RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERINGCOLLEGE

THANDALAM 602 105

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
UNIVERSITY REGISTER No. 21109101008

This is to certify that this is a bonafide record of work done by the student BALAJI.M, IV year Aeronautical Engineering in the AI ! A"T #E$I%& ' (JE!T )II Laboratory during the year *+,*-*+,..

Signatu ! "# Fa$u%t&'in'C(a g! Su)*itt!+ #" t(! , a$ti$a% E-a*inati"n (!%+ "n ..........// Int! na% E-a*in! E-t! na% E-a*in!

ACKNO0LEDGEMENT1 /e would like to e0tend our heartfelt thanks to 'rof. 1ogesh 2u3ar $inha 45ead of Aeronautical #e6art3ent7 for gi8ing us his able su66ort and encourage3ent. At this 9uncture we 3ust e36hasis the 6oint that this design 6ro9ect would not ha8e been 6ossible without the highly infor3ati8e and 8aluable guidance of Mr. $urendra Bogadi 4Assistant 6rofessor of Aeronautical #e6art3ent7, whose 8ast knowledge and e06erience has greatly hel6ed us in this 6ro9ect. /e ha8e great 6leasure in e06ressing our sincere and whole hearted gratitude to the3. It is worth 3entioning about 3y friends and colleagues of the Aeronautical de6art3ent for e0tending their kind hel6 whene8er the necessity arose. I thank one and all who ha8e directly or indirectly hel6ed us in 3aking this design.

NOMENCLAT2RE1 A. . - As6ect atio b - /ing $6an 437 ! - !hord of the Airfoil 437 ! root - !hord at oot 437 ! ti6 - !hord at Ti6 437 C - Mean Aerodyna3ic !hord 437 !d - #rag !o-efficient !d,+ - :ero Lift #rag !o-efficient !6 - $6ecific fuel consu36tion 4lbs;h6;hr7 !L - Lift !o-efficient # - #rag 4&7 E - Endurance 4hr7 e - (swald efficiency L - Lift 4&7 4L;#7loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter 4L;#7cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise M - Mach nu3ber of aircraft Mff - Mission fuel fraction - ange 4k37 e - eynolds &u3ber $ - /ing Area 43<7 #istance 437 T - Thrust 4&7 Vcruise - Velocity at cruise 43;s7 Vstall - Velocity at stall 43;s7 Vt - Velocity at touch down 43;s7

/crew - !rew weight 4kg7 /e36ty - E36ty weight of aircraft 4kg7 /fuel - /eight of fuel 4kg7 /6ayload - 'ayload of aircraft 4kg7 /+ - (8erall weight of aircraft 4kg7 /;$ - /ing loading 4kg;3<7 - #ensity of air 4kg;3=7 Astringer - !ross sectional area of stringers A - Total cross sectional area A s6ar - !ross sectional area of s6ar at-$lo6e of the !L 8s. > cur8e for a hori?ontal tail a-#istance of the front s6ar fro3 the nose of the aircraft bw-/idth of the web bf-/idth of the flange I00 - $econd 3o3ent of area about @ a0is I?? - $econd 3o3ent of area about : a0is 2 - %ust alle8iation factor n 3a0 - Ma0i3u3 load factor tw - Thickness of the web tf - Thickness of the flange T - TorAue B - %ust 8elocity Vcruise - !ruise 8elocity Vs - $talling 8elocity

AIM OF THE ,ROJECT

The ai3 of this 6ro9ect is to design the Mediu3 range business 9et trans6ort and to satisfy the 3ission, o6eration and lu0ury reAuire3ents of the aircraft The following 3ission reAuire3ents are to be satisfied by the aircraft ,. 'ro8ide 3ediu3 range 6assenger trans6ort for a grou6 of 6eo6le as a charted flight or the like. *. To facilitate a busy business 3an to reach his destination in ti3e with lu0ury and co3fort. .. To 6ro8ide onboard facilities to a business 6erson to carry out his or her work e8en during the 9ourney without any interru6tion. C. To incor6orate all 3odern flight control syste3s, structural 3aterials etc in order to 6ro8ide a safe 9ourney. D. Most i36ortantly to 6ro8ide fuel efficiency to 3ake our aircraft a co33ercial success for the o6erating airlines/

ABSTRACT
The aim of the project is to do a systematic design of a medium-range business jet capable of flying passengers through regional routes incorporated with advanced avionics, structures and systems ,with high fuel efficiency so that it yields a good commercial profit to the airlines.

