Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Amol Bajpai
Fundamentals of computer .................................................................................................................... 2 Motherboard........................................................................................................................................... 3 Memory................................................................................................................................................. 20 Microprocessor ..................................................................................................................................... 26 Hard Disk ............................................................................................................................................... 33 Floppy Disk ............................................................................................................................................ 38 Optical Media ........................................................................................................................................ 39 Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) .............................................................................................. 44 Data Communication ............................................................................................................................ 48 SCANNER ............................................................................................................................................... 52 Printer ................................................................................................................................................... 55 Keyboard ............................................................................................................................................... 60 Mouse ................................................................................................................................................... 63 Modem.................................................................................................................................................. 65 SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply) ...................................................................................................... 67 Display Adaptor..................................................................................................................................... 70 Software ................................................................................................................................................ 71 Microsoft Windows Upgrade chart....................................................................................................... 79 File systems ........................................................................................................................................... 80 System Files........................................................................................................................................... 80 Boot sequence in Windows Operating System ..................................................................................... 81 Computer Viruses ................................................................................................................................. 82 Troubleshooting the PC using Beep Codes ........................................................................................... 84
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Amol Bajpai
Fundamentals of computer
Definition of Computer
Computer is an electromechanical device which takes input from the user, processes that data and generates an output. Based on the size and power, the computers can be classified into the following categories: 1. Personal Computer-The personal computer is a small, single user computer based on a microprocessor. It consists of a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying output, and a storage device for saving data. 2. Workstation Computer- The workstation is a single user computer like personal computer but it has more powerful microprocessor and higher quality monitor. 3. Mini Computer- A mini-computer is a multi-user computer that can support 10 to 100 of users simultaneously. 4. Mainframe Computer -A mainframe computer is a powerful computer which can support hundreds to thousands multiple users simultaneously. 5. Super Computer- A supercomputer is an extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
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Motherboard
Motherboard forms the most significant component of a Computer. It is printed circuit board (PCB) which processes different components for various purposes. The motherboard contains components like the central processing unit (CPU), Basic Input output system (BIOS), memory and, I/O ports, external I/O connectors, I/O controllers, expansion slots, and chipsets. Chipset is an integrated chip which is used to perform various functions of multiple chips. The first introduced the motherboard is the PC-XT (personal computer extended technology) motherboard.
Peripheral Connectors
The peripheral connectors are integrated in the Motherboard in the computer of recent days. The following figure shows the I/O connectors integrated to the motherboard.
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PS/2 port is used for connecting PS/2 Keyboard and PS/2 Mouse USB Ports are used for connecting any type of USB device 9 pin D type Serial port is uses for connecting any serial device 25 Pin D type female Parallel port (LPT) is used for connecting Printers 15 Pin D type female VGA(Video Graphic Adaptor) is used for connection VGA cable 15 Pin D type female connectors is used for connecting devices like Joystick
COMPUTER HARDWARE
AT and Baby AT ATX and Micro ATX LPX and Mini LPX NLX
Amol Bajpai
Personal Computer Extended Technology (PC-XT) PC-XT is the first kind of motherboard introduced by IBM. The PC-XT motherboard had socket for placing the processor and other support chips like clock generator, interrupt controller etc., were present and separate chips. The peripheral devices were plugged into PC slot (expansion slot). The XT motherboard is illustrated in the following figure:
AT and Baby AT Before 1997, IBM computers used motherboard of bigger size. Then due to technological advancements, the size of the motherboard was reduced to greater extent. AT form factor was available in old computer which employed 80386 as its microprocessor. AT means advance technology. The main disadvantage of this form factor was size of the board. The width of the motherboard was 12 inches wide. This caused disturbance of the drive bays.
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To come over this problem created by AT form factor, the baby AT form factor was introduced. In the baby AT form factor, the width of the motherboard was reduced from 12 inches to 8.5 inches. This eliminated the problem is that of her associated with overlapping on that drive bays. AT Motherboard
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Baby AT
ATX form Factor Due to advancement in technology, a more integrated form factor was designed and specific locations for the keyboard, mouse, I/O ports and Video connectors were defined. ATX form factor was introduced in mid-1990. In ATX motherboards, the expansion slots were placed on separate riser card that are placed in motherboard. This reduces the overall size of motherboard. Along with the size of the motherboard, in the case and power supply is also altered its. Advancements and
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enhancements in the design of ATX motherboard form factor was introduced new features like
1. 2. 3. 4.
Single 20 pin connector for power supply Power supply for blowing air into the case. This would increase the airflow in the case. Limited overlapping between motherboard and the drive bays. Integrated I/O port connectors soldered directly to the motherboard
Micro ATX form Factor Micro ATX form factor was advancement to the ATX form factor and offered some benefits which enhance the overall system design costs by reducing the physical size of motherboard. The size of motherboard was reduced by limiting the number of I/O slots which is available in the motherboard. In Micro ATX form factor, more space for I/O connectors bars are provided at the rear end. So the features of ATX form factor are given below Integrated I/O connectors 24 pin power connector Better cooling conditions 3.3 Volt power for processor is directly obtained from the power supply unit
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LPX and Mini LPX (Low Profile Extended) These are some other non-standard form factors which are termed as LPX and mini LPX. These categories are used in low profile computers case like the desktop model. The PLX motherboards generally have sound and video to be integrated on the motherboard. This provides a space saving product and the cost is also reduced. But it has own disadvantages. The troubleshooting of the components in this category of motherboard is difficult because of its non-standardization feature. This type of motherboard is not suitable for upgrading and offers poor cooling. NLX (New Low Profile Extended) The motherboard with this form factors is advancement to the LPX design which is designed for low profile systems. The NLX format of motherboard is small in size with 8.8 inch width and 13 inch length. Hence this format of motherboards in suited for low profile desktop cases.
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2- Chipsets
3- BIOS
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5- IDE Connector
6- USB Connector
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7- SATA Connector
8- FDD Connector
9- Memory Slot
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Bus
Bus is electrical connection between different components in a motherboard. The bus is used for transfer of address, data and control signals. The data transfer rate can be enhanced with the speed of the bus. The bus speed is measured in terms of Megahertz (MHz). The speed of the bus refers to the amount of the data that can be transferred across the bus. Types of buses are:1- Data Bus Data bus is used to send data between devices and memory. The width of the data bus determines the speed of data transfer. The data bus width varies with to processor. The data bus is bidirectional. 2- Control Bus Control Bus carries control signal form the processor to other devices or memory. This specifies the kind of operations the processor can carry out. The control operations are I/O read, I/O write, Memory Read, Memory write etc. 3- Address Bus Address bus is used to specify the address of the location to read / Write form I/O devices or memory. Address bus is used to locate the unique locations to get the data. The address is unidirectional. The width of the address bus determines the maximum amount of memory that the processor can access. There is also another type of technology called the Intel Hub Architecture (IHA) which uses two chips called hub controllers. The Hub controllers manage the interaction between the processor and the other components present in the system. The hub controllers are: Graphic and Memory Controller Hub (GMCH) Equivalent to North Bridge and the difference if that MCH does not manage the PCI bus. I/O Controller Hub (ICH) Twice as fast as the south bridge.
Some of the buses are:123456Front Side Bus (FSB) AGP Bus Back Side Bus (BSB) Memory Bus IDE or ATA Bus PCI Bus
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Front Side Bus: - The bus in general refers to the speed of the Front Side Bus (FSB). The FSB connects the CPU to the North Bridge. The speed of the FSB can vary between 66 MHz and 800 MHz. The speed of the Front Side Bus greatly influences the computers performance since the processor interacts with the memory controlled by using FSB. AGP Bus: - The AGP Bus connects the video card to the memory and the CPU. AGP bus operates at a speed of 66 MHz Back Side Bus: - The back side bus connects the processor to the L2 Cache. The back side bus is part of the CPU. The speed of the back side bus is depended on the speed of the processor. Memory Bus: - The memory Bus connects the north bridge to the memory IDE or ATA Bus: - The IDE/ATA bus connects the south bridge to the disk drives. PCI Bus: - The PCI bus connects the PCI slots to the south bridge. The speed of the PCI bus is 33 MHz
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the types of peripheral devices. They are used to enhance the features of the PC. The expansion slots can hold expansion cards like the sound card, VGA card, AGP card, Network card etc. It is also possible connect specialized cards like the TV Tuner card, modem etc. The features of the computer can be improved by connecting add on cards to the expansion slots available in the motherboard. There are different types of expansion slots. They are: PC (Personal Computer) Expansion Slot ISA ( Industrial Standard Architecture ) Expansion Slot MCA ( Micro Channel Architecture ) Expansion Slot Extended Industrial Standard Architecture (EISA) Expansion Slot Video Electronics Standard Architecture (VESA ) Expansion Slot Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) Expansion Slot Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Expansion Slot Peripheral Component Interconnect Extended (PCI -X) Expansion Slot
PC (Personal Computer) Expansion Slot: - It was the first expansion slot used in
computer it supports 8 bit data bus.
ISA (Industrial Standard Architecture) Expansion Slot: - This slot is use for 16 bit
data transfer rate of 8 MHz Speed. It was used to support processor like 80286, 80386 and Pentium Series it has 98 pins and black in color.
MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) Expansion Slot: - MCA card was introduced with
two new features that is PnP and bus mastering. It was similar to ISA bus and had support of 32 Bit data transfer.
Extended Industrial Standard Architecture (EISA) Expansion Slot: This slot was
used in the Mother Board supporting P1 and P2. It was extended version of ISA with 32 Bit support it has feature like multiple bus mastering .Its data transfer speed is 8.33 MHz. It has 98 Pins.
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) Expansion Slot: - This is used for Graphic Card it
increases the graphic quality of the system. It works at 16 bit at a clock speed of 1.33 MHz
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Serial Ports Parallel Port VGA Port PS2 Port USB Port IDE Port FDD Port SATA Port BIOS AGP PCI Game Port AMR
9 Pins 25 Pins 15 Pins 6 Pins 4 Pins 40 Pins 34 Pins 7 Pins 32 Pins 120 Pins 120 Pins 15 Pins 46
IDE/ATA = Integrated Device Electronic/Advance Technology Attachment SATA = Serial Advance Technology Attachment PATA = Parallel Advance Technology Attachment
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TV Tuner Card
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LAN Card
AGP Card
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What is Jumpers?
Jumper is small connector which can be placed between two pins to make electrical connections. The two pins appear on the circuit board and are electrically connected if the jumper is covering those pins.
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IRQ Channel number IRQ0 IRQ1 IRQ2 IRQ3 IRQ4 IRQ5 IRQ6 IRQ7 IRQ8 IRQ9 IRQ10 IRQ11 IRQ12 IRQ14 IRQ15
Used by System time Keyboard Cascade Controller COM 2/COM4 COM 1/ COM3 Sound Card, Parallel Port 2 LPT 2 Floppy LPT 1 Real Time Clock Redirected to IRQ 2 Available for otter devices SCSI, Video Available Primary IDE Secondary IDE
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Memory
There are two type of Memory 1- Primary Memory 2- Secondary Memory
Primary Memory
12345Data saved for small period of time. Saved small amount of data. Connected to CPU. Fast Data transfer. Example RAM, ROM, Cache memory.
Secondary Memory
12345Data saved permanently. Saves large amount of data. Connected to I/O ports. Slow data transfer. Example Hard Disk, FDD (Floppy Disk Drive), CD ROM, DVD ROM.
Volatile Memory Memory which loses data after the power off. Such memory is known as volatile memory. Example- RAM Non-Volatile Memory The memory which does not losses it data even after power off is called Non-volatile memory. Example- BIOS ROM
RAM (Random Access Memory)-It is a volatile memory which is used to store users data and programs for processing at the present time. Example- SRAM, DRAM
Dynamic RAM 1 2 3 4 5 6 Made up of Capacitors Need refreshing It is cheaper in cost Packaging density is high Slower speed Example- EDO RAM, DDR RAM Static RAM Made up of flip flop Does not need refreshing It's costly Packaging density is less Faster speed Example- Cache RAM
Dynamic RAM Types of SIMM and DIMM 1- Fast Page Mode Random Access Memory (FPM) 30 pins 2- Extended Data Out Random Access Memory (EDO) 72 pins 3- Burst Extended Data Out Random Access Memory (BEDO) 72 pins 4- Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SD RAM) -168 pins 5- Double Data Rate Random Access Memory (DDR RAM) 184 pins 6- Double Data Rate 2 Random Access Memory (DDR2 RAM) 240 pins
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7- Double Data Rate 3 Random Access Memory (DDR3 RAM) 240 pins 8- Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory 184 pins 9- Video Random Access Memory (VRAM) 10- So DIMM (Dual In Line Memory Module) 144 to 200 pins 11- Micro DIMM (Dual In Line Memory Module)- 144 to 172 pins SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module)-It was first kind of memory which had series of DIP chip solders to a small PCB. They have row of tin or gold contact pin on the edges. Example 30 Pin SIMM Module (FPM RAM) 72 Pin SIMM Module (EDO RAM)
FPM RAM
EDO RAM DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)-It is a standard type of memory module used in modern motherboard. It has row of tin or gold contactors on both the edges. Example DDR, DDR2 RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module)-This memory module is used to hold RD RAM. It has 184 pins and SO RIMM has 160 pins connector. FPM (Fast Page Mode DRAM)-It was the original form of DRAM. It was mostly used in 80486 processor and early Pentium processor. It consists of 30 pins single edge connector. It has nine DIP chips on its PCB. EDO DRAM It is also known as hyper page mode D-RAM. This EDO DRAM was faster than FPM and saves approximately 10 Nano second per cycle. It was available in 72 pins SIMM format. The EDO DRAM was replaces by SDRAM. BEDO-DRAM (Burst EDO Dynamic RAM, 72 pins)-It was extended version of EDO RAM. It was supported only one chipset (Intel 440 Fx). This RAM could not become so popular
SD-RAM-Introduced in 1990, it was available with bus speed of 66 MHz and later upgraded to 100 MHz and 133 MHz it was the very first DIMM standard memory module. This type of DRAM operates in synchronization with the memory bus. It has less latency period.
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DDR RAM It was introduced in 2002 and was improved form of SDRAM. It supports P III, P IV, AMD (Advance Micro Devices) and Celeron processor with a bus speed of 400 MHz. It transfers the data twice the speed of SD RAM. It consists of 184 pins. DDR2 RAM (SD DDR2) It is the next generation of DDR SDRAM. It is designed to consume less power in comparison to DDR SD RAM. It is superior to DDR SD RAM. It operates high clock speed with grater signal. These DIMM modules consist of 240 pins. DDR3 SD RAM-It consists of 240 pins same as DDR2 SD RAM but the notch is different place so that it can be distinguished. Rambus DRAM Its a completely new technology which supports RIMM slot. It was only standard supported by Intel P-IV motherboard. In this way it never becomes popular. It consists of 184 pins RIMM format. It works at 64 bit Pentium Processor mostly the RIMM slot version was in blue in color. Video RAM-It is used to store image data for processing by the video adaptor. The more memory of the video adaptor creates the better image. Video RAM allows adaptor to display high resolution. It is also known as MPD-RAM (Multi Port Dynamic RAM). SO- DIMM (Small Outline DIMM) - 144 to 200 pins-It is a small form factor of DIMM format. It is generally used in Laptop. Micro DIMM (144 to 172 Pins) It is a small form factor of DIMM format. It is generally used in notebooks. (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor RAM)-There is a small amount of memory used by the system and other device to store the hardware list and configuration of the system. This memory uses a small battery (CMOS Battery) to provide it with power to maintain memory contents.
Non-Volatile
ROM (Read only Memory) Read only memory is a type of memory used in computer to store data permanently. The data can be read form ROM but cant be written into it normally. The data in the ROM cant be erased easily but uses special techniques to erase it. Page 22
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Characteristics of ROM 1- ROM is non-volatile. 2- ROM uses special technique to write and erase data into them. 3- ROM is slower than RAM. 4- ROM is a firmware and it is used to store system level program. Types of ROM 1- ROM(Read Only Memory) 2- P-ROM (Programmable Read only Memory) 3- EP-ROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) 4- EEP-ROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
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ROM - Read only memory is type of memory used in computer to store a small amount of data permanently. ROM can be program only once by the manufacturer. It can be used only for specific function and application without any change. P-ROM P-ROM is a type of ROM which can be written using some special techniques and equipment. EP-ROM EP- ROM is an expensive ROM which stores the data for system memory. EP-ROM chip is provided with glass window through which the chip can be programmed many times by passing ultraviolet Rays through them for a defined period of time.
EEP-ROM- EEP-ROM is more advance them P-ROM and EROM you cannot erased from the chip either by Passing Electrically through them under software mostly EEP-ROM is used as storing BIOS programs.
Flash Memory Flash memory is a nonvolatile memory which can be erased and reprogrammed easily. Flash memory is a version of EPROM which erases and writes the data.
Static RAM
Cache Memory-
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Cache Memory is an example accessed easily and quickly by the processor. The more frequently more data is stored in cache memory. Cache memory is limited and expansive. L1 Cache (Level Cache) - It is also known as primary cache and is build inside the processor that so it is the fastest cache memory. L2 Cache (Level -2 Cache) - It is also known as secondary cache, It is present in separate chip on the Motherboard. It has the same working as the L2 Cache but it is less fast then L1 Pentium processor have L2 cache up to 512 KB. L3 Cache (Level -3 Cache) - With the advance next of the technology in the modern computer on extra cache memory which Interfaces, the processor and main memory on the system, It is also known as L3 cache. Disk Cache- Disk cache is the portion of hard disk or portion of RAM, which used to store recently used data or the data accessed next. This enhances the performance of the system by reducing the time taking to read, write to the hard disk, as the disk cache is expensive. It used in small amount.
Right Back Policy- In this processes the processor after processing any data places the output
into the cache memory. After saving it for some time the cache transfer the data into main memory (RAM). Write through Policy- In this process the output is written on both main memory as well as cache memory simultaneously write through policy reduces the risk of data loss.
Booting- Booting is the process of loading of operating system into system memory. The system
can be booted two ways.
Cold Boot and Hard Boot- Booting the system by turning on the power switch. The system is
start from the switch off state the components present in the motherboard is rest during cold boot. When we restart computer using restart command given by OS then computer performs hard boot. In hard boot BIOS does not performs POST (Power On Self-Test). Paging File- Paging is a technique of implanting virtual memory that known as paging file.
Virtual Memory That part of hard disk which is used by the system addition system memory
(RAM).In other word we can say that is process a swapping of the programs and data between the RAM and hard disk to execute size then RAM.
Shadow RAM- Shadow is the process of copping of ROM to RAM. The content of BIOS ROM is
copied into RAM and is called shadow ROM.
Memory Errors
1- Hard Error- In hard error the hardware may be faulty and the output always returns to Zero (0). Even the data is stored in it. The hard error may include load defective motherboard etc. 2- Soft Errors- Also Known as transient errors soft errors are caused by the sensors occasionally in correct data from the motherboard. Soft errors are not repeated and also not easy to diagnose to overcome these types of errors.
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Non Parity- Non parity is a normal memory that contains one bit memory to save one bit data. Non parity modules do not provide any error detection or correction to check data. Parity- Parity is used for error detraction or correction. In parity memory one bit is added in extra to bit data, parity checking is used no correction 1 bit correction detect single bit error in the memory system parity can not be used to detect more than one bit error.
ECC Parity can not be used to detect more than one bit errors. Hence a different technique is used to correct the errors. The techniques to correct one bit error and detect multi bit error are called ECC. ECC makes larger grouping like seven bit for protect 32 bit data.
Memory Banks
Memory banks are the collection of modules or socket to from a single logical unit memory chips are arranged in raw in sockets can be considered in same bank or another bank.
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Microprocessor
It is considered as brain of computer. All the processing and controlling of the computer and memory is done by processor. Microprocessor is an electronic component integrated with thousand and millions of transistors for performing arithmetic and logic operations. The Microprocessor is used to perform a variety of functions like executing the instructions given by the user program, controlling the I/O operations and the functions of peripheral devices. Parts of Processing Unit 1- ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is used for performing Arithmetic and logic operations. The Arithmetic operations are adding, subtraction, multiplication and division. The logic operations are taking decision based on same conditions. 2- RU (Register Unit) This part of Microprocessor is used to store data during processing it acts as buffer for processing data. 3- CU (Control Unit) It provide necessary timing and control signals to all the operations between microprocessor memory and peripherals.
Features of Microprocessor:
1. It is the main component of motherboard. 2. It consists of millions of transistors. (P4 has 5.5 million transistors) 3. It performs functions like mathematical calculation, Logical Comparison and data manipulation.
Qualities of Microprocessor:
Speed of Processor. Speed of data processing of processor is measured in MHz or GHz. 1 MHz= 1 Million frequency 1 GHz= 1 Billion frequency Note4004 first processor model 8088 first processor used in computer 4004 Processor
8088 Microprocessor
1- The 8088 microprocessor is the first microprocessor used in computer 2- The data bus is 8 bit. It can transfer 8 bits of data at a time. 3- The clock speed supported is 4.77 MHz
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4- It supports the 8087 co-processor. The coprocessor is used for performing floating point related operations and Mathematical Operations.
80286 Processor
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
The width of the address bus is 80286 is 24 bit. Hence it can access 16 MB of memory space. It operates with +5 V DC. It operates with three different frequencies namely 8 MHz, 10 MHz and 12.5 MHz. 80286 support a new concept called virtual memory. Supports Multi-tasking. The co-processor support by 80286 microprocessor is 80287.
80386 Processors
Intel 80386 processor is a 32 bit microprocessor. There are two types of 80386 processor. They are 80386 SX and 80386 DX. It can access 4 GB physical address space. Co-processor is supported by both 80386 SX and 80386 DX. The co-processor used is 80387.
80486 Processors
Intel 80486 is a 32 bit processor. There are two types of 80486 processor. They are 1- 80486 SX 2- 80486 DX
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Differences between 80486 SX and 80486 DX processor 80486 SX The 80486 processor does not have an inbuilt cache memory 80486 SX does not have as inbuilt co-processor. It uses 80486 as its coprocessor
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80486 DX 80486 has 8 Kb of inbuilt cache memory The coprocessor for 80486 DX is inbuilt in the processor
Pentium Processor
The Pentium Processor is a complex and a sophisticated processor when compared to its predecessors. The capabilities of the Pentium processors can be compared to the features of 80486 processor with some improvements. For example there is two separate cache memory of 8 Kb each to support data and code.
The Cyrix 686 processor is the cost effective alternative to Pentium. Cyrix P20+ was the first processor to cross the system bus speed of MHz in operation. The table below show different models of Cyrix processor and the speed of operation. Cyrix Model P 120+ P 133+ CPU Speed 100 MHz 110 MHz System Bus Speed 50 55
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P 166+ P 200+ 133 MHz 150 MHz 66 75
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AMD Processor
The AMD processors are another brand and offer a tight competition to the Intel Processors. The AMD processors operates using a separate technology and hence are not clones of the Intel Processor. AMD processors: 1- AMD Opteron processor Server and Workstations 2- AMD Athlon 64 processor Desktop and Notebooks 3- AMD Turion 64 mobile technology Notebooks
CO PROCESSOR
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IT is also known as floating point unit (FPU) or co-processor.
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The main function co-processor is to relief the main processor from calculation and speeding the other computer operation. Co-processor performs high level mathematical calculation using non-integers. Such as long division and complex functions like Trigonometry and logarithm. The co-processor speed is 10000 times faster than processor. Earlier co-processor like 80886, 80286, and 80386 had co-processor built on the motherboard. Intel introduced 8048 DX processor with built in micro co-processor inside processor. After that all the fifth generation processor had integrated co-processing with processor.
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CPU type
Pentium P1 P2 (i) P2 (ii) P3 (i) P3 (ii) P4 (i) P4 (ii) P4 (iii) P4 (iv) Celeron (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Athlon (AMD) (i) (ii) (iii) Cyrix (i) (ii) BELOW 550 MHz ABLOE 550 MHz
CPU range
Bus support
100,133,166,200,233 MHz 233,266,300,333,350 MHz 400,450 MHz 450,500,550,600,633,650,666,700 MHz 733,766,800,833,866,933,966MHz(1,1.1,1.2GHz) 1.4,1.5,1.6,1.7 GHz 1.8,1.9,2,2.2 GHz 2.4,2.6 GHz 2.6,2.8,3.0 HT GHz
66 MHz 66 MHz 66-100 MHz 100 MHz 133 MHz 266 MHz 266,333 MHz 333,533 MHz 533,800 MHz
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VRM Technology
From socket 7 onwards a new technology was implemented known as VRM (Voltage Regulation Module). For sockets other than Socket7, Auto VRM technique is used. It is a technique to make the microprocessor work at a low voltage state. Socket 4 microprocessor used to work at 5 volt. After VRM technology was introduced microprocessor could work at a voltage as low as 3.3 volt for socket 7$ 8 and 2.5 to volts for rest of the sockets.
Supported processor 486Sx/Sx2,dx/dx2,dx4.OD, 486Sx/Sx2,dx/dx2,dx4OD,486 Pentium OD 486x/Sx2,dx/dx2,dx4OD,486 Pentium OD,AMD 5x86 486,dx4,486 Pentium OD
Auto VRM Auto VRM Auto VRM Auto VRM Auto VRM
AMD Athon SECC AMD Athlon,Athlon XP, Duron PGA, FC-PGA AMD Athlon 64 AMD Athlon 64 v2 AMD Athlon 64 FX Opteron
Slot 2(SC330) Socket 603 Socket 604 Socket PAC418 Socket PAC611 Socket 940
Slot 31*25 mPGA 31*25 mPGA 31*22 PGC 25*28 PAC 31*31 mPGA
Auto VRM Auto VRM Auto VRM Auto VRM Auto VRM Auto VRM
Pentium ll/lll Xeon Pentium 4 Xeon Pentium 4 Xeon Itanium Itanium 2 AMD Athlon 64 FX, Opteron
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Hard Disk
Hard Disk is a secondary storage device which is used to save data, operating system etc, in the computer permanently. It storage medium is a round disk made up of glass, aluminum and other and magnetic elements. This disk is known as platter.
1- Storage Capacity- The storage capacity of the hard disk refers to the amount of disk space that can be the user data and the programs in the hard disk. It is usually measured in Giga bytes. 2- Data Transfer speed There are two ways to measure the speed of the disk drive A- Average seek time Average seek time is the average amount of time that it takes to move the head from one cylinder to another casual distance and this is normally measured in milliseconds (ms). B- Transfer Rate- The transfer rate is the speed at which data is transferred to one place from the disk platter and this is more important for system performance. Usually it is calculated in megabytes per second (MBps). 3- Stability Generally the hard drives stability has been measured by Mean Time before Failure (MTBF). The value of MTBF is measured in hours. Today in modern hard disk, the MTBF ranges from 300,000 to 1,200,000 hours.
Platters-It is the media where data stores in the hard disk. It is a round shaped disk mainly made up of aluminum and glass. A platter is similar to a music record and a hard disk has many platters.
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Media Layer It is a very thin layer made up of magnetic materials. This media layer is few micro inches in thickness. It is the place where actually the data store on the hard disk. Protective Layer Above the media layer an extra thin protective lubricant layer is on the top, known as proactive layer. It protects the platter from the damage caused by the accidental contact of platter with head or other martial. Arm The arm is like a shaft which lies over the platter. Its function is to move the head or carry the head all along over the platter. Head - Head act as a medium to interface the platter where the data is stored and other part of hard disk. Head has read and writes operations. These heads are mounted on the arm that allows it to move from the outer track of the disk platter to the inner track. Stepper Motor It use to control the operation of the head on the surface of platter. It is an electronic motor which can step from one location to another location of the platter. The stepper motor is also used in FDD to move the head. Voice coil actuator mechanism This mechanism is used to move the arm for the proper read and write by the head. In voice coil system and electronic head coil attached to the end of the head. There is no control between the coil and magnate. The coil moved by magnetic power. Spindle Motor This is responsible for spinning or rotating the platter in the hard disk. At one time the platter can rotate at least 3600 rpm (Revaluation Per minute). Modern hard disk can spin at the speed of 5400 R.P.M. HDD Power connector Hard disk uses a standard 4 pin male power connector to provide power to the hard disk. It has 4 wire plastic connector, + 5 and +12 volts to different devices of the hard disk. Data Interface Connector - This connector is used to transfer data to the hard disk. Different typed of data interface connectors are used to transfer data in hard disk. Logic Board or P.C.B. Hard Disk can have more than 1 logic board on it. The logic board controls the movement of spindle motor and head of the hard disk. The board contains data controller chips. This controller chip is made up of small but complicated circuits. Since the data in the Hard disk is stored in busses where the data on the mother board is always in digital or binary format. So the function of the controller chip is to convert the data from magnetic format to digital format while reading and digital format to the magnetic format while writing the data.
Types of H.D.D
1- I.D.E. or A.T.A. (Integrated Device Electronic or Advance Technology Attachment) 40pin and 40 wires, 4 pin Molex power connector. 2- SATA (Serial ATA) 7 pins for data, 15 pins for power. 3- PATA (Parallel ATA) 40 pins and 80 wires. 4- SCSI(Small Computer System Interface) 5- USB HDD (External H.D.D.)
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SCSI HDD
IDE Cable
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IDE Hard Disk
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SATA Cable
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Portable HDD
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Floppy Disk
The floppy disk was very popular for storing data and being able to carry the data with you. Floppy disks are not as popular today because they typically can store only up to 1.44MB of data. Today, one picture from a digital camera will use that much space. A floppy disk has a hard plastic casing with a sliding metal shutter that allows the drive to access the silicon disk inside. The floppy disk comes in different sizes, or formats:
The following table shows a summary of the various floppy disk specifications provided in other sections of this chapter, for each of the five major floppy disk types:
Category
Drive Spindle Motor Speed Controller Minimum Controller Transfer Rate Density Name
Media
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Optical Media
CD-ROM
It is type of PROM. It is used to store data in graphic form or text form. It is a round flat disc having an aluminum layer for data storage. It is also Known as optical storage device the data read and written to it in the light form.
Features of CD ROM
12345Low cost High storage density (500 700 MB) High speed of data access It is a removable storage medium Multimedia storage image, moving image, text, audio data.
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Different type of CD
123456Red book CD used for audio format (74 Min) Yellow book CD 650 MB Orange book CD Supports multisession Green book CD (72 Min ) Supports audio and video White book CD Supports MPEG format Blue Book CD 700 MB , Better quality
Types of DVD
DVD, also known as Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc, is an optical disc storage media format
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First side DVD disc types First layer capacity 4.7 Gb 4.3 Gb 4.7 Gb 4.3 Gb 4.3 Gb Second layer capacity 4.3 Gb 4.3 Gb 4.3 Gb First layer capacity 4.7 Gb 4.7 Gb 4.3 Gb
DVD-5 - single sided, single layer (disc capacity about 4.7 GB, the working surface of such a disc is situated on one side of it and consists of one layer only); DVD-9 - single sided, double layer (disc capacity about 8.6 Gb, the working surface of such a disc is situated on one side of it and consists of two layers about 4.3 Gb each); DVD-10 - double sided, single layer on both sides (disc capacity about 9.4 Gb, the working surfaces of such a disc are situated on both its sides and either consists of one layer about 4.7 Gb); DVD-14 - double sided, double layer on one side and single layer on the other side (disc capacity about 13.3 Gb, the working surfaces of such a disc are situated on both its sides and consist of two layers about 4.3 Gb each on one side and one layer about 4.7 Gb on the other side); DVD-18 - double sided, double layer on both sides (disc capacity about 17.2 Gb, the working surfaces of such a disc are situated on both its sides and either consists of two layers about 4.3 Gb each).
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Blu-Ray Discs
Blu-ray Disc (BD) is a next-generation optical disc format meant for storage of high-definition video and high-density data. The Blu-ray standard was jointly developed by a group of leading consumer electronics and PC companies called the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA), led by Sony and Philips. Blu-ray has information capacity per layer of 25 gigabytes.
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SCSI Card It is a card which is used to connect all the other devices on the SCSI bus and the computer. It is also knows as SCSI host adapter. The SCSI controller is a card used to plug into the slot on the Motherboard or can be built on the computer.
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SCSI Cable - The SCSI Cable can be of two types according to their passion a- Internal SCSI cables b- External SCSI cables Internal SCSI Cables The Internal SCSI look like IDE cables.
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External SCSI Cables The internal SCSI cable is more thick then internal SCSI cable and is usually round in shape.
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SCSI TYPES Maximum Bits Frequency Transfer Rate Device Support Pins
There are two types of terminators 1- Active Terminator (Use Power) 2- Passive Terminator (Do not use Power)
Types of SCSI
SCSI Printer
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Data Communication
1- Serial Communication- The data is sent bit by bit in serial communication. The data is divided into bits and transmitted in a sequence and at the receiving end each bit is rebuilt to form a complete data. 2- Parallel Communication The data is sent as types. A specific data is send through a group of wires.
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USB A connector It is always connected towards the computer side during the communication. The USB A connector is used at those places where the cable is always attached the device. Example mouse and keyboard uses A connector.
USB B Connector The USB B connector used in Printer, Scanner, Modem etc.
USB mini B connector It is a small form factor of B connecter and is mostly used to provide power and data to device individually or simultaneously.
Device supported by USB Printer, Scanner, digital camera, mouse, keyboard, speaker, external storage device (such as Pen Drive, HDD), Joy stick and game pad, Network Connector.
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USB HUB
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FireWire IEEE 1394 FireWire is a fast bus external bus standard. There are mainly two
2- FireWire 1394b
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USB 2.0 - Capacities
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Max. Burst Transfer Rate USB 1.1 12 Mb/s USB 2.0 480 Mb/s FireWire 1394a 400 Mb/s FireWire 1394b 800 Mb/s
Maximum cable length (USB 2.0): 5 meters Maximum cable length (USB 1.1): 3 meters Maximum devices connected in series: 127 The Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface connects computers to mice, digital cameras, scanners, printers, handhelds, and other peripherals. USB 2.0, available on desktop computers and on laptops, raises the data-transfer speed from 12 Mbps to 480 Mbps and brings the technology to the most demanding peripherals, such as camcorders, portable CD-RW drives, or external hard drives. Most new mainstream PCs have at least one USB 2.0 port, which lets you connect not only dozens of new USB 2.0 devices but also the thousands of USB 1.1 devices on the market. Connecting a USB 1.1 device to a USB 2.0 port, however, will still yield a maximum through Put of only 12 Mbps.
Parallel Port The parallel port is design to communicate with the printer port. PC can have maximum 3 parallel Ports. Connector of parallel port- According to IEEE there are 3 types of connector that can be used in parallel port Type A connector This type of Connector is found on computer.
Type C connector Also called IEEE 1284 standard for parallel port.
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SCANNER
Scanner is an input device which converts hard copy into soft copy. In other words we can say that it converts light signal into digital signals.
Types of scanner
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Flatbed scanner Sheet fed scanner Drum scanner Micro film scanner Slide scanner Digital scanner (Digital camera)
1- Flat Bed scanner It is the most commonly used scanner. It consists of a light sensor, light source, moving arm and a glass sheet.
2- Sheet fed scanner It Works same as flatbed scanner but is faster than flatbed scanner for that reason it is expensive. It gives fast speed but the output quality is not very fine. It is used to scan oversized document like maps.
3- Drum Scanner This scanner provides high quality and high resolution pixel but at high price.
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4- Micro Film scanner This scanner is used to digitalize file rolls of camera. It is very costly.
5- Slide scanner It is used to scan 3D objects which cannot be scanned to standard scanners.
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6- Digital Scanner or Camera It is a combination of scanner with a camera. It is used to improve capturing still and moving images.
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Printer
Printer is a hardware device which act as output device and use to convert soft copy into hard copy, is known as printer. In other words we can say that it produces a permanent human readable text or graphic from an electronic format in computer. There are mainly two types of printers
Types of Printer
1- Daisy Wheel Printer (Impact) - It is similar to type writer. It can type letters and alphabets but no graphics. 2- Dot Matrix Printer (Impact) - Create characters by hitting the ink ribbon. 3- Ink Jet printer It produces graphics and text by spraying ink on the paper. 4- Laser Printer (Non-Impact) It uses technology of Photostat machine to print. 5- LCD or LED Printers (None Impact) It is similar to laser printer but uses led or LCD in the place of Laser. 6- Line Printer It woks same as Dot Matrix Printer but at fast speed. 7- Thermal Printer It is very expensive type of printer and uses head and wax to print.
The most popular kind of printer for small computers is the dot matrix printer, which forms characters as arrays of dots. Dot matrix printers are compact, reliable and relatively fast. This type of printer is an impact printer. The print head is the important hardware which produces the character
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using pins arranged in a matrix form. Normally a print head has 9 pins or 24 pins arranged in a matrix form. Combinations of pins strike an ink bed ribbon during the printing process. The print head moves in a line and the pattern of dots required for each character is printed on the paper. After printing a line, the paper rolls to print the next line. Dot matrix printers produce average quality prints and as generally used in business applications. They are used printing train number, seat number etc, on a railway reservation ticket. The speed of printing in dot matrix printer in dot matrix is measured in characters per second (cps). The advantage in this type of printer is carbon copies can be obtained as printing takes place by physical impact with the paper. It is less of cost and easy to maintain. The disadvantage is average printing quality and printer ribbon printer ribbon needs to be changed frequently.
Laser Printer
Laser printers are fastest type of non-impact electrostatic printers. They produce high quality prints at high speeds. It operates like a copier machine. In these printers, the controlled beam of intense laser forms images on an electrically charged rotating drum. The drum is rotated near the fine black powder called the toner. These charged images which sticks to the paper due to pressure and heat. The toner consists of oppositely charged ink particles which stick to the drum in the places where the laser has charged.
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The light beam strikes a multi-sided rotating mirror. As the mirror rotates, the side currently in the path of the light beam sweeps the beam across the surface of the drum. As the beam sweeps across the drum, the light is modulated and a single line is drawn after a line has been drawn, the next side of the mirror is in place and a new line is drawn below the previous line. The quality of the printout is measured by the number of dots per inch (dpi). Since the dots are printed closely, the text or graphics appears very smooth and elegant. The speed is measured in number of pages printed per minute (PPM) which varies between 5 and 25. The advantages are good quality printouts can be obtained for documentation and business applications. The printing is faster and easy to handle and maintain. The disadvantages are the price is high and higher print cost.
Inkjet printer
An inkjet is a non-impact printer. It sprays tiny drops of ink to form character and graphic images on paper. The text and graphics printed in an inkjet printer are technically similar to that of a dot matrix printer. These types of printers can also be used color printing. The black inkjet printer uses black cartridge filled with black ink whereas the color printer uses four color cartridges namely cyan (blue), magenta (red), yellow, Green and black. These four colors are used in combination to generate any color in the visible spectrum.
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The print heads move across the page by the control of software and spray the dots of ink with the required combination of colors. The printer sends electrical pulses to thin resistors at the base of firing chambers behind the nozzle. A thin layer of ink is heated by the resistor which in turn forms a vapour bubble and the expansion forces ink through the nozzle and onto the paper at a rate of about 6000 dots per second. The quality of the printout is equivalent to that of laser printouts. The speed of printing is slower than that of laser printers. The advantages of this type printer are the cost is low; quality of printing is equivalent to that of laser printing, color printouts are cheaper easy to handle and maintain. The disadvantages are the ink cartridges may get spoiled if unused for a long time. Some inkjet printers are very expensive.
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Keyboard
Keyboard is a hardware which is used as a primary input device. The computer keyboard has the same key arrangement as the mechanical or electronic type written writer keyboard has other than text button the keyboard also contain standard function keys, tab and cursor keys, shift and controls key and some other manufacture customize keys.
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Backspace key Deletes the character just to the left of the cursor (or insertion point) and moves the cursor to that position. Caps Lock Key A toggle key that, when activated, causes all alphabetic characters to be uppercase. Ctrl key Short for Control, this key is used in conjunction with other keys to produce control characters. The meaning of each control character depends on which program is running. Delete Key Sometimes labeled Del, deletes the character at the current cursor position, or the selected object, but does not move the cursor. For graphics-based applications, the Delete key deleted the character to the right of the insertion point. Enter Key Used to enter commands or to move the cursor to the beginning of the next line. Sometimes labeled Return instead of Enter. Esc Key Short for Escape, this key is used to send special codes to devices and to exit (or escape) from programs and tasks. Function Keys Special keys labeled F1 to F12. These keys have different meaning depending on which program is running.
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Symbol Windows F1 - F12 Tab Caps lock Shift Ctrl Alt Back Space Delete Enter Prt Scrn Scroll lock Pause Break Insert Home Page up Page down Num Lock ~ ` ! @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) _ + = { } [ ] | \ / : ; " ' < > , . ? Explanation PC keyboards have a Windows key represented by a flag. Information about the F1 through F12 keyboard keys. Tab key Caps lock key Shift key Ctrl key Alt key (PC Only; Mac users have Option key) Back space key Delete or Del key Enter key Print screen key Scroll lock key Pause Break key Insert key Home key Page up or pgup key Page down or pgdn key Num Lock key Tilde Acute, Back quote, grave, grave accent, left quote, open quote, or a push Exclamation mark, Exclamation point, or Bang At or At symbol Octothorpe, Number, Pound, sharp, or Hash Dollar sign Percent Caret or Circumflex Ampersand, Epershand, or And Asterisk and sometimes referred to as star. Open parenthesis Close parenthesis Hyphen, Minus or Dash Underscore Plus Equals Open Brace, squiggly brackets, or curly bracket Close Brace, squiggly brackets, or curly bracket Open bracket Close bracket Pipe, Or, or Vertical bar Backslash or Reverse Solidus Forward slash, Solidus, Virgule, or Whack Colon Semicolon Quote, or Inverted commas Apostrophe or Single Quote Less Than or Angle brackets Greater Than or Angle brackets Comma Period, dot or Full Stop Question Mark
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Mouse
Mouse is an input device that is used to point to a place in the screen of your monitor and to select one or more action from that position. Types of Mouse1- Mechanical Mouse 2- Optomechanical Mouse 3- Optical Mouse Mechanical Mouse Earlier type of mouse that has rubber or metal boll in its under side that can roll in or direction. Mechanical sincere within the mouse detects the direction the boll is rolling and move to screen pointer accordingly.
Optical Mouse uses a laser to detect the mouse movement. We need to move the mouse on a special mat with grid. It is more precise and quick mechanical and optomechinical mouse.
Optomechinical Mouse- The optomechinical mouse consist of a ball which roles a wheal containing circuits of holes and notches to read the L.E.D. by a sensor as it spins around when the mouse is moved it is more accurate then mechanical mouse.
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PS2 Mouse USB Mouse
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Modem
Modem is a networking device which is used to interface your computer with the wide area network (Internet). Its primary function is to convert analog signal into digital signals and digital signals into analog signals. The modem basically modulates or demodulates the data signals. The modulation is the process of conversion outgoing digital signal from a computer to analog signal.
Types of Modem Internal Modem Internal Modems are placed on the PCI slot inside the computer. You need to open the computer whenever you change or replace them.
External Modem An external modem is used to a kind of interfaces connected to the computer such as USB. They are always placed as an external device and can be connected and disconnected easily.
Classification of Modem
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1- Cable Modem- This modem used with coaxial cable television line providing a very fast access to the web up to the speed of 38 Mb (megabit) / sec. 2- DSL (Digital Subscribe Line) Modem this type of modem is used for connection from a telephone to the user. This technology is divided into two main categories. A- ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line Modem) This line is used in North America and supports 1.5 Mb/sec to 9 Mb/sec download and 3 megabit / Sec upload transmission rate. B- SDSL (Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) Modem used in Europe and as a same download stream and transmission upload rate 128 kbps.
2- ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) - ISDN is international communication standard for transmitting digital data over a telephone wire. The modem used with such phone lines. Other types of Modem USB MODEM
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Type of SMPS
The type of SMPS basically depends on the type of function you are using according to different types of SMPS we have four categories. 1234AC in DC out DC in DC out AC in AC out DC in AC out
Block diagram of main operated at DC SMPS with Output voltage regulation. 1- Input Rectifier filter If SMPS has AC input, and then its first job is to convert input to DC. This is called Rectification. The rectifier provides an unrated voltage which is then send to a large filter capacitor. 2- Inverter stage- The inverter stage converts DC to AC by passing it through power oscillator. This process is shown in the block diagram as invertor chopper stage. 3- Voltage converter and output rectifier-The invented AC is used to pass through the voltage high frequency transformers to convert the voltage up or down according required output level as shown in output transforms in block diagram. Later on some more changes are done in output rectifier and filtering is done. The AC output form transformers is again rectifier i.e., converted from AC to DC. This rectified output is then smoothed by filters, consisting of conductors and capacitors. 4- Regulation A feedback circuit monitors the output and compares it with a reference voltage, which is sets manually or electronically to the desired output. If there is any error in the output voltage the feed aback compensates by at by changing the input.
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Types of SMPS
There are mainly three types of SMPS 1- AT (Advance Technology) SMPS (10 12 Pin) Power connector. 2- ATX SMPS ( 20 pins power connector) 3- MATX SMPS ( 24 Pins Power Connector) SMPS Power Connectors
The power supply is the most significant components of the computer. The power supply unit in a PC is called as Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS).SMPS is used to convert 110V/220V Alternating Current (AC) into 3.3V, 5V, 12V Direct Current (DC) supply. The Integrated Chips (ICs) like the motherboard operate with 3.3V or 5V DC voltage. The electro-mechanical components like the motor, fan operate at 12V DC power supply.
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Display Adaptor
Display Adaptor is a part of computer which is used to produce output on the screen. The display adaptors are 8 bit, 16 bit and 32 bit.
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Software
Software is a collection of program which is used to perform specific task
System Software - System software is computer software designed to operate and control the
computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application software System software has two types 1- Operating System Operating system is software which acts as an interface between user and computer hardware. Examples: MS DOS , Windows 95 , Windows 98, Windows XP , Windows Vista , Windows 7 , Windows 8 , MacOS (For apple computers), Linux , UNIX.
3- Application Software: Application software, also known as an application or an app, is computer software designed to help the user to perform specific tasks. Examples Microsoft Office, Tally, Photoshop, Nero, Adobe Reader, VLC media player etc.
Utility Software: Utility software is designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain
Operating System. Utility software is usually called a utility or tool.
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Example: Antivirus Software (Norton Antivirus, Quick Heel Antivirus, Symantec Antivirus and Avast antivirus etc ), PC optimizer software.
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Classification based on the number of tasks Based on the task that can simultaneously on computer the operating system can be classified into two types, namely single tasking and multitasking. These are explained below: 1. Single Tasking - A single tasking operating system allows the user to perform a single task and time. Examples of single tasking operating system are MS-DOS, Palm OS for Palm handheld computers. 2. Multi-Tasking-A multitasking operating system allows the user to simultaneously execute multiple programs. Examples of multitasking operating system include Microsoft Windows, Linux, UNIX and Apple's Mac OS. An example of multitasking can be copying files from one drive to another and are running audio and video files simultaneously.
2. Windows NT 3.1 released in 1993 Windows NT (New Technology) was a 32-bit operating system and was the first Windows operating system to combine support for high-end, client/server business applications with the industry is leading personal productivity applications. It was initially available in both a desktop (workstation) was in
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and server version called Windows NT advanced server. It was secure, stable and had a Microsoft Win32 application programming interface (API). Some of the important features of this version of Windows operating system are listed below: Preemptive multitasking schedule for Windows-based applications. Integrated networking Domain server security OS/2 and POSIX subsystem Support for multiple processor architectures NTFS(New Technology File system) file system 3. Windows for Workgroup 3.11 released in 1993 This version of Windows operating system added support for peer-to-peer workgroup and domain networking. Windows for workgroups can be used in both local area networks (LANs) and on standalone PCs and laptop computers. Some of the important features added to the operating system are: centralized configuration and security Improved support for Novel NetWare networks Remote access service
4. Windows NT for workstation 3.5 released in 1994 This version of Windows operating system provided high degree of protection yet for critical business application and data. Some of the important features of this version are: Support for openGL graphical standard. Provided support for Novell NetWare file and print servers. Allowed for use for long filename up to 255 characters. 5. Windows 95 released in 1995 This version of Windows operating system integrates a 32-bit TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) stuck for built-in Internet support for dial-up networking. Other features include: Plug and play capabilities that are made it easy for users to install hardware and software. Enhanced the multimedia capabilities. More powerful features for mobile computing and integrated networking.
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6. Windows NT Workstation 4.0 release in 1996 This version of the Windows operating system provided improved and networking support for easier and more secure access to the Internet and corporate intranets.
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7. Windows 98 released in 1998 This version of Windows operating system is an upgraded form of Windows 95. It included the ability to open and close applications more quickly, support for reading DVD discs, and the support for a universal serial bus (USB) devices. 8. Windows 98 second edition released in 1999 This version of Windows operating system is an incremental update of Windows 98 and was the first operating system that supports device like Windows NT. Some of the important features of this version are: Provides compatibility for a new and inherent hardware and Internet related features. It included features such as Internet explorer 5.0 browser technologies, Microsoft Windows NetMeeting 3.0 conferencing software. It also included Microsoft direct X API 6.1, which provided improved support for windows multimedia. Provides home networking capabilities through Internet connection sharing (ICS). 9. Windows Millennium Edition (Windows Me), released in 2000 This version of the Windows operating system is designed for home computer users. It offers consumers numerous music, and video and home networking enhancements and reliability improvements. It was the last Microsoft operating system which was based on the Windows 95 code base.
10. Windows 2000 professional released in 2000 This version of operating system was designed to replace Windows 95, 98 and Windows NT workstation 4.0. Major improvements include reliability, ease of use, Internet capability, and his support for mobile computing. Additionally, it simplified hardware installation by adding support for a wide variety of new plug and play hardware, including advanced networking and wireless products, USB devices, IEEE 1394 devices, and infrared devices.
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11. Windows XP professional released in 2001 The XP in Microsoft windows stand for experience and symbolized the innovative experiences that Windows offers to personal computer users. In Microsoft windows XP pro professional operating system home user can work with and enjoy music, movies, messaging, and photos with their computer, while business users can work smarter and faster. Other features include: It provides a flash Visual in design. Includes Remote Desktop support and advance networking features. Provides encrypting file system, and system restore. It includes wireless 802.1 X networking support, Windows messenger, and remote assistance feature for mobile users. Editions of Microsoft Windows XP Windows XP Home Edition Windows XP Professional Edition ( Service Pack 1,2,3)(Also available in 64 bit editions) Windows XP Tablet PC Edition Windows XP Starter Edition
System requirements for Windows XP Home Edition and Professional are as follows.
Minimum Processor Memory Video adapter and monitor Hard drive disk free space Recommended
233 MHz At least 300 MHz 64 MB of RAM At least 128 MB of RAM Super VGA (800 x 600) or higher resolution 1.5 GB or higher (additional 1.8 GB for Service Pack 2 and additional 900 MB for Service Pack 3 CD-ROM drive (Only to install from CD-ROM media) Keyboard, Microsoft Mouse or a compatible pointing device Sound card, Speakers or headphones
Maximum limits on physical memory (RAM) that Windows XP can address vary depending on both the Windows version and between 32-bit and 64-bit versions. The following table specifies the maximum physical memory limits supported:
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13. Windows Vista, released in 2005 Windows Vista provides a solid visual experience. You can see what your files contained without opening them, find applications and files instantly, navigate efficiently among open windows. Some of the important features of Windows Vista operating system are as follows: A built-in diagnostic code activity detects problems with system components. Windows vista uses Internet protocol version 6. Internet Explorer Version 7.0 is introduced.
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Hardware requirements Computers capable of running Windows Vista are classified as Vista Capable and Vista Premium Ready. [61] A Vista Capable or equivalent PC is capable of running all editions of Windows Vista although some of the special features and high-end graphics options may require additional or more advanced hardware. A Vista Premium Ready PC can take advantage of Vista's high-end features. Windows Vista system requirements Vista Capable Processor 800 MHz Memory 512 MB Graphics card DirectX 9.0 capable Vista Premium Ready 1 GHz 1 GB DirectX 9.0 capable and WDDM (Windows Display Driver Model ) 1.0 driver support 128 MB 40 GB
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less than three years after the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista.
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32-bit
64-bit
1 GHz processor 1 GHz x64 processor 512 MB 2 GB DirectX 9 graphics (SVGA) 16 GB of free disk space 20 GB of free disk space DVD-ROM drive (Only to install from DVD-ROM media)
Maximum limits on physical memory (RAM) that Windows 7 can address vary depending on both the Windows version and between 32-bit and 64-bit versions. The following table specifies the maximum physical memory limits supported:
Windows client operating system Windows 98 Windows ME Windows NT workstation 4.0 Windows 2000 professional Windows 95 Windows NT 3.1, 3.5, or 3.51
Upgrade to Windows XP professional Windows XP professional Windows XP professional Windows XP professional Windows 98 first and then upgrade to Windows XP professional Windows NT workstation first and then to windows XP professional
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File systems
A file system is a method of storing and organizing the data in order to easily locate and access the files from the storage device such as hard disk, floppy desk on CD-ROM. File system creates a directory structure which operates the partition into smaller files, a sign names to each file, and manage the free space available to create new files. Windows operating system uses a tool created format to create the different types of file system. Some of the important file systems supported by Windows operating system are fat 16, fat 32, NTFS 4.0, NTFS 5.0. The following table summarizes the file system supported by various Windows operating system:
System Files
System files specific of Windows 9X (Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME) Operating System
1- MSDOS.sys - This file handles disk input and output. It is loaded into memory and stays there. 2- EMM386.EXE - This file is used to view UMBs (upper memory blocks) 3- Himem.sys -This file is automatically executed during start-up for accessing upper memory. 4- IO.sys - This file manages the input and output routines of the computer, allows the rest of the operating system and the program to interact directly with the systems hardware and the systems bios. 5- Win.ini - This file is used for the Windows environment. This file is now replaced with a registry. 6- Win.com - This file is the Windows start-up program that tests the system function and prepares the Windows environment. 7- System.ini - This file contains drivers for windows devices. 8- Command.com This file is the command interpreter. It displays command line interface for to use DOS commands.
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9- Config.sys This file consists of commands that are executed after the Windows operating system boots up. The commands present in the file are executed before the commands present in the Autoexec.bat file. This file consists of commands that are essential for setting up a constant computing environment, for example device drivers. This 10- Autoexec.bat - This file contains of commands that are automatically executed when system is starts. It consists of commands to load the hardware such as mouse, keyboard, and network software. This file also consists of commands that are used to set prompt search part and other system variables.
System File is specific to Windows NT (Windows 2000, Windows 2000 Server, Windows NT, Windows XP, Windows 2003) Operating System
1- Ntldr - This file is used to load the operating system. It is also referred to as a bootstrap. 2- Boot.ini - This file is stores the location of the operating system. 3- Bootsect.dos -This is used to configure the Boot configuration and allow the PC to boot Win9x by keeping your copy of their boot sectors. 4- Ntdetect.com - This file is used to create dynamic hardware information in the registry. 5- Ntbootdd.sys - This file is used when a SCSI hard disk is used as a boot device. 6- Other files win.com and hal.dll file are required upon booting.
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Computer Viruses
Computer virus is a software program written with malicious intentions. There are number of computer viruses that can impede the functioning of your computer system. Let us see what are the different types of computer viruses. Computer Virus is a malicious software program written intentionally to enter a computer without the user's permission or knowledge. It has the ability to replicate itself, thus continues to spread. Some viruses do little but replicate, while others can cause severe harm or adversely affect program and performance of the system. A virus should never be assumed harmless and left on a system. Most common types of viruses are mentioned below:
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There are different types of computer viruses which can be classified according to their origin, techniques, types of files they infect, where they hide, the kind of damage they cause, the type of operating system or platform they attack etc. Let us have a look at few of them.
Resident Virus
This type of virus is a permanent as it dwells in the RAM. From there it can overcome and interrupt all the operations executed by the system. It can corrupt files and programs that are opened, closed, copied, renamed etc. Examples: Randex, CMJ, Meve, and MrKlunky.
Overwrite Viruses
Virus of this kind is characterized by the fact that it deletes the information contained in the files that it infects, rendering them partially or totally useless once they have been infected. The only way to clean a file infected by an overwrite virus is to delete the file completely, thus losing the original content. Examples: Way, Trj.Reboot, Trivial.88.D.
Macro Virus
Macro viruses infect files that are created using certain applications or programs that contain macros. These mini-programs make it possible to automate series of operations so that they are performed as a single action, thereby saving the user from having to carry them out one by one. Examples: Relax, Melissa.A, Bablas, O97M/Y2K.
Directory Virus
Directory viruses change the path that indicate the location of a file. When you execute a program file with an extension .EXE or .COM that has been infected by a virus, you are unknowingly running the virus program, while the original file and program is previously moved by the virus. Once infected it becomes impossible to locate the original files. Examples: Dir-2 virus.
Polymorphic Virus
Polymorphic viruses encrypt or encode themselves in a different way (using different algorithms and encryption keys) every time they infect a system. This makes it impossible for anti-viruses to find them using string or signature searches (because they are different in each encryption). The virus then goes on creating a large number of copies. Examples: Elkern, Marburg, Satan Bug and Tuareg.
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Companion Viruses
Companion viruses can be considered as a type of file infector viruses like resident or direct action types. They are known as companion viruses because once they get into the system they 'accompany' the other files that already exist. In other words, in order to carry out their infection routines, companion viruses can wait in memory until a program is run (resident virus) or act immediately by making copies of themselves (direct action virus). Some examples include: Stator, Asimov.1539 and Terrax.1069
FAT Virus
The file allocation table or FAT is the part of a disk used to store all the information about the location of files, available space, unusable space etc. FAT virus attacks the FAT section and may damage crucial information. It can be especially dangerous as it prevents access to certain sections of the disk where important files are stored. Damage caused can result in information losses from individual files or even entire directories.
Multipartite Virus
These viruses spread in multiple ways possible. It may vary in its action depending upon the operating system installed and the presence of certain files. Examples: Invader, Flip and Tequila
Worms
A worm is a program very similar to a virus; it has the ability to self-replicate and can lead to negative effects on your system. But they can be detected and eliminated by anti-viruses. Examples of worms include: PSWBugbear.B, Lovgate.F, Trile.C, Sobig.D, Mapson.
Logic Bombs
They are not considered viruses because they do not replicate. They are not even programs in their own right but rather camouflaged segments of other programs. They are only executed when a certain predefined condition is met. Their objective is to destroy data on the computer once certain conditions have been met. Logic bombs go undetected until launched and the results can be destructive. Besides, there are many other computer viruses that have a potential to infect your digital data. Hence, it is a must that you protect your data by installing genuine quality anti-virus software. What do Viruses do?
Can damage files Can slow system Can show messages Can take control
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2 Beeps
3 Beeps
4 Beeps
5 Beeps
One or more timers that control the motherboard functions might not be working Problem with the processor
Repair/Replace motherboard
The processor is not dead, otherwise it would not have booted at all A problem with either the motherboard or the keyboard
6 Beeps
7 Beeps
8 Beeps
A failure with either the keyboard controller ( a chip on the motherboard the communicates with the keyboard) or the A20 gate that is controlled by the keyboard controlled The system when listing the virtual mode encounters an error Happens when the BIOS cannot write to the frame buffer memory on the video card (a non-fatal error) A mismatch has occurred when the checksum value (that verifies if the ROM code is right) is compared with the values in the ROM An error caused when a component in the motherboard interacts with the COMS memory that holds the BIOS settings An error occurred when the system was verifying the operation of the secondary (level 2) cache Constant beeping in no specific pattern
Troubleshoot the Processor by trying it on another motherboard If there is no problem with the processor, repair/ replace motherboard Check the keyboard connections Replace the keyboard if the error still persists, repair the motherboard as the keyboard controller chip could be at fault Repair/replace motherboard
Issue with either the processor or the motherboard Issue with either the video card or its memory card. A motherboard problem can cause this issue as well. The BIOS ROM chip on the motherboard could not be functioning properly
9 Beeps
10 Beeps
11 Beeps
CMOS shutdown register read / write error Cache memory error Memory or video problem
Place the video card onto another PCI slot If the error persists, replace the video card Repair the motherboard If the BIOS ROM is removable, reseat it Replace the BIOS chip with the exact same version of the faulty chip If the error persists, repair or replace the motherboard Replace the COMS battery If the error persists, repair motherboard Repair/replace motherboard
Continuous Beeps
Troubleshoot the system memory Trouble shoot the video card If the error persists, repair/ replace the motherboard
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