.

SPE
SPE 23082 Integrated Study of the Kraka Field
L,N, Jqrgensen and P.M. Andersen, Maersk Olieog Gas AS SF: Members

Copyrqhl

199!. Socmuy J PoIroIoum Cnomool$. IIIC 1991

Thm paper was p!cpafoc! for prosonlal,on d !hc Ollshorc Curopo Cunfomnce Ihold m Afmrduon, 3.4 Soplombor

Thu paper was Wloclod !01 plosonlmln by m! SPE Program Comnmloc Iollowmq rovmw of mlolnla!,on Conla(nod In an nbslfacl Sut,mdlOd by lho iwlhotls) Conlanls of 1110 paper. ii!! P1OSIIOIOU, hnvo nol boon 10VIOKC.3by Ihc Soc!o!y of Po!roluultl EnQ!noOr9 and aro subIecl 10 CWWC!IOI1 by !I1o mImcqsI. Tho matcrKd, a~ proson! od, doos no! n.xcssar$ly rollcc! any pos,l ton of Iho SOCIO!Y 01 PoIrolmIm Engmccrs, IIS olf,ccrs. or mombofs PIWUIS prcscnloil al SPE mcohng$ two SUIIICCI10 IIublicaIIon mwcw by MI!OWII Comnllttccs 01 ma SOcmly 0! Pmmlou!n Engmow8 Pcm11s5101110 copv IS Kistmcd !0 m C! I>5I1OCI 01 nol II1OO2 Ihan 3CQwotd~ Illuslf altons may I1O!be copIod TIIOabs!tnc! should Conla(n Conspicuous acknowlodgmcnl of whwo ml by WIICMTI I!lQ paper IS pfow!nlod WtIlo Llb!attm SPE, P O Ilox 033836, !lchaldsm TX ?.%303 .3836 US A Tolox, 730989 SPEDAL,

A8STWT The KrakaField,discovered in 1966,was the ftrstot1 discovery in theNorthSea.The field, a large elongated chalkstructure, is located in the southern partof the Centra 1 Troughin the Danishsectorof the NorthSea. The Krakafield is characterized by a low perrrs?abi l!ty mstrixYJi th some enhancement of perrneabi 1ity due to natural fracturing, The fluid distributioni;]the reservoir tscorplex. Throughout thehydrocarbon bearing zone,mtrix watersaturations arc in excessof 50 %, Fluidcontacts are tilted, then%trixoi1 watercontact due to tectonics and the fracture freewater leveldue to a regionalhydrodynamic gradient,Variationsin pressuresand fIuid propert Ios further add to the Colrplexity of the field. This r)aper describes an intcgr.?tcd studycf the Kraka field.Tho integration of a geological fracture study with a reservoir sinwlation study has resultedtn an improved retervo ir character izat ion, Thedevc lopnsmt history of tile ftold d?nwi]strates hownew technology can provotethe development of a awgins 1 field, IHTFWUCTIOH TheKrakafi old is Iocatod in thesouthwostcrn corner of thoDanishNorthSea sector, 127milGS(205km)westof theportof Esbjerg tnd5,6miles(9 km)southof ttmDan Field(Figure 1), Geologically, thefieldissttuatcd inthesouthern part of the NorthSca CentralTrough,Tho trap is a sfnplc structural dornowingitscxistoncc to the fornwtion of a sa)tpillowof UpperPermianage,The saltpillow is partof a trendof halokinctic structures knownas the Southern SaltDonx? Prov!nce(Figure 1). Rcfcrenccs and iIlustrations at ond of paper,

The rwwvoir rock Is a fractured chaIk of Danianand Maastricht i an age (equivalents of the Ekofiskand Tor formations). Thebulkof the011 istrapped intheDanIan chalk,whichcan be subdivided intoan upperporousand a lower ti hter interval.The reservoircontains saturated oi a srral 1 gas cap. The init ia 1 ! underlying reservoirrt!ssure at the gas-oi 1 contactis 3640psia (25000 kPa oil-in-place in the areallylarge !. Original structure isestimsted to be sore500mi11 ionbarrels (80 mfllton m3). The Krakafieldis operated by Flwsk01ie og Gas AS on behalf of theDUC (Danish Underground Consort{ urn) which isa partnership between A,P.MB1ler,Shel 1 and Texaco, FIELDHISTORY TheKrakafield was d{sco~erod in 1966andwas the first oi1 discoveryin the North Sea (the Anne find). Reflection seismichad defineda nunberof structural closuresat several stratigraphlc levels,and the discovery WC11,A-IX,was dri1led to testone of these structures, Of1 and as shows wererecorded wlmnthewe11penetrated topchaI ingoporat ionshad to bc suspondcd 80 ft i . Dri11 (25m) intothechalk aftersevere wel1 control problems, The wellwas drtllcd witha drillship unableto operate under winter conditionsin the North Sea, Due to worscnlngof weather condlt ions and wel1 control y$b;cnrs, the welI was plug~cdand abandonedboforc g rig and testing. weresuccessfully Theoilandgas showsrecorded fn A-1X testedthe succeeding year by the twinWC11 A-2X,On a shortoi1 zone testthiswcl1 produced up to !2900 ilOPD (460ma/d). A-2X,however, cncountcrcd watersaturations incxccss of 504 intheentire oil column, Thehighrisk of earlywaterbreakthrough was real izcdand the Anno findwas cons idcred cconomi cal ly margina 1, and further appra isa I was postponed for nearlytwo decades. In 1984,theap raisal wellAnne-3(A-3)was drilled on the southern f1 ank of the field,whrm a tiltckcr oi1 column was encountered.A-3 thus provided some encouragement, and in 1.985the field was declared 461

IPiTEGRATED STUDY OF THE KRAKA FIELD

SPE 23082

conmrcfal,Economics were,however, st{ 1I marginal, In thesucceeding years,Mersk01ie og Gas AS success. fu1Iydri 1ledseveral horizontal wel1s inthenearby Dan Field*, Horizontalwel1s appeared attrac ive for develoing and inproving the productivity ot the low perrrea ly largeand thin oi1 zone in the 1i1ity,areal Krakafield. In lWB, work was initiatedto develop low cost facilities for smll n~rginalfields like the Kraka field, Thiseffort resulted inthedeveloprm?nt of thesocalledSTARplatform (S1 im TripodAdaptedto Rig).The STARplatform isa re-usable, minimum faci 1i tiesplatform thutcan be tnstal ledby a jack-up rig3, Drivenby thesetechnological 1 achievements, a stepwise development of theKrakafield was initiated in1989with thedri1lingof thetwo firstdevelopment wel1sA-4 and A-5. Thesewells,in addition to theirprirrn objective as oi1 producers, also carrieda nutierof appra {sal object ives. A-4wasdriIledas a conventional deviated wel1 closeto A-2Xinorderto confirm therelatively highproductivity of this ari+aand throughprolongedtestingprovide tnformstion regarding waterand gas coning. The testing of A-4 showedrapidgas and waterencroachrmmt showing that oil productivity would be insufficient for a conmmcialfield developwstwithconventional wells. A4 was therefore subsequently sidetracked to hori zonta 1. A-5 was located on the northeastern flank in order to appraise the extentof the area of good productivity. Basedon experience fromA-4, the wel1 was dri1ledas a horizontal wel1. Testingof the horizontal wel1s providedsufficient encouragement to enbarkupon the next stepof development;namely a longterm reduction testfroma minimum facilities STARplatformFigure2) withproduced fluids [ being,?vacuated through a nult i-phaseflow Iine to the Oan process facilities. The KrakdSTAR platform was installed in late1989and production cornmnced inApril1991at an initial rateof som 4000BOPD (635ma/d). RESERWIR DESCRIPTION The Kraka field is a low relief,~reallylargedomal structure containitlg saturated oi1 in lowpernk?abi 1ity, high porosity chai!<: of Danianand Maastrichtian age. hel 1 testsshow some enhancement of permeabi 1ity from natural fractures.The high initial matrix water saturations associated with relatively high residual oil saturations resultin a low rmvable oil volumeand a loweffective oilpermeability inthemtrix, Variation influid contacts, fluid properties andpressures further add to the complexity of the Krakareservoir, Geology The relatively sinpledomslgeorretry of theKrakafield isiIlustrated intheTopChalkstructure map (Figure 3), The A-2/A-4wel1s are locatedon the crest of the structure, Thestructure hasa vertical relief of 500 ft (150m) at the spillpeint towardsthe Dan field,The flanksof the structuredip general Iy less than 5 degrees. The ficldis areal Iy extensive, stretching nwe than 5 miles (8 km) along its longaxis and approximately 3 miles (5 km) along the short axis. The oil column, however, is thin,witha maxirrxsm of 225 ft (70m) andan averageof lessthan 100 ft (30 m). Overlyin the oi1 columnis a smallgas .apwith a thickness of 1 ess than 25 ft (8 m),

The hydrocarbon bear ingchalks of theKrakafieIdareof Lower Paleocene Danian andUpper Cretaceous Maastrichtian age. The reservoir belongsto the Chalk-6and Chalk-5 unitsestablished by theGeological Survey of Denrrark46. Theseunitsare inturncorrelatable withtheEkofisk and Tor Formations of Deeganand Scul le. The chalkat Kraka is a finegrained carbonate sedinmt classified as a foraminifera 1 wackestone where foraminifera float in a mstrixconsisting of unbroken coccospheres, COCCO1 iths and COCCO1 ith fragnmts, secondary calcite rhotis andsubo,di natearmunts of clay minerals and chert. The stratigraphic subdivision in Kraka fol lows the nomenclature usedregional lY by Minsk01ie og GasAS71S. The Danianchalkis thussubdivided intoan uppervery porous unit,the01, underlain by a tighter unit,theD2 (see Figure4), characterized by a highercontentof chertand argi 1laceous msterial, A smsl 1 fraction of the oi1 is locatedin the Upper Maastrichtiall Mlunit.Thisunitisoccupied bya cleaner chalkfacies witha lower clayand chertcontent thanthe overlying Oanianunits. Poros it iesthroughout thereservoir varybetween 24%and 32%.Matrixpermeabi 1i tiesappear,howevep, to be rmch greaterintheMl (2-3nil, 0.002.0.003 wf) thaninthe Oanianunits(lessthan 1 nil, 0,001iur?). This is nmt likely theresult of a different matrixfabricin theMl unitcharacterized by larger grainsizes, better sorting of the matrixgrainsand tlse absence of clayminerals. It is comnonly observedin chalk fieldsthan porosity showsa significant decrease withinthe !ndiv,~al units !JOing from crest to flank7ae101. The result is that porosity maps sI..]w a roughlyconcentric pattern. This trend is explained by the reduction in chemical cerrmtat ion and co~action brought about by the progress ive invasion, from top to bottom,of the chalk trapby hydrocarbons. Althouh the sparsenessof data points recludes determnationof whethersuch trendsexist rn Kraka, ! thereisa cleartendency forporosities todecrease with depth. Production Testhg Mel1 tests haveshown varying enhancement of pcrmabi1ity indicating the presence of natura 1 fractures, TheA-2XwelIwas tested overfiveintervals fromthegas zonedownto thewaterzone.Theproductivity of thegas zonewas low,However, a shorttwo-hour I)anian oi1 zone test floweddry oi1 at ratesof up to 2900 IIOPII (.$0 m3/d) at a FI sf 10 B/O/PSI (0.23 m3/d/kPa), An effoctl Ie permeabi 1it,y of 25 nCl (0,025 p~) was inferred from~le testindicating a permeabi Iityenhanccrmnt factor of ;he orderof 25 to 50.A relatively highGOR in theoil zone testwas interpreted as gas cap coning.AI1 A-2X tests were,however, of shortduration with fluctuating rates i ng reservoir and therefore fnCOllCIJis ive regard properties. No attenptswere mnde to test the Maastrichtian oil zonedue to very highwatersaturations. The A-3 appraisal wel1 encountered a less fractured chalk.The Danianoi1 zone produced virtually dry oiI (average watercutof 2%)at a lowPI of 1 B/O/PSI (0,023 m3/d/kPa). The Maastricht ian oi1 zone produced mainly water.Effeet ivepermabi1ities inferrcd fromthe tests were below5 nil (0.005M). TheA-4welI was dri1ledcloseto A-2Xas a convont tonal deviated well.The well was flowedfrom the Danianoil zoneandhighGORSandwatercutswereencountered during theweek longtmt (Figure 5). !lvcn thoughthe testdid conf~rma riasonabic ~roduct!vity assoc-iated with the 462 . .