INTROD2CTION
1/2 OBJECTI3ES
To 3eet the functional 6ur6ose and safety reAuire3ents set out or acce6table to the agricultural use.

1/2/1 ACT2AL ,ROCESS OF DESIGN

$election of aircraft ty6e and sha6e #eter3ination of geo3etric 6ara3eters $election of 6ower 6lant #eter3ination of aircraft flight and o6erational characteristics.

1/2/2 DISTINCT STAGES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN

'ro9ect "easibility $tudy 'reli3inary #esign #esign 'ro9ect

1/2/4 ,ROJECT 89!$i#i$ati"n:

FEASIBILIT5

ST2D5

6t" !7"%7! a 8ati8#a$t" &

!o36rehensi8e 3arket sur8ey $tudies on o6erating conditions for the air6lane to be designed

$tudies on rele8ant design reAuire3ents 4s6ecified by Airworthiness E8aluation of si3ilar e0isting designs $tudies on 6ossibilities of introducing new conce6ts !ollection of data on rele8ant 6ower 6lants Laying down ' ELIMI&A 1 $'E!I"I!ATI(&$

Authorities7

1/2/; ,RELIMINAR5 DESIGN

It consists of the initial stages of design, resulting in the 6resentation of a B (!5B E !ontaining 6reli3inary drawings and clearly stating the o6erational ca6abilities of the air6lane being designed. This Brochure has to be A'' (VE# by the 3anufacturer and;or the custo3er.

1/2/5 T(! 8t!98 in7"%7!+

The $tructural design in8ol8esE #eter3ination of loads acting on aircraftE V-n diagra3 for the design study %ust and 3anoeu8rability en8elo6es $chrenkFs !ur8e !ritical loading 6erfor3ance and final V-n gra6h calculation

#eter3ination of loads acting on indi8idual structures $tructural design study ) Theory a66roach

Load esti3ation of wings Load esti3ation of fuselage. Material $election for structural 3e3bers #etailed structural layouts #esign of so3e co36onents of wings, fuselage

1/2 ,ARAMETERS DERI3ED FROM AD, 1 1/2/1 DESIGN ,ARAMETERS

S/NO
, * . C D H J G I ,+ ,, ,* ,. ,C ,D

DESIGN DATA
cruise s6eed ole !rew Length /ing s6an 5eight E36ty weight Ma0 takeoff weight 6ower 6lant /ing area ange "uel weight wing loading Engine ty6e Engine Thrust

DESIGN 3AL2ES
G.+ k3;hr Mediu3 range business 9et * ,D 3 ,G.HI 3 D., 3 G+++ kg ,CDD+ kg * CH.DG* sA.3 DD++ k3 DD*J.*DC kg .,*..D kg;sA.3 Turbo fan .I.H k& 4, engine7

1/2/2 ,ERFORMANCE ,ARAMETERS

Ta)%! 1'2 ,! #" *an$! ,a a*!t! 8

S/NO , * . C D H

,ERFORMANCE DATA /ing loading /;$ /ing area $ :ero-lift to drag coefficient !#o #rag-due to )lift coefficient 2 As6ect ratio A Thrust 4one engine7

,ERFORMANCE 3AL2ES .,*..D kg;sA.3 CH.DG* sA.3 +.+,IG +.+JCJ D..*H .I.H k&

AIRFOIL S,ECIFICATIONS1
IKc Thickness J.GKc !a3ber ,+.* deg Trailing edge angle HI.DKc Lower flatness ..DKc Leading edge radius ,.GCD Ma0 ! L

