold, spices, silk, etc. Conquistadors (not unlike Christopher Columbus) set out in search of new land, hoping along the way to not have to deal with a mutiny. Fraticide Mercantilism - (16th, 17th, & 18th centuries) With the importance of trade, came the need for guidelines to keep things productive, efficient, and profitable. As countries explored and established colonies on other continents, it was imperative the lines of trade remain open and that colonies only trade with their mainland. These policies helped promote that and even strong armed them, with armed force, if necessary. Purdah Caliph - Singular form of Caliphates. Islamic. Constantinople - Became Istanbul in 1453 with the fall of the Byzantine Empire and solidification of the Ottoman Empire (1453-1922). At the command of Sultan Mehmed II, war was waged on Constantinople. They even used inner city waterways to get their warships past troops at sea. This event showed the world the Ottoman Enpire was force with which to be reckoned and that they meant business. Safavid Empire - (1502-1722) Born 1486, Ismail Safavi established the Safavid Empire at the age of 16 and declared it a follower of Shi'ite Islam. His goal, which he accomplished, was to isolate Iran from the rest of the world. It was not too unlike the Ottoman Empire. a. Portugal and Spain were leaders in maritime exploration. Ships went from being the pontoon-canoe type vessels of the Polynesian to those like the massive Junk of China and the caravel of the Portuguese and Spanish. Larger, stronger crafts, easier to pilot made travel to outside areas (beyond the Indian Ocean, Black Sea, and Mediterranean) possible...despite the leery travelers whose imaginations tried to run

away with them as they feared the unknown. Trade and conquering new lands were important. Following in the footsteps of the mighty Vikings with their fast ships, the Portuguese and Spanish followed trends set forth by the Latin West. With the trade of goods and services (sugar, slaves, salt, gold, valuable spices, pepper, ivory tusks, stone beads, textiles, glass beads, etc.) and the spreading of Christianity as original motivations, new trade routes were paramount. Further, there is always the desire of countries to be the most powerful, own the most land, govern the most territories, and influence the most people. Not to mention the burning inquisitiveness of explorers and conquistadors to scout out strange new worlds and claim them for their country and king. Each realm had something different to offer. Moreover, the longer the reach of certain countries the smaller the world, so to speak. This brought about the communication and interaction of inhabitants on all the land masses. He who had access to the best, diverse stuff had the most to gain. The most exotic, coveted items brought with them wealth and riches. Regions would even bargain and offer supplies in exchange for protection or favoritism...not too much unlike the English feudal system of nobles giving land to knights in exchange for their expertise in military support and security. Safe, untaxed travel across three of the world's four oceans was coveted. Missionaries ventured beyond the boundaries of their homeland to spread the gospel to the outside world sparking the Crusades which continued on for numerous years. The fight between Christians and Islam, two faiths fathered by the same man, burns heavily still in modern civilization. European empires spread rapidly around the world as the Spanish and Portuguese fought indigenous people, claimed land, enforced laws, assigned taxes, and monopolized trade. Their culture and way of living was forced upon other lands that did not have strength in numbers or resources (like armor, swords, and firearms) to hold them off. Africans and Amerindians were enslaved, made to work sugar plantations, labor, and the women were sexually exploited. Many of the cultures that were overthrown by the Spanish or Portuguese (like the the Maya, Aztec Empire and Inca Empire) have completely or almost entirely disappeared. Likewise, the behaviors, beliefs, laws, characteristics of Spain and Portugal dominated those of other cultural regions and are still evident, today. In consequence slavery became a booming industry until finally abolished in countries such as England thanks to the efforts of William Wilberforce and America after the Civil War led by President Abraham Lincoln. Further, the spread of disease and battles caused the death of countless natives in various regions. b. The Renaissance and Reformation were not mutually exclusive. They were, in fact, intertwined...woven together in the cultural history fabric of modern Europe. Both were difficult and the cost of lives was great. The intense struggle for power between countries and intolerant differing religious views caused widespread, violent wars and persecution. As if all of that was not enough, the printing press added to it by sharpening the effect and spread of it all.

Renaissance and Reformation were both a "rebirth" in their own right. Each was a "revival" and new beginning. For the Renaissance, as it was as its title suggests and for the Christian faith as one is "born again". Each also had its heavy hitters who paved the way for the rest. For the Renaissance, it was William Shakespeare, Pieter Brugel, and Sebastian Bach to name a few. For the Reformation, it was Martin Luther (who penned his ninety-five theses and fought against the Roman Catholic church), John Calvin (who agreed with Luther but also taught salvation was a gift of grace by God instead of earned), Ignatius of Loyola (who formed the "Jesuits"), and the English Puritans. Luther, did not hesitate to utilize the printing press to get the word out and gain supporters. The two worlds collided in the sixteenth century when the Scientific Revolution came on the scene. The all too familiar modern day feud of Science verses scripture was in its infancy with intellectual thinkers like Aristotle, Pythagoras, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, etc. Most of whom reasoned both Science and the scriptures could each be correct and perhaps even complement each other. Things became even more interesting when Voltaire and the Enlightenment movement began using rationale to try and remedy society and the human condition in the eighteenth century. Though women were not at the forefront during this period in history, they were in fact among the artists, musicians, and writers of the time. Lack of education and being denied many courtesies and privileges men were provided thwarted the success of women. The Holy Roman Empire rose up in 962, revolutions were fought, and the Bill of Rights were formed in 1689. Kings claimed the throne by "divine right" and Philosopher Locke wrote his "Second Treastise of Civil Government" to dispute their declaration arguing no one in authority is beyond reproach, no matter how high his station. Further, various denominations came together to form a "balance of power" so no nation could overpower the rest hence keeping the peace. Europe's "rebirth" and the Protestant separation from the Catholic church twisted and turned around each other. Both caused great conflict and a multitude of lost lives. Each ruler, thinker, and faith based leader had a different way of doing things causing a large variety of ideas and confusion. I believe we still see that today in the free thinking of the enlightened, the theories of the scientific, and the multitudes of congregations and beliefs through out each country, territory, and/or providence. c. Martin Luther did not agree with the way the Catholic church did things. He did not believe one could buy his or her way into heaven, do works to attain a spot, or penance in order to receive forgiveness. His view was more along the lines of serve others out of love for Christ Jesus (truly from the "heart") as opposed to trying to earn the love of Christ Jesus. Further, he did not support the act of having a spiritual father like the Pope. Rather, he contended followers of Christ should be faithful to that which is in the word of God not the authority of a man. The "sale of indulgences" was seemingly the straw that broke the camel's back, setting the wheels of change into motion. Luther responded to the Catholic church with the Protestant Reformation.

This first division of the church was the beginning of terrible wars within the church body and opened the door for many more divisions yet to come. The second to jump on this bandwagon was John Calvin (1509-1564). His views, though similar to those of Luther, differed in that Calvin believed salvation is a gift, from God, of grace. Man does not control whether or not he is saved, rather it was decided before the foundations of the earth...grace by faith alone. Christian marriage was also a focus of Calvinists instead of a dictatorship within the home. The answer from the Catholic church (1545 - 1563) regarding all of this was to tweak things on their end, as well, and clarify their standing. The Catholic church felt their doctrine was correct and there needed to be correction of Protestant "errors". No to mention there was a desire to solidify the reign of the Pope. The formation of the "Jesuits" by Ignatius of Loyola took place in 1540 created yet another branch of the Christian faith. A house divided cannot stand against itself and the Christian family was no different. Each crack in the foundation caused more turmoil. This animosity continued until 1648 in western Europe however still causes friction now days, in the United States. Recognition and support of the Reformation flip flopped back and forth with each new monarch pending his views and leniency. King Phillip II of Spain had a no tolerance policy, enforced it heavily, and punishment was severe. Calvinists gained some ground in 1562-1598 and also with the Edict of Nantes however this freedom of religion was then later revoked by Louis XIV in 1598. Yet more separation from the Catholic faith came during the supremacy of Henry VIII who denounced it and headed up the Church of England. Next, came the Angelican Church and the English Puritans. All of which began with Martin Luther who said enough is enough and stood against the Catholic beliefs. I do believe the Christian faith has the most denominations. Islam has two, as I understand.

d. The close knit realm that is Europe has seen much conflict over the centuries. Territories fighting to be number one in exploration, to have the most land, power, and an "accurate" faith (as opposed to one with "errors"). Spain and Portugal lead the way finding new trade routes. And, Spain, England, and France were a little more accomplished at keeping the peace. Monarchs had quite a bit with which to contend. If it was not another region declaring war, it was another belief system or indigenous people. Not to mention keeping their own populations under control. Trade was very important as was religion. All of it looked to be a balancing act of epic proportions. There were holy wars and even civil wars. The Kings of England were supposed to work with Parliament as their house of representatives however there was a period of time preceding the English Civil War (1642-1649) when the monarchs were doing the exact opposite. Much to the displeasure of the Parliament, they were being ignored by royalty (1625-1642). This sort of behavior by Charles I lead to the English Civil War (1642-1649), the Glorious Revolution (1688), and the English Bill of Rights (1689).

Meanwhile, France had its own issues with leaders brushing off government officials, as well, who made up the Estates General. The kings stated they had complete dominion by "divine right". King Louis XIV even entertained nobles at the beautiful palace of Versailles (1682) with its numerous, luxurious bedrooms and the breathtaking Hall of Mirrors to keep them distracted and from uprising against him. France concentrated efforts on an army however England was content with its Navy. As I mentioned before, the close knit realm that is Europe has seen much conflict over the centuries. Some of note being the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). The main European provinces developed the Balance of Power arrangement to keep each other in check ensuring no singular nation would have absolute power. Further, the top five belief systems focused their attention on geopolitical efforts which kept disagreements to a minimum.

e. The Columbian Exchange included: Food - Numerous crops were shared during the Columbian Exchange. Each homeland offered up plants and animals indigenous to their region in exchange for those from other lands which changed the way people lived and ate. An abundance of animals meant plentiful meat and skins for those who lived on the land. Animals - The introduction of new animals to foreign lands resulted in overpopulation. Though this could have been catastrophic, the natives adapted and enjoyed loads of meat (for sustenance), skins (for clothing and tools), and maybe even the bones for tools. The most noteworthy animal of the trade was the horse which became a beneficial means to the Amerindians. Plants - As I mentioned above, produce (beans and rice) were traded to other provinces for some of their traditional harvest. These implemented items caused big changes in day to day life. Plants were not only used for consumption but also home remedies, cotton, tobacco, and dyes. And the three I am going to detail a little further, human populations, disease, and religion. Human populations - The slave trade is one of the most horrific, detestable, upsetting things in history. The trafficking of human beings is still going on today and must be stopped! Though there were some who benefited from such a despicable act, the majority of those involved suffered and lost immensely. Africans, African Americans, and African Europeans do thrive now and, I hope, enjoy enriched lives. But, what their ancestors had to go through was unspeakable. Slaves were taken from their homes, loaded onto ships, packed together like sardines, countless died during the voyage alone...many from disease and dysentery, they were whipped, beaten, and even murdered. When they arrived at their destination they were put to work and barely treated like human beings.

Disease - With the Europeans came disease, namely smallpox, to the New World. It was responsible for the deaths of a multitude of Amerindians (North & South America), Africans (Caribbean), Aztecs (Mexico), and some Europeans. Religion - Along with disease, the Old World also brought their faith to the New World and presented it to the natives who had their own beliefs. As a result, many religious morphed their ancestral faith into a combination of it and the Christian principles. f. Amerindians and Africans were taken from their homelands, traded like animals, and used on sugar plantations and diamond mines. They were corralled onto vessels like the Brooeks and shackled or packed into a confined place for the many weeks or months of a oceanic journey. They were fed, as it was in the best interest of the slavers, but several died from multiple causes...some being disease and dysentery. Few Amerindians and/or Africans reaped any sort of benefit from the slave trade. The "nobles" or captures from their homelands pocketed any sort of payment, booty, or reward. Leaving the Amerindians and Africans with next to nothing. The Europeans, on the other hand, made out like bandits because of the slave trade. Trafficking humans became so profitable, in fact, it took years, sleepless nights, tons of debate, blood, sweat, tears, and even life from those (like President Lincoln and William Wilberforce) who fought the good fight to get it abolished. Humans were no more valuable than gold, silver, spices, silks, porcelain, furs, tobacco, sugar, ivory, timber, metals, hardware, guns, and manufactured goods. They were the bargaining chip instead of the one who received something in return. As I mentioned above, everyone benefited from the trade except the ones who worked the hardest and deserved the most. They ended up at the bottom of the totem pole. Reduced to surfs they owned nothing, no land, no houses, hardly any clothing, nothing. They worked the land and received poor treatment in return. Dissimilarly, the slavers, owners of plantations and diamond mines, nobles, and captures lived high on the hog. They owned property, dwellings, lots of clothes, produce, and all of the other above mentioned trade items. The economy, unfortunately, thrived on the slave trade. An unbelievable amount of individuals were (and some still) in support of human trafficking. It caused a civil war in the United States and immeasurable turmoil in Parliament and on various continents. The aftershock can still be felt to this day and human trafficking continues to be a huge problem mainly for young girls who are sold as sex slaves. g. The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal (1526-1857) Empires coexisted together. The Ottoman Empire - Mainly Islam. Grew quickly and operated like a well oiled machine. The non-Muslim in the Empire sought advice and leadership from their Christian authority. Had a vast, powerful military. Though there were Christian slaves who were part of the military, the Ottoman Empire did everything according to the Muslim laws.

The Mughal Empire - Indian Empire predominately Hindu. Did not have a navy or trade ships. Profit was given to military and government personnel for their participation. The Mughal Empire did not try to enforce Muslim principles on a Hindu nation. The Sultan did not want turmoil between the religions, rather peace. He wanted there to always be both, Muslim and Hindu, in each generation. For each, he used their customs when ruling his people. He promoted religious tolerance and diversity. Following generations were not as open minded. h. The Ottoman Empire took over the Byzantine Empire by crushing Constantinople into Istanbul. It had a ruthless founder and leaders, a strong, trained military, and beneficial physical location. Political - The Ottoman Empire was mainly Islam where as the Mughal Empire was mainly Hindu and the Safavid Empire separated itself from the rest of the world and devoted itself to the Shi'ite branch. The overpowering of the Byzantine Empire, as mentioned above, made the Ottoman Empire look indestructible. Economic - The location of the Empire, on the boarder of Europe and Asia contributed to its growth. Military - The Ottoman Empire was able to pull knowledge from its roots and form a powerful military. Once they gained momentum they appeared unsurpassable...conquering one thing after the next. 1520-1566 was dreamed the "Golden Age" for the Ottomans as their empire was a finely tuned machine mowing down everything in its way. It acted as a viper protective of its territory. Cultural - The empire was highly organized and resourceful. The Sultan was viewed as a "shepherd". The "surf" class paid all the taxes. Islam was the #1 faith. Social - They had their own language. They had a "Knight" class that protected the realm and did not have to pay taxes.