1

Ultra-low-emission diesel engine fuelled with dimethoxymethanediesel fuel blends

R J Zhu*, X B Wang, H Y Miao, and Z H Huang School of Energy and Power and Engineering, Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, Peoples Republic of China The manuscript was received on 11 December 2008 and was accepted after revision for publication on 13 March 2009. DOI: 10.1243/09544070JAUTO1093

Abstract: The influences of dimethoxymethane (DMM content), exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and post-processor on combustion and emission were studied experimentally, and the approaches to meet the Euro III regulation were discussed. Results showed that, for diesel blending fuel with 50 per cent DMM volume fraction, on setting the EGR rate at 28 per cent for low and medium loads and at 7 per cent at high loads, nitrogen oxide and soot emissions are both reduced markedly; a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) reduces hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. Comparison of the combustion process with diesel fuel indicated that application of DMMdiesel blended fuel increases both premixed and diffusion combustion, leading to a higher peak pressure and a pressure rise. EGR does not lengthen the combustion duration significantly. A naturally aspirated diesel engine in the test fuelled with a high percentage of DMM component in the blend, together with EGR and DOC, makes it possible to meet the Euro III emission standard for a vehicle diesel engine. Keywords: dimethoxymethane, exhaust gas recirculation, diesel oxidation catalyst, emission

INTRODUCTION

With increasing concern about energy saving and environmental protection, the diesel engine has become increasingly widely used because of its high fuel efficiency and low carbon dioxide (CO2), unburned hydrocarbons (HCs), and (carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. However, the nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions of diesel engine remain a challenge for their trade-off relationship. Although the application of highpressure injection and a common-rail system can reduce both NOx and PM emissions, the expense is also too high for many small-scale engine manufacturers and consumers, especially for the diesel engines widely applied for agricultural machinery, most of which are naturally aspirated engines, of very low price and, most importantly, of large production output. Therefore a reduction in the emissions of such diesel engines is of great significance.
*Corresponding author: School of Energy and Power and Engineering, Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, 710049, Peoples Republic of China. email: zrj1968@gmail.com
JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

Recently, one solution, which is rather cheap and effective, was found, namely the application of oxygenated fuels. A recent study indicated that the reduction in smoke and particulates depended almost entirely on the oxygen content of the fuels [1]. Oxygenated fuel can prompt the combustion process, especially for the late stage of diffusion combustion, and so smoke emission can be largely reduced, making it possible to reduce NOx emission in other ways. Among the many kinds of oxygenated fuels, dimethyl ether (DME) is a promising oxygenated fuel, easily made from methanol, natural gas, and coal. Huang et al. [2] investigated the combustion and emission characteristics in a single-cylinder compression ignition engine and found that the DME engine has lower smoke emission, higher thermal efficiency, shorter premixed combustion, and faster diffusion combustion than a diesel engine has in the same engine operating conditions. Fleisch et al. [3], Kapus and Ofner [4], and Sorenson and Mikkelsen [5] have studied DME in a modified diesel engine, and their results showed that the engine could meet an ultra-low emission level without a fundamental change in the combustion systems.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