Ma0 !L angle

,D.+ deg HG.DJ*

Ma0 L;# D deg Ma0 L;# angle ,.,JC Ma0 L;# ! L ,..+ deg $tall angle -H.+ deg :ero-lift angle

1.3 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF MEDIUM RANGE BUSINESS JET:

THE 3'n DIAGRAM

1/ 3 n Diag a* "light regi3e of any aircraft includes all 6er3issible co3binations of s6eeds, altitudes, weights, centres of gra8ity, and configurations. This regi3e is sha6ed by aerodyna3ics, 6ro6ulsion, structure, and dyna3ics of aircraft. The borders of this flight regi3e are called flight en8elo6e or 3anoeu8ring en8elo6e. The safety of hu3an onboard is guaranteed by aircraft designer and 3anufacturer. 'ilots are always trained and warned through flight instruction 3anual not to fly out of flight en8elo6e, since the aircraft is not stable, or not controllable or not structurally strong enough outside the boundaries of flight en8elo6e. A 3isha6 or crash is e06ected, if an aircraft is flown outside flight en8elo6e. The flight en8elo6e has 8arious ty6esL each of which is usually the allowable 8ariations of one flight 6ara3eter 8ersus another 6ara3eter. These en8elo6es are calculated and 6lotted by flight 3echanics engineers and e36loyed by 6ilots and flight crews. "or instance, the load 3asters of a cargo aircraft 3ust 6ay e0tra caution to the center of gra8ity location whene8er they distribute 8arious loads on the aircraft. There are se8eral crashes and 3isha6s that safety boardMs re6ort indicated that load 3aster are res6onsible, since they de6loyed 3ore loads than allowed, or 3is6laced the load before take-off. &ose hea8y and tail hea8y are two flight conce6ts that 6ilots are fa3iliar and e06erienced with, and are trained to deal with the3 safely. 'ilots are using se8eral gra6hs and charts in their flight o6erations. "our i36ortant en8elo6es are as followsE

1/ #iagra3 of 8ariations of aircraft lift coefficient 8ersus Mach nu3ber 4!L ) M7 2/ #iagra3 of 8ariations of airs6eed 8ersus altitude 4V ) h7 4/ #iagra3 of 8ariations of centre of gra8ity 8ersus aircraft weight 4@cg ) /7 ;/ #iagra3 of 8ariations of airs6eed 8ersus load factor 4V ) n7 (ne of the 3ost i36ortant diagra3s is referred to as flight envelope. This en8elo6e de3onstrates the 8ariations of airs6eed 8ersus load factor 4V ) n7. In another word, it de6icts the aircraft li3it load factor as a function of airs6eed. (ne of the 6ri3ary reasons that this diagra3 is highly i36ortant is that, the 3a0i3u3 load factorL that is e0tracted fro3 this gra6hL is a reference nu3ber in aircraft structural design. If the 3a0i3u3 load factor is undercalculated, the aircraft cannot withstand flight load safely. "or this reason, it is reco33ended to structural engineers to recalculate the V-n diagra3 on their own as a safety factor. In this section, details of the techniAue to 6lot the V- n diagra3 in introduced. The "igure shows a ty6ical V-n diagra3 for a %A aircraft. This diagra3 is, in fact, a co3bination of two diagra3sE 1/ T(! 3'n +iag a* <it("ut $"n8i+! ati"n "# gu8t= 2/ T(! 3'n +iag a* "n t(! !##!$t "# gu8t. In this section, we first ha8e another look on the load factor and then 6resent new conce6ts on load factor. Then the 6heno3ena of gust and gust load are described. At the end of this section, the techniAue to 6lot V ) n diagra3 is co36letely describe 2/1' L"a+ Fa$t" The load to the aircraft on the ground is naturally 6roduced by the gra8ity 4i.e. , ti3es g7. But, there are other sources of load to the aircraft during flightL one of which is the acceleration load. This load is usually nor3ali?ed through load factor 4i.e. NnN ti3es g7. In another word, aircraft load is e06ressed as a 3ulti6le of the standard acceleration due to gra8ity 4g O I.G, 3;sec* O .*.,J ft;sec*7. ecall that we defined the load factor as the ratio between lift and weight.