SPE 23082

L.)(, JORGENSEN AND P.M. ANDERSEN

presence of a natura I fracture systemitwasevident that rapidconingof bothgas and waterwouldresultin very loweffect~ve 0{1 product ivityfroma verttcal well. The A-5 wel1 locatedon the northeastern flank was subsequently drilled as a horizontal well.Initially, a pilot hole was dr. i1led to determine saturation distrlbut ionandfluidcontacts andassess thedegree of natural fracturing. The 2000ft (600m) longhorf zonta 1 sect iondri1led in the upperpart of the 01 reservoir unitwas completed with a 400 ft (120m) slotted1iner in the distal part and four 200 ft (60 m) sets of perforations equal lYspaced alongtheproximsl part.The wel 1 was testedfor twoweeksat oiI ratesof VP to 5000 BOPD (800m3/d), After4 days,the producing GOR began to rise and eventua 1ly reachedsome 2000 SCF/STB(350 m3/m3), A watercutdeveloped after6 daysreaching some 6). The productivity 10%by the endof the test (Figure priortoshut-in was 12 B/D/PSI (0.28 m/d/kPa), someten timesthe finalPI measured duringtesting of the A-4 wel1.A production logging tool(PLT)indicated thatthe three nmt proximal perforat tons were the main contributors to flow. Basedon the encouragermnt from the testing of A-5, A4 was sidet.recked to horizonta I and completed with 17 perforatedintervtils. A-4 horizontal also initially flowed oi1 at ratesof around5000BOPD (800m3/d)but experienced an earlywatercut associated with ; rapid decline inoi1 rate,At oi1 ratesof 2000BOPD(320m3/d) thewatercutwas justabove20%.TheGOR increased gradual Iy approaching 2000SCF/ST13 (350m3/m3) by theend of the testingperiod (Figure7), The final PI of approximately 5 B/O/PSI (0,12m3/(d. kPa)), was somewhat disappoint ing when compared to A-5. A PLT survey indicated that onlytheproxirml perforations contributed to flow, i!atrix FlutdDistribution Theoil columnin Kraka is up to 225 ft (70m) high,lt is characterized by very high matrixwatersaturations throughout, general 1 y inexcess of 50%.Overlying theoi1 columnis a smallgas cap with a heightof lessthan25 ft (8 m). The highwatersaturations placethe entireoil column in what resetiles the transition zone betweenoi1 and water in th~ nearby Dan field. At Oan, ithas beenfound thatthe highwatersaturations in the transition zone giveriseto very loweffective oil permeabil ities,The Dan fieldis onlynaturally fractured to a very 1imited degree,and the existenceof fractures at Kraka is therefore the singlermst inportant prerequisite for economic oiI recoveryfrom what wouId otherwise be an unproductive reservoir. The matrixoil-water contact(the 100 % Sw level)in Kraka is tiIted,To adequately rmp the OWC acrossthe fieldit isnecessary to take intoaccount thechangein depthof the OWC causedby porosity and pern~abi 1ity variations, The result ing SIightly curvedsurface dips 0,8degrees towards thesouthwest, Thisisalrmst exactly the satin direction as thatof a lateTertiary tectonic tiItseenon scismicthroughout thesouthern partof the Contra]Trough,This tectonictiIt iwmuntsto 0.7 degrees,It is therefore Iikelythatthe tiIted OWC is a result of tectonic rnovcnwnt, Theprobable reasonforthe lack of re-equilibration istheveryIowoil-permeability neartheoi1-watercontact, The observed 100 % Sw level ishencea frozen paIco-OHC. Theobserved variation in thefioldwideOWC centers theoi1 accumulation somewhat to thesoutheast of thecrestof thestructure around the A-3 well, lhc 1004 Sw level is also tiltedin the nearbyDan field, The direction of the tiltis thesaImas inKraka in agrmrcnt with the regions 1 tectonic tiit discussed 8 suggests that above, The cross .sect ion shown inFigurc

Krakawas chargedwith hydrocarbons as a resultof a spill-over from Dan, This may alsO explainwhy the crestal areasinKrakaappearto be tighter thfin in the correspond ingareasin Dan (porosity 34 % as o posedto 40 % in Dan).Krakawas simplychargedmuch iaterand fir&s ityreduci ng diagenes iscouldcent inuefora longer . Stattc Pressures andFracture Fm WaterLevel Variations

RFT pressuresfrom A-3, A-4 and A-5 indicatestatic pressurevariations (Figure9), Water zone pressures clearly showlateral variation of up to 30psi (200kPa), This pressuretrend can be explainedby a regional hydrodynamic gradient result ingina tiI t of thefracture freewater level(FWL)towardsthe southeast with the deepest FWL beingfoundin A-3. Theexistence of a hydrodynamic grad icntinthechalk has beenestablished throughout the DanishCentralTrough, Thisgradient isbclieved to be a result of deeper burial and strongercorrpactionof the cha 1k towardsthe northwest in the CentralTrough.The nngnitude of the gradient is some0,003psi/ft(0.07kPaim), The stat ic oi1 zone pressuresare scatteredbut if interpreted as indicated on Figure 9 an initial reservoir pressure at the GOC of 3640 psia (25000kPa) can be inferred. The variationin FWL is also supported by production teStS. The water zone test in A-2X, closeto the FWL inferred from the A-4 RFTs,produced waterwhereas the Maastrichtian oi1 zonetestsinA-3 at approximately the sarmdepth initiallyreducedsmreoi1, interpreted to originate fromoi1 fiYledfractures. The resulting distribution of the hydrocarbons, witha southwesterly dippingmatrixOWC and a southeasterly dipping FWL is iIlustratcdin the east-westcrosssect ionshownin Figure10.

FMd

Property Variations

Thefluid properties derived fromanalysis of fluids from the different Kraka wel1s show SOM significant variations. The oi1 fromA-3 wos undersaturated witha saturation pressure of 2$50psia(20000 kPa)sore 700psi (5000kPa)belowthe initial reservoir pressure at the GOC of 3640psia (25000<Pa). The initial solution GORvariesfromthe500SCF~STll (90 m3/n~3) foundinA-3 tosonk? 700SCF/STB (125m3/m) at the GOC.Testresults confirm an initial solution GOR inthis range. Thehigher GORSobserved duringthetesting of Aby rapidconingof gas fromthegas 2 andA-4 are caused cap. Special CoreAnalysts Spncialcore analysisdatu from the Kraka fie Id are presently 1imited. Capi 1larypressure measurements and logderived saturations do not correlate. No consistent picture of saturation variations with ileight havebcw obtained fromthe existing data. Long termstaticinhibition has been nxiasurcd on cores fromA-3.Theresults pointto thechalkbeingwaterwet and indicate spontaneous inhibition as highas 25 to 50 1 saturation after % of the porevoluns?. The hmbi k oi dynamiciti{bition (spontaneous intzibition and viscous displacement) is in the rangeof 20 to 50 %. Core rscasurcrrs?nts suggestvery low irreducible water saturations: below10% in the01 and Mland some20 % on average in the 02. However,trnasurcd water rclat ho

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. 4 INTEGRATED STUDY OF TH[ KRAKA FIELD

orthogonal to the fracture plane, Hhickof thesethreefracture directions (twoshears and oneextension) aredeveloped ili 11varydepending on local condit ims. Theextension fracture typeis tho@t to be as ignif icantcontributor totheperrwabi 1ityenhancement work shearfractures observedin Kraka.In the present havebeengrouped together withextens ionfractures for the sinplereasonthat the nunberof fr~ctures which could positively be identified asextension fractures was insufficient for statistical treatment, thedomingprocess theKrakachalkwas subjected to both the regions 1 stresssystemresponsible for the formation of thechalkdom and associated local stress systemsgenerated w{thin the chalkduringthe doming process, This resulted ,ina vide varietyof potential fracture direct ions.
During

SPE

23082

perrreabi 1itiesare very lowovernmt of the saturat ton range. Average residua 1 oi1 saturations varybetween 30 themainoil zone,having residual and 50 % with the Dl, o{1 saturations in the rangeof 30 to 40 %. If these residualsaturat Ions are representative of reservoir cond{t ionsinKrakathenthenmvable oi1 volurre isvery I{mited and essentially rest~ ictedto the IN of1 zone. FRACTURE STUDY of natural The nature (type, s{ze and orientation) fractures 1n the Kraka reservoir has been studiedon coresand FMS recordsfrom A-4 and A-5. In addftion, theSHDTrecordfromtheA-3 wel1 hasalsobeenanalysed in an attenptto map fractures and srnal 1 scalefaults, Natura 1 fractures havebeenobserved on coresfromKraka but with an intensity much lowe ~ than in the nearby Skjold, Rolf and Dagmarfields121 . Fracture th~OrfOS Thefractures occurring 1n Krakamsy be grouped intothe following genet Ica 1ly separate categories: Stylol !teassociated fractures Stylol {te associatedfracturesare believed to be extension fractures derivedfrom the same conpress ive stateof stressas the stylolites 14$5, In Kraka,they aregenerally lessthan:.inch(25rnn) centimeters high and less than 0.02 irlch(0.5 mn) wtde, they aro s!ibvert ica 1 and in nmt instances propagate away from the tips bf stylol ites.On Kraka they have only been observedin 1imitednumbersand appudrto be far less abundant thanthetectonic fractures discussed below,It has not, therefore, been POSS ible to map the regional varillt ion in the orientation of thesefractures, Healedhairline fractures Thehat rline fractures areveryconsmninnmt reservoir unitsof the Krakachalk.Theyare c.onpletely healedby calci tIc cementand appearto havea lowerporosity and permabi1ity than the surrounding mstrix,and hencedo not enhance reservoir pernw,bi 1ity. The hairline fractures often form anastomos ing networks. Although domil ated by conjugateshear fractures, extensional ccsrfsonents are frequently present. Core and outcrop observationsindicatethat these fractures were forrwi?d veryearly in the history of the rock.The importance of thisIs thatthefractures could be the resu 1t of a stress field other than those associated with the doming process.This could be a regional stressfielddominant beforethe domingtook pace.InKraka, hairline fractures haveindeed beenfound to havea comnonE-H or~entat ion throughout the field, Tectonic fractures ThiscategoryIs by far the most l~ortant in termsof contrtbut ~onto reservoir permeabi Iity,Thesefractures are considered to be relatedto the domingprocess and are forirs?d late enough in the historyof the rock to allowsomeof themto rem in open today.Bothshearand extension components ara observed. The relationship between the localstressfieldand the result ing frdctures is wel1 c tabl i shed from fracture ? theoryand laboratory testslo 7. Shear fractures form paral Ielto the intermediate principal stress at an acute angleto the mximum pr~ncipal stressaxis.The shear fracturesform conjugatesets giving rise to two potent ia 1 shearfractured irect ions, Extens Ionfractures form perpendicular to the minimum stress direction, Extension fractures may or may not be openat reservoir conditions, whereasshear fractures ofton are interpreted to bc closedinthereservoir andto restrict flow

iiowever, Stearns (~n Nelson17) definetwomainfracture Patterns associated with folding. On a dome thesewi1I be expressed as a radial fracture system anda tan entia 1 fracture system. -racture typesmakeup--+ near~ significant fractures on a dom and are by far thenmt Predictable of the foldingassociated fractures. Each ~ystem consists of two- conjugate shear fracture ion. direct ionsand one extension fracture direct Urfentatlon of Tectontc Fractures Fracture orientation data Irr Krakacomefroma number of sources, Oriented coreswere available fromA-4 and A5, In addi tion,convent lonal coresfromA-3,A-4 andA5, which could be orientedassumingbeddingto be parallel to thestructural dipobserved on seismic, were also tncluded. A 3-armdipmeter recordfromA-2anda 4arm dipmeter(SNDT)recordfromA-3 were processed 1n orderto do a structural analysis. Thisanalysis .dtd not revea 1 any direct informat ion about fracturing, but enableda mappingof faultsand drag fo?dsassociated withfaults, Final lya Formation MicroScanner log(FMS) was run in the pilotholeso; bothA-4 and A-5. The information obtained from these sources are As summrised tn the rose diagrams shown tn Figure11. can be seen there are numerous exanples of fractures whichare subparal lelwith the contours of thedonw.Irr A-4, two d}rect ions aysedrto be present.There is a possib{ 1ity that these are representative of the conjugate shearcowonentsof the sanx? fracture system, The correspond i ng extension co~onentwouldbe oriented paral lel to the contours. Soreof the NNE-SW oriented fracturesin the A-4 cores were indeed extension fractures. In termsof the fractures systems discussed above,the abundant contour parallel fractures msy be interpreted as tangent ia 1 systems.There are obviously a certafrr proportion of the fractures whfchare not tangential, Someof these(fn A-5 and possibly in A-4.) are radial. In conclusion, therefore, tectonicfracturing fn tho Krakachalk,may bc understood as shnfsle dome related fractures, poss{bly domi nated by a tangent ialsystem. Tt!c wel1s are located in three differcrrt structura 1 poslt{ons: near crestal(A-4),irrternwdiate (A-5)and flank (A-3). It nksythereforebe assumed that the tangent ial fracturesoccur across the entire doro, although not evenlydistributed. lateral Varfatlon in Fracture Interdty From outcropobservations it is know that fractures rarely are evenly distributedlatorall+.In the Laergcrdorf chalkquarryinNorthern Germany, whichis located on a sa1t induced structure, fractures occurIn swarmsratherthan at constanttnterva 1s even whero beddfng isplanar. Unfortunately, nodirect observations pertaining tothelatera 1 vtoiat ioninfracture intens ~ty

464

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L.F!,JORGENSEN AND P.M. ANDERSEN

are availablein Kraka, An FMS tool was run fn the horizontal hole of A-5. However,due to difficulties relatedto erratictool nmvement,processing of the recordresulted in no meaningful images. Iiowever, one piece of information may indicatethat fractures a 1so occurin swarmsin Kraka: The PLT,run whiletesting the horizontal section of A4, indicated thatonly4 of the 17 perfolat ion1ntervals in the wel1 contributed 94 % of the fluidproduction. Thesefourperforations are coincident with levels where the calipershowsincreased hole size,and at the sann tirmtheresistivity increases. Thehighr,r resistivities arenotaccompanied by any increase in Forosity as would be expectedif the higherresistiviti~s resultedfrom hrproved mstrix oi1saturation. Alternat ively, thehigher my result from a swarm of oil filled resistivity fractures crossing theWI?l lbore, thusexplaining thehigh product ionfromthe perforations at theselevels. A similar comparison of resistivity/hole size with productivity is notpossible fromthe PLT run in the A5 wel1,because theperforated intervals areso longthat it is impossible to determina exactly fromwheretheoi1 production originates. The aboveapproachis not considered more thana vel-y ind{rect indication of natural fracturing and should not be usedas a fracture finding tool, However, it gives an indication of the spat ing betweenthosefractures which contribute to fluid production. Based on the observations in A-4, a spacingbetweenthe fracture swarmsof 100 to 500 ft (30 to 150 m) is considered likely. This MSY, in turn, explain the differencein test performance between thehorizontal wel1sA-4andA-5.The observed variation mays inply be a function of thenutier of fracture swarmsintersected by the individual wel1. Inaddition, therelatively lowpermeabi 1ityenhancement observed inA-3as conpared toA-2and theA-4 pilothole confirm the lateral vari ation in fracture intensity. Vertical Varlatton in Fracture IntansWy Apartfromthecoreand FMS records , an SDTrecord(f ul1 waveform sonic) was acquiredin the pilotholesof both A-4 and A-5. For the purposeof fracture detection, a specialprocess ing (STFRAC)was carriedout on both records. This process i ng uses the directand indirect Stoneley wavearriva 1sto conpute the location of cracks cross ingthe borehole. Thereis a bettercorrelation of coredatawiththe FHS datathanwith thevariation in the Stoneley reflection coefficient. uhenoverfractures are presentthey arc encountered in al1 reservoir units in the hydrocarbon zone as wel1 as in the underlyingwater leg, In part icular,the upperpart of the D2 unit displays a strong fracture intensity bothon FMSandcoredata.This may resultfromthefactthatthis isa zoneof frequent 1ithology contrasts and of general lY lowduct i1ity, Production testingin the vertical wel1s A-2X and A-3 confirm somedegree of fracturing ina11reservoir units,

particular further characterize the fracture system, A-4 StngleHellModel A threephaseradial dualporosity modelwas constructed of the A-4pilot hole using the FRAGOR reservoir simlatore. FRAGORwas selected due to its capabi 1ity to sinulatefractured reservoirs andmodelal1 thedrive mchanisms irrportant in Kraka, narmly capi 1lary intzibition, gravity drainage and viscous displacement. A radial,16 layer nmdel was selucted.The mstrix properties are shownin Table1. A 1inearcapi 1larypressure relationship was adoptedin orderto match the transition zone saturation profile derived from logs. Initial 1.vfractureproperties were selectedbased on pressure transient analysis and information fromcores and theFMS log.Accordingly a fracture permzabi 1ityof some 10 TD (0.01I@ was selected and the dominating vertical fracture direction model ledby selecting a lower horizontal fracture permeabi 1ity. Fracturepermeabi 1ity, as wel1 as fractureporosity, fracture relat ive perrnzabi 1ities, fracture co~ressibi 1ity and the matrixblocksizewere the main sensitivity parameters variedin orderto obtaina history match. A-4 Production Test History tkstch The A-4 pilot holewas perforated belowthe GOC in the Danian oil zone. An early increasein GOR and a corresponding dec1ineinoi1 ratewasencountered. After some3 days a watercut developed (Figure 5).Al1 flow periods arecharacterized by decreas ingbottom holeflowtng pressures associated withdeclining oi1 ratesand increasing GORS, The mstchof oi1 rate performance was obtained with a fracturesystem characterized by a relativelyhigh conpressibi 1ityand a pressure sensitive permeabi 1ity, These effects are nmst pronoltnced close to the perforations due to theeffectof the acidstimulation, Haterencroachnx?nt was nsttched hy adju:.i ng the.vert ical fracture pernmbi1ityand por~sity in the lowerpartof the reservoir (02 and ril). A sensitivitystudy f ~gtk inr Iuence of thepressure support from invest igat tk aquiferindicated thatwaterencroachrmtprovii?.s nearly conplete basa 1pressure support. Therethusseems to be a significant pressure supportfromthe aquifer, Gas production was matchedby an adjustment of the fracturepermeabi 1ity in the gas cap, It was also necessaryto S1ightly modify the fracturegas-et 1 relative permeability tosimultaneously mbstch gasandoil production. The best matchof ratesand pressures are shownin Figures12 and 13. The resulting characterization of tht? fracture systcm indf catoshorizontalermeabi 1it iesof between 2 and 3 nil (0.002 and 0.0031#) witha fracture porosity of 0.5 %. Verticalfracturepernt?abi Iity is from 1 to 3 nil (0.001 to 0.003pz#)in the upper art of the reservoir section (1)1) and25 nil (0.025 d) ~nthe lower part(the D2 and the Ml). Fracturepermab{1ity close to the wellboreis tnitially enhanced (20.160 nil, 0.02 - 0,15 IU#)but decreases rapidlyas the ressuredrops.The result ingfracture properties are s own in Table2.

SIHULATIfJfi STIKW
The data obtainedfrom the Kraka wel1s comprisea conpl icated picturewith respect to many i~f)rtdnt parameters, Thekey arameters aremtrix and fracture contribution, !ng flow patternsand the properties domi nat of the fracture system.Only 1imitedinformation about these paramterscan be inferred fromthedata,and therefore a numerical singlewel1 studywas undertaken in order to improve thedescription of theKrakareservoir and in

The modelresultsclearlyindicate that flow is mainly verttcal; encroachment of gasandwateroccuring through the fracture system, withvery Iimited horizontal (i.e, radial) contribution. The performance of the A-4 pilotwel1 is in agreerent mdel.Theperformance is withandsupports thefracture

465

INTEGRATED STUDY OF THE KRAKA FIELD

SPE 23082

the result of thewe} I beinglocated in a presumably swarm ofvertical fractures. Therelatively highfracture porosityused in the model can thus be justified. However,the average fractureporosityin Kraka is cons idered to be at leasta factor10 lower. Likewise,as discussedabove, the horizontalwelI performance observi?d In A-4 and A-5 is most 1ikel y the result of thehorl zontal wellbore cutting sevcra 1 swarms of vert ica I fractures. Themodelindicates Itdtrix contribution duringthetest. Rapid expansionof matrix of1 was found to be the explanation for the peak in oi1 ratesat the beginning of each flow period.The match of the buildupalso confirmed that the interporos ity flowaccounted for by a dualporosity model is required in orderto matchthe observed performance. Themtrix contribut tonduring the test wasprimari lYdueto thepressure difference between the fractures and the matrixblocksand expansion of mtrix fluidsas a resu}tof pressure depletion. Onlya relatively1imited amount of fluids was, however, produced from the rrkstrix and the testwas too shortto provideinformat ionregardi rlg othermchanisms, ENU.YPRU)UCTIORP ERFORMNCE After installation of the STAR platformproduction ccnsmnced from Kraka in Apri 1 1991.Initial lY only A5 W;S put on production at a rateof SOIIE 2000BOPD(320 m3/d),A-5 initially produceddry oi1 with a gradual increase in the GOR (Figure14).Aftera week A-4 was also put on production and f{eldoff takerose to 4000 EOPD (640 m*/d). Short lY thereafter,A-5 started producing water. Afterthefirst monthof production both wel1s were producing waterand the fieldaverage water cut had reachedsome 20%. Bottomhole pressures are measured cent inuously in bothwel1s. Theearlyproduction performance thusclosely resenbles theperfornvmce observed during theinit ia 1wel1 test ing, indicating a nmre or less corqzlt?te recharging of the fracture systemwith oi1. Considering thatthefractures areprinwoi Iysubvertical and appear in swat~. with a relatively poor lateral likely thatthemainsourcefor interconnect ivi ty it recharging is matrix01: Thefactthatinhibition thu.appears tohavebeenactive is encouraging but doesnot quantify to whatextentthe inhibition efficiency can becom an inportant mchanism for sustainedoi1 product ion from Kraka. Additional production experience wi11 be necessary to prove any significant itiibition potential. The longer termwater encroachment, pressure support and GOR performance are majorunknownsin thisrespect.

The contribution to recovery fromexpansion andsolution gas driveinthemstrix wi1I largely dependon thepressuredrop i,e.the degreeof pressure support fromthe aquifer, CONCLliSiON Thedevelopnmthistory of the Krakafieldas presented abovedenmnstrates how new technology, horizontal wells and low cost facilities, may result in corrrnarcial developrmtof a marginal field, The development Strategy finally adaptedfor the Kraka fieldhasgradual ly evolved fromtheexperience gained. The integration of the geological fracture studywith numerical rrndelling has greatlyenhancedthe understanding of themainfeatures governing production from Kraka. Kraka is characterized by a low permeable matrixwith highw?.ter saturations, Thereservoir hassorr~ degree of naturalfracturing dominated by subvertical fractures appearingin swarms.Horizontal wells drilledin the upperpartof the thinoil rim holdingthe nmvable oil may ilitersect seweral of theseswarmsof fractures and thusprovide conmarcial oil ratesand possibly optimize intsibition recovery. The low cost STAR platformhas reduced the development costs and therebythe ,Isk involved. The integrated studyhas provided a clearer icture of howreservoir properties varyacrossthe fiel 1 . The largest oil volunm is locatedon the southeastern flank aroundthe A-3 appraisal well. However, thegreatest uncertainties related tothefuture develomantof the Krakafieldare the degreeofmstrix contriutionto oil recovery, natural water influx from 1 theaquifer andthe longer termGORandifOR pwformance. AUUiONi.EOGEHEHT The authorswish to expresstheirappreciation to the co~aniesinD,,nish Underground Consort ium(A. P. Moller, ShellandTexa.:o) for permission topub}ishthispaper,

D1oi1 zone Thehorizontal wel1saredri1ledintheupper whereaverage oi1 saturations are some55 %, The Dl oi1 zonehas a thickness of some 60 to 70 ft (18 to 20 m). In the02 and Ml, watersaturations are in excessof 65 % pointingto a virtuallack of mobileGil in these layers, The targetnutrixoil for potential inhibition recovery isthusrestricted to a verythinrimof nwable $1 t~et~2en thehori zonta 1 welI trajectories and thetop .
As demonstrated inthesingle welI studyof theA-4pilot holetestsignificant pressure gradients canoccuralong the fractures. Thesegradients, whichare the result 01 therelatively lowfracture perrceabi Iity, exert a driving forceon the matrixblocksand thereby displace mtrix fluids.This viscousdisplacement could, if active, result in residualoi1 saturations lower than those obtained fromspontaneous imbibition thusincreasing the potentialmovable oi1 volurm (negativecapillary prcssurcs)o

. 7

SPE

23082

L,N.

JORGENsEN AND P.M. ANDER5EN

17.

REFERENCES 1 tlichelsen. 0., 1982: Geolow of the Danish Ccntra 1 G~aben:Geo log i ca1 $;rveyof Derwrark, Sec. W, No. 8. Andersen, S;Aa.,Conlin,J.il., Fjeldgaard, K. and Hansen,S.Aa.:Exploiting Reservoirs with Horizontal Wells: the Mersk Experience. k~$tierger Oilfield Review, Vol2, No.3, July . EiIersen, C., 1989:Designof a STAR Platform forMarginal Fieldsin theDanishSectorof the NorthSea. Proprietary UJC Report. l.ieberkird, K., Bang, I., Mikkelsen, N., and Nygaard, E., 1982:Late Cretaceous and Danian Lilmstone. In Michelsen, 0, (cd,),Geologyof the Danish Central Graben:Geological Surv. Denmark, Ser.B, no. 8, p. 49-62. Nygaard,E., Lieberkind, K. and Frykman,P., 1983:Sedimntology andReservoir PararrrXers of the ChalkGroup in the DanishCentra 1 Graben. Geologie en Mijnbouw, a. 62, p. 177-190. E@egan,C.E, & Scull,B,J,, 1977:A proposed Standard Lithostrat igraphi cNommclature for.the Centra 1andNorthavn NorthSea.Rep.Inst, Geol. Scib,00 77{?5. Doyle, M.C.&Conlin,J. M,, 1Q90: TheTyraField. North Sea Lli 1 and Gas ReservoirsII. Thti NorwegianInstitute of Technology (Grahamand Trotmsn). JErgensen,L.N., in press: Dan Fie?d, MPG Treatise of Petroleum Geology, Atlasof Oi1 and Gas Fields. DHeur, H., 1984: Porosityand Hydrocarbon Distribution in theNorthSea ChalkReservoirs. Nalaine ati Petrol.Geology,vol. 1, p. 211. DHeur,M,, 1990:idest Ekofisk Field- Norway, CentralGraben,North Sea. MPG Treat ise of Petroleum Geology, Atlasof Oil andGas Fields, vol. IV, Structural Traps Tectonicand Nontectonic Fold Traps. Hurst,C., 1983:Petroleum Geology of the Germ Field,DanishNorthSea.Geologie en !iijnbouw, no. 62, p. 157-168. Oen,P.M.Engel l-Jensen, M.andBarcndregt, A, A., 1986: Skjold field,Oanish North Sea. Early Evalust ion of Oi1 recovery through Hater Inhibition ina Fractured Reservoir. Sot.Petrol, Engineers, SPE 15569,11 p. Jensenius, J. & Munksgaard, N. C., 1989:Large ScaleIiot Water Iligrat ion Systems aroundSalt Diapirsin theDanishCentral Through and their Inyxict oniligenes isofChalk Reservoirs. Geoch im. et Cosmochim. Acts,vol 53, pp. 79-88. Nelson, R.A.,1981: Significance ofFracture Sets associated withStylol iteZones. A4PGIlul Ietin, V. 65, p. 2417-2425. in Chalksof Hatts,N.L., 1983:Microfractures Albuskjel 1 Field, Norwegian Sector of theNorth Sea: PossibleOrigin and Distribution. Bull, AAPG,V. 67, pp. 201-234, Stearns, D.W.andFriedman, il., 1972: Reservoirs in Fractured Rock,AAPGMemoir16,pp. 82-100. 18, Nelson, R. A., 1985: Geolog\c Analysis of Natural IYFractured Reservoirs. Contributions in petroleuhGaology& Engineering, v, 1, Gulf Publishing Co~any. Koestler,A.G. & Ehrmsnn,W,U., 1986: Fault Patterns intheCalcareous Overburden of a Chalk Diapir: Laegerdorf, NH Germany.N.Jb. Geol, Paleont. Mh. 555-569. Quandalle, P. & Sabathier, JiC.,1987:Typical Features of a New MultipurposeReservoir SPE16007. Sinulator,

2.

190 3,

4.

5,

6.

7.

8,

9.

10,

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

467

SPE 23082

Table

1 - A-4

single
F%rosiiy

well

model.

Uatz:Lx properties-

Table

2 -

A-4

single 7
28 1 2 ~ 2 ~ 150 25 S50 25 150 50 2

well
2 2.s 1 2 2 2 2 IOG 25

model.
3 2s 1 2 ~ 2 2 50 25

Fracture
4 2.s J 2 2 2 2 30 2 30 25 30 25 2 20 2

properties.
5 2.s 1 2 2 2 2 12 2 12 25 22 25 2 2 2 6-:1 2.s 1 2 2 2 2 2 ~ 2 25 2 25 2 2 2

Layer Top AZ (fl) ({f subsea)

16 5s33 21

Permlair Perm~]i~ Sw
(red) (red) 0 S5

Formation D13 Di.

Dlb Dlb DIb D2a lx?a D2a D2a D2a IY2b D-A M L4 hf M

Layer/cell
k16 15 14 13 H v H v H v H v

0.325

15
14

5s54
5s67

:3
1.3

0%
0.325

1.5
0.85

0.4 1.0
0.4 0.: 04 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.I 0.1 0.15 0.15 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1

0.45 0.45
0.45 0.45
(!.05

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
4

58S1 5s94 5S99 5917 5922 5932 5947 596s9 5%7

5997

13 5 18 5 10 15 21

0.325 0.325 0.26 0.26 026 026 0.26 02.9 0.2s 0295 030 030 030

085 0.s5 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 035 035 2.0 2.0 2.0 20

0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.6s 0.775 0.91 1.0

11-IZ
10

H
v H v

100
25 100 50 2 2s 2

50
25 5C 50 2 25 2

20
30

3 2 1

6027 6057 6145

30 = 100

9H v 1-S H

25 2

.------- ..... . ~EAu~.:.>

l/

Fig. 1
fiaka

Regional map with

indicated.

the

position

of

the

f%eld

Depth (tvdSS)

Poro9ity/Saturation I 25% 50%

Reservoir Units
ma~

5650

;Oc

(D1

5900

Op 02

5950

6000

OpM 1

Fig. 3 Kraka field. Depth stru:ture map at Top Chalk level.

!atrix

OWC

L
for

$
Fig- 4
The Kraka STAR platfor~ used development.

l?:Lq. 2
tl-ie

Computer prccessea 10G from the A-4 well xith parosities and oil saturations indicated.

.- 3KU - --l .

(i,it~ WA,L ,

\
4W9 ,U. > n e

-- <..
1--.. ._-d I,(XM

Xlwu +.---, .,,,,.. ,,, ,,,,,,,,,g /

. . .... . .

Xmm

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,..$,:,,,,,,,,,, ,,.
2!2 qO w

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WmU

,/,/

.hj ri

{k

~
fI .,. ,

:~e~, , #L-

l(x)

120

t *O

!m

TIME SIN!% START

Fig. 5
events.

A-4 pilot hole. lest nos. 1 and 2, sequence

of

------ .~/--tmca

,. f,

%-,

r
\

,.

SPE

23082

II

471

SPE

23082

.-, ...

W2Q

WYJ

r
6
R h b

--IJx

4W0

0
,

woc

U2LC

G40(

X2

Matrix OWC

~:

472

,!

473

SPE 23082

890

400

LEGEND: - BHP SIMLIi.ATISD + B}iP MEASURED

Fig,

13

History

matcl? of pressures.

I(C4 *W ,. .
11,, [.:, 01 Hhll .

*5CFX

:i;,

,,,

*!CC

Mw

,(?9

7m

G \ g e

KKw ~ JI : (l+ J >,> ,; j .!2. Q ,(,. ?m : w)

~ ~; ~

5 ml, w , tam

: J !Iwl,. . .. lwc , ,----61 . . . -------, -- ..-..

, .-..,---.,. --, .,. .,

20 , 1(7M

10 , X0

10

?0

60

10

D:YS PROM PR&lUCTION

?0 w

ST:T

S?ig. 14

Kraka field production performance.