R J Zhu, X B Wang, H Y Miao, and Z H Huang

Some researchers have investigated several kinds of oxygenated compound to reduce emissions without much modification to the engine. Huang et al. [6] tested gasolineoxygenate blends in a spark ignition engine and obtained satisfactory results on emission reduction; they also investigated the combustion and emission characteristics of dieseldimethyl carbonate (DMC) in a compression ignition engine [7]. Carbonates, ethers, and acetates mixed with diesel fuel were also investigated. The results indicated that smoke and PM were reduced without sacrificing other emission characteristics or thermal efficiency, and that the reduction depended only on the oxygen content of the fuels [1]. Ajav et al. [8] studied dieselethanol blends for emission reduction; Huang et al. [9] investigated the engine performance and emissions of diesel engine fuelled with dieselmethanol blends. Miyamoto et al. [10] and Akasaka and Sakurai [11] also conducted research on diesel combustion improvement and emission reduction by the use of various types of oxygenated fuel blend. Dimethoxymethane (DMM) is regarded as a promising alternative diesel fuel. It has a high oxygen fraction, rather high cetane number and a low price; all these make it a good oxygenate additive for dieseloxygenate blended fuels, especially when the price of petroleum has increased rapidly in recent years. As a clean fuel, DMM has many advantages over other liquid fuels. A previous publication by the present authors [12] verified that a DMMdiesel-fuelled engine has a higher thermal efficiency, lower smoke and CO emissions, a longer ignition dalay, and a higher pressure rise rate compared with a pure-diesel-fuelled engine in the same engine working conditions. Some recent reports also revealed a reduction in particulate emissions and gas pollutants by fuelling with a DMMdiesel fuel blend combined in other ways. Ogawa and Nabi [13] studied the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics with a combination of a high exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate, a three-way catalyst (TWC), and neat DMM in a diesel engine. It showed that NOx, HC, CO, and smoke emissions can be reduced simultaneously. However, as neat DMM has a rather low boiling point and small lower heating value, it is difficult to apply in a diesel engine without significant modification to the fuel injection system, and a TWC can only be used in the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio condition to reduce NOx, HC, and CO simultaneously. Obviously, it is inconvenient for a diesel engine to be operated in this way. On the
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

other hand, a diesel oxygenation catalyst (DOC) can significantly reduce the HC and CO emissions and is widely applied in diesel engines. Therefore a diesel engine fuelled with DMMdiesel blends combined with EGR and a DOC can reduce all the above emissions and may be a feasible way for small diesel engines to meet the stringent emission legislation [14, 15]. In this paper the combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with DMMdiesel blends (50% DMM volume fraction (DMM 50)) together with EGR and a DOC are investigated, and then the probability of meeting the Euro III emission standard in a diesel engine without any engine modifications is discussed.

TEST ENGINE AND FUEL PROPERTIES

The experimental research was carried out on a single-cylinder naturally aspirated diesel engine, the specifications of which are listed in Table 1, and the experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1. As shown in Fig. 1, in this experiment, a Horiba exhaust gas analyser was used to measure the HC, CO, and NOx emissions, and an AVL DiSmoke 4000 smoke meter was used to measure the smoke emission. The cylinder pressure was recorded with a Kistler piezoelectric transducer and a crank angle (CA) encoder. The signal of the cylinder pressure was acquired for 0.2u CA resolution, and the pressure data were used to calculate the combustion parameters. From previous research by the present authors [12], for DMMdiesel fuel blends (DMM volume fraction from 0 per cent to 50 per cent), it is indicated that the smoke and CO emissions decrease with increase in the DMM volume fraction. Therefore here the combustion and emission character-

Table 1 Specifications of the test engine

Parameter Engine type Combustion chamber Bore Stroke Displacement Compression ratio Rated power and speed Nozzle hole diameter d Number n of nozzle holes Fuel delivery angle *BTDC, before top dead centre. Value Single-cylinder direct-injection diesel engine v type 105 mm 115 mm 996 cm3 18 11 kW, 2300 r/min 0.3 mm 4 26u CA BTDC*

JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

Ultra-low-emission diesel engine

Fig. 1

Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up

istics of a diesel engine fuelled with DMM 50diesel were tested and compared with those of a diesel engine fuelled with diesel fuel. The fuel properties of diesel fuel, DMM, and DMM 50 fuel blend are shown in Table 2. It can be seen that DMM has a high oxygen content while the heat value and its cetane number are lower than those of diesel fuel. In this test, no significant modification was made for the original diesel engine except for the cooling of the fuel supply system to avoid the gas lock effect due to the lower boiling point of DMM.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Recent research indicated that smoke emission can be reduced with an application of oxygenated fuels, and the reduction depended only on the oxygen content of the fuels rather than the species of the oxygenated fuels. Smoke-free operation can be
Table 2
Parameter (units) Chemical formula Mole weight (g) Density (g/cm3) Boiling point (uC) Lower heating value (MJ/kg) Heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) Self-ignition temperature (uC) Cetane number Mass fraction of carbon in the fuel blend (mass%) Mass fraction of hydrogen in the fuel blend (mass%) Mass fraction of oxygen in the fuel blend (mass%)

realized in any working condition when the oxygen content reaches 30 wt % [16]. Some studies even showed that, for a stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio and 30 vol % EGR conditions when smoke is prone to be formed in general cases, a diesel engine fuelled with highly oxygenated liquid fuels (oxygen content, 38 wt %) remains smoke free [17]. EGR is widely used to reduce NOx emission. Application of oxygenated fuels have a limited effect or even a negative effect on the reduction of NOx emission, but the application of oxygenated fuels can expand the range of EGR rates without significant deterioration in engine performance [18]; therefore a large EGR ratio could be applied to reduce NOx emission. Previous reports revealed that ultra-low emission and efficient diesel combustion including stoichiometric diesel combustion were realized with a combination of EGR, TWC, and a highly oxygenated fuel (80 vol % deithylene glycol diemthyl ether20

Fuel properties of diesel, DMM, and DMM 50

Value for the following Diesel C10.8H18.7 148.3 0.86 188343 42.5 260 200220 45 86 14 0 DMM C3H8O2 76.1 0.865 42 22.4 318.6 430 30 47.4 10.5 42.1 DMM 50 32.3 289.36 37.39 66.42 12.22 21.36

JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

R J Zhu, X B Wang, H Y Miao, and Z H Huang

vol % DMC blend). This combustion was called partial-load high-EGR and high-load stochiometric diesel operation [17]. Here, for the purpose of meeting the demand of the Euro III emission standard, experimental research was performed using the DMM 50 fuel blend together with a DOC and the EGR technique. The EGR rate was set as 7 per cent at full load to avoid the loss of power output, and as 28 per cent at low and medium loads to reduce NOx emission to a large extent; hence the overall engine performance and emission level may reach a good compromise.

3.1

Emission comparison for a diesel engine fuelled with DMM50 and diesel oil

The smoke emission and its reduction rate for dieselDMM blends versus oxygen mass fraction are plotted in Fig. 2. The smoke level was in Bosch

smoke units (BSU). The results clearly showed that the smoke level could be decreased evidently with increase in the oxygen mass fraction at all engine speeds and engine loads (brake mean effective powers (BMEP)), and this trend is much more marked for high-load conditions and high DMM volume fraction (oxygen mass fraction). Compared with pure diesel fuel, about 7080 per cent of smoke was reduced at full load for the DMM 50 fuel blend (or 20 per cent oxygen mass fraction). Since soot or smoke is mainly produced in the diffusive combustion phase and is affected by local air-to-fuel ratio distribution and local temperature, a high-temperature and fuel-rich environment is essential for smoke production. DMM is a kind of fuel with high oxygen mass fraction; its addition will supply more oxygen and increase the air-to-fuel ratio, especially for those area at the core of the fuel spray. Thus the addition of DMM to diesel fuel could

Fig. 2

Comparison of smoke emission versus the oxygen fraction in fuel blends under different load and speed conditions
JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Ultra-low-emission diesel engine

reduce smoke formation; also, it can also promote diffusive combustion and oxidization of existing smoke.

3.2

Effect of EGR on the combustion characteristic and exhaust gas emissions

A comparison of NOx, CO, total hydrocarbon (THC), and smoke emissions for 0 vol % and 28 vol % EGR conditions with DMM 50 fuel blend is given in Fig. 3. It shows that, for a diesel engine without EGR, the NOx emission increases almost linearly with the increased engine load but, for an EGR rate of 28 per cent, NOx emission remains almost constant for middle and high loads, about a quarter of that without EGR at full load. On the other hand, EGR leads to an increase in CO, HC, and smoke emissions, and the thermal efficiency and fuel economy are also aggravated, especially under high- and full-

load conditions. The cylinder pressures and rates of heat release (ROHRs) of a diesel engine fuelled with DMM 50 for 0 vol % and 28 vol % EGR rates at a BMEP of 0.568 MPa are given in Fig. 4. It showed that, in comparison with a diesel engine without EGR, at 28 vol % EGR ratio, the ignition delay increases and the peak values of cylinder pressure and ROHR are smaller, and this will have negative effects on both the engine torque output and the fuel economy. To avoid the loss of BMEP and deterioration of smoke emission, the EGR rate was selected as 28 per cent only under low- and medium-load conditions and as 7 per cent under over 75 per cent load conditions. Figure 5 gives the smoke emissions of DMM 50 fuel blend under this operation mode. The smoke emissions with pure diesel oil under the same working conditions are given in Fig. 6. The results showed that the smoke emissions with DMM 50 fuel

Fig. 3
JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

Effect of EGR on the exhaust gas emissions with DMM 50 blended fuel
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

R J Zhu, X B Wang, H Y Miao, and Z H Huang

Fig. 4

Effect of EGR on combustion characteristic with DMM 50 blended fuel (n 5 1600 r/min; BMEP 5 0.568 MPa) (ATDC, after top dead centre)

blend are all under 20 per cent smoke in BSU, which are much less than those with pure diesel oil under the same working conditions. It is well known that a DOC can reduce CO and HC emissions effectively but has little effect on the reduction of NOx emission in diesel engines [19]. In this paper, NOx emission can be reduced by EGR; DOC was used here to reduce CO and HC emissions. Figure 7 shows that the comparison of gas emissions with and without a DOC for a diesel engine fuelled with DMM 50 combined with EGR. It indicated that the DOC has a great effect on the reduction in CO and HC emissions. Application of a DOC makes the CO emission decrease by over 85 per cent, the HC emission decrease about 90 per cent under full load, while the NOx emission remains almost unchanged.

3.3

Comparison of combustion and exhaust gas emissions for pure diesel oil and DMM fuel blend combined with EGR and a DOC

Fig. 5

Effect of DMM 50 blended fuel with EGR on the smoke emissions

Fig. 6

Effect of net diesel oil with EGR on the smoke emissions

Figure 8 gives a comparison between the emissions for diesel oil and DMM 50 fuel blend combined with EGR and a DOC. It shows that NOx and smoke emissions for DMM 50 fuel blend are much less than those for diesel fuel under all load conditions. CO and HC emissions are slightly lower than those for pure diesel oil at low loads, while much less than that of diesel oil for medium and high loads; this is because the exhaust temperature of the diesel engine is lower than the initiation temperature the DOC at low loads so that the DOC cannot work effectively. However, fortunately the CO and THC emissions then are very small for a diesel engine. Therefore, generally, in comparison with a diesel engine fuelled with diesel fuel, DMM 50 combined with a DOC and EGR can result in a better emission level, and ultra-low emissions can be obtained. The comparison of the cylinder pressure and heat release rate of diesel and DMM 50 fuel blend with and without EGR are given in Fig. 9. The results showed that, for the same load and speed, the premixed combustion of dieselDMM fuel blend is prolonged and the maximum ROHR increases more than that of diesel fuel. In comparison with DMM 50 fuel blend, DMM 50 fuel blend combined with EGR has a lower peak pressure and maximum ROHR, and the start of combustion is later. It is suggested that the increase in ignition delay due to the lower cetane number of DMM is responsible for this behaviour. Moreover, after introducing EGR, the combustion pressure and temperature in cylinder would decrease, leading to the deterioration of combustion.
JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Ultra-low-emission diesel engine

3.4

Comparison of the emission level of Euro III standard and diesel engine fuelled with a high percentage of the DMM component of the blend combined with EGR and a DOC

From the above analysis, it was shown that ultra-low emissions of a direct-injection engine can be obtained by using a high percentage of the DMM component of the blend to lower the smoke emission, EGR to reduce the NOx emission, and a DOC to decrease the CO and HC emissions. To demonstrate whether DMMdiesel fuel blends can be used in a vehicle engine, the engine should meet the Euro III emission standard for a vehicle engine. Therefore a comparison between the emission levels of this diesel engine and the Euro III standard for a vehicle diesel engine was made. The emission limit values of a Euro III vehicle diesel engine and off-road engine are listed in Table 3. Figure 10 showed the emissions of a diesel engine by applying the above techniques under different load and speed conditions. Here, the units ppm for the emission concentration have been converted into the units g/kW h to accord with the unit of the Euro emission standard. The dot-dashed and dashed lines in the figures indicate the limit values of the Euro III standard. It can be seen that the THC and smoke emissions are lower than the limited values of Euro III, the NOx emission is lower than the limit value of Euro III except for that under full-load conditions at 1300 r/min, and the CO emission is a little higher than the limit value of Euro III under low-load conditions, it is suggested that the exhaust temperature therefore is lower than the initiation temperature of the catalyst so that the DOC cannot work effectively. Considering the weight coefficients of different engine conditions in the Euro III test cycle, the diesel engine with DMM 50 + EGR + DOC has the potential to meet the emission standard of Euro III for vehicle diesel engine or an even more stringent emission standard.

CONCLUSIONS

The combustion and emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine fuelled with DMM 50 fuel blend combined with EGR and a DOC were investigated. The results may be summarized as follows. 1. DMM 50 fuel blend is suitable for partial-load high-EGR and high-load low-EGR operation mode. Ultra-low NOx was established throughout a wide operating load range with the use of a fuel blend with a high percentage of the DMM component.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Fig. 7

Effect of a DOC on gas emissions for a diesel engine fuelled with DMM 50

JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

R J Zhu, X B Wang, H Y Miao, and Z H Huang

Fig. 8

Comparison of emissions for diesel oil and DMM 50 fuel blend combined with EGR and a DOC

2. A DOC effectively reduces CO and THC emissions over a wide range of operating loads, especially at high-load conditions where extremely high concentrations of CO and THCs are formed. 3. DMM 50 increases premixed combustion and shortens the duration of diffusive combustion, leading to a higher peak pressure and a pressure rise. EGR evidently does not influence combustion duration. 4. Under partial-load high-EGR and high-load lowEGR operation mode, a naturally aspirated diesel engine in the test fuelled with DMM 50 fuel blend combined with a DOC could meet the Euro III emission standard of a vehicle diesel engine.

Fig. 9

Comparison of the cylinder pressure and ROHR of diesel fuel, DMM 50 and DMM 50 blended fuel combined with EGR (n 5 1600 r/min; BMEP 5 0.568 MPa) (ATDC, after top dead centre)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was supported by the National Natural Science Fund (Grant 50876086) and the Key Project of
JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Ultra-low-emission diesel engine

Table 3
Engine type Vehicle engine

Euro III emission limit values of a diesel engine

Euro III emission limits THC (g/kw h) 0.66 NOx (g/kw h) 5.0 PM (g/kw h) 0.10 Smoke (BSU) 2.0

CO (g/kw h) 2.1

Fig. 10 Exhaust gas emissions of DMM 50 blended fuel combined with EGR and a DOC

the National Natural Science Fund (Grant 50576034). The authors acknowledge the students of Xian Jiaotong University for their help with the experiment. The authors also express their thanks to colleagues at Xian Jiaotong University for their helpful comments and advice during the preparation of this paper.

REFERENCES
1 Miyamoto, N., Ogawa, H., Arima, T., and Miyakawa, K. Improvement of diesel combustion and
JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009

emissions with various oxygenated fuel additives. SAE paper 962115, 1996. 2 Huang, Z. H., Wang, H. W., and Chen, H. Y. Study on combustion characteristics of a compression ignition engine fueled with dimethyl ether. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 1999, 213(6), 647652. 3 Fleisch, T., McCarthy, C., and Basu, A. A new clean diesel technology: demonstration of ULEV emissions on a Navistar diesel engine fueled with dimethyl ether. SAE Trans., 1995, 104(4), 4253. 4 Kapus, P. and Ofner, H. Development of fuel injection equipment and combustion system for DI
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

10

R J Zhu, X B Wang, H Y Miao, and Z H Huang

10

11 12

diesels operated on dimethyl ether. SAE Trans., 1995, 104(4), 5469. Sorenson, S. C. and Mikkelsen, S. E. Performance and emissions of a 0.273 liter direct injection diesel engine fueled with neat dimethyl ether. SAE Trans., 1995, 104(4), 8090. Huang, Z. H., Miao, H. Y., Zhou, L. B., and Jiang, D. M. Combustion characteristics and hydrocarbon emissions of a spark ignition engine fuelled with gasoline-oxygenate blends. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 2000, 214(3), 341346. Huang, Z. H., Jiang, D. M., Zeng, K., Liu, B., and Yang, Z. L. Combustion characteristics and heat release analysis of a DI compression ignition engine fueled with dieseldimethyl carbonate blends. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 2003, 217(7), 595606. Ajav, E. A., Singh, B., and Bhattacharya, T. K. Experimental study of some performance parameters of a constant speed stationary diesel engine using ethanoldiesel blend as fuel. Biomass Bioenergy, 1999, 17, 357365. Huang, Z. H., Lu, H. B., Jiang, D. M., Zeng, K., Liu, B., and Zhang, J. Q. Engine performance and emissions of a compression ignition engine operating on the dieselmethanol blends. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 2004, 218(4), 435447. Miyamoto, N., Ogawa, H., and Obata, K. Improvements of Diesel combustion and emissions by addition of oxygenated agents to diesel fuels: influence of properties of diesel fuels and kinds of oxygenated agents. JSAE Rev., 1998, 19(2), 154156. Akasaka, Y. and Sakurai, Y. Effect of oxygenated fuel on exhaust emission from DI diesel engines. Trans JSME, Ser. B, 1996, 63(609), 18331839. Zhu, R. J., Wang, X. B., Miao, H. Y., and Huang, Z. H. Performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines fueled with dieseldimethoxymethane (DMM) blends. Energy Fuels, 2009, 23, 286293.

13 Ogawa, H. and Nabi, M. N. Ultra low emissions and high performance diesel combustion with a combination of high EGR, three-way catalyst, and a highly oxygenated fuel, dimethoxy methane (DMM). SAE paper 2000-01-1819, 2000. 14 Ren, Y., Huang, Z. H., and Jiang, D. M. Engine performance and emission characteristics of a compression-ignition engine fuelled with diesel dimethoxy methane blends. Proc. IMechE, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 2005, 219(7), 905914. 15 Huang, Z. H., Ren, Y., and Jiang, D. M. Combustion and emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine fuelled with dieseldimethoxy methane blends. Energy Conversion Managmt, 2006, 47, 14021415. 16 Miyamoto, N. Approaches to extremely low emissions and efficent diesel combustion with oxygenated fuels. Int. J. Engine Res., 2000, 1(1), 7185. 17 Nurun, M. N., Minami, M., Ogawa, H., and Miyamoto, N. Ultra low emission and high performance diesel combustion with highly oxygenated fuel. SAE paper 2000-01-0231, 2000. 18 Wang, H. W., Huang, Z. H., and Zhou, L. B. Investigation on emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine with oxygenated fuels and exhaust gas recirculation. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 2000, 214(5), 503508. 19 Heywood, J. B. Internal combustion engine fundamentals, 1988 (McGraw-Hill, New York).

APPENDIX Notation BMEP DOC EGR P ROHR brake mean effective pressure (MPa) diesel oxidation catalyst exhaust gas recirculation cylinder gas pressure (MPa) rate of heat release

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

JAUTO1093 F IMechE 2009