N" Ai $ a#t t&9! , * . C D H J

&or3al acrobatic7 Btility 4se3i-acrobatic Acrobatic 5o3ebuilt Trans6ort 5ighly 3aneu8erable Bo3ber

Ma-i*u* #a$t" 4non- *.D ) ..G C.C H D .)C H.D ) ,* *)C

9"8iti7!

%"a+ Ma-i*u* #a$t" -, to -,.D -,.G -. -* -, to -* -. to -H -, to -*

n!gati7!

%"a+

2/2' 3 n Diag a* <it("ut Gu8t E##!$t V-n diagra3 is an en8elo6e that indicates the li3its of load factor and s6eed for a safe flight. It is usually co36osed of two cur8es 6lus few lines. The two cur8es on the left hand side re6resent the aerodyna3ic li3it on load factor i36osed by stall 4!L3a07. The e06ression for the to6 cur8e is e0tracted fro3 stall eAuation in turn as followsE

''''''''''''''''''''' 1 5ence,

''''''''''''''''''' 2

The to6 cur8e is literally a 6lot of abo8e eAuation the region abo8e this cur8e in the V-n diagra3 is the stall area. $ince, no aircraft can fly continuously at a flight condition abo8e this cur8e, so this is one of the li3its on the aircraft 3aneu8erability. Because the aircraft angle of attack will be abo8e stall angle. Based on the eAuation, as the airs6eed increases, the 3a0i3u3 load factor will increase 6ro6ortionally to V*. 5owe8er, n3a0 cannot be allowed to increase indefinitely. It is constrained by the structural strength 4structural li3it load factor7. The to6 hori?ontal line denotes the 6ositi8e li3it load factor in the V-n diagra3. The flight 8elocity corres6onding to the intersection between the left cur8e and to6 hori?ontal line 4'oint A7 is referred to as corner velocity, and designated as VP 4V star7. The corner 8elocity can be obtained by sol8ing eAuation , for 8elocity, yieldingE

''''''''''''''''''''' 4 where the 8alue of n3a0 corres6onds to that at 6oint A . This s6eed so3eti3es is referred to as maneuvering speed 4VA7, and is su33ari?ed asE '''''''''''''''''' ; The 6oint A is then called the manoeuvre point. At this 6oint, both lift coefficient and load factor are si3ultaneously at their highest 6ossible 8alues. The corner 8elocity is an interesting 8elocity for fighter 6ilots. At s6eeds less than VP, it is not 6ossible to structurally da3age the aircraft due to generation of load factor less than n3a0. 5owe8er, the bank angle is not high enough for a tight turn. In contrast, at s6eeds greater than VP, 3anoeu8rability decreases, since the s6eed is too high. The right hand side of the V ) n diagra3, 8ertical line B!, is a high s6eed li3it. This s6eed is usually selected to be the di8e s6eed. At flight s6eeds higher than this li3it, the dyna3ic 6ressure 4A7 is higher than the design 8alue for the aircraft. At the s6eed abo8e di8e s6eed, destructi8e 6heno3ena such as flutter, aileron re8ersal, and wing di8ergence, 3ay ha66en that leads structural da3age, or failure, or disintegration. This s6eed li3it 4di8e s6eed7 is a red-line s6eed for the aircraftL it should ne8er be e0ceeded. The di8e s6eed 4V#7 is usually higher than

aircraft 3a0i3u3 s6eed 4V3a07, and the aircraft 3a0i3u3 s6eed 4V3a07 is often higher than aircraft cruising s6eed 4V!7. "ro3 "A 'art *., the following regulations ha8e been directly co6iedE ----------- 5 The botto3 line of the V ) n diagra3, gi8en by hori?ontal line !# corres6onds with 3a0i3u3 negati8e li3it load factor that is a structural li3it when the aircraft is in a situation such as in8erted flight. The botto3 left cur8e corres6onds to negati8e stall angle of attack. $ince 3ost wing airfoils ha8e 6ositi8e ca3ber, their 6ositi8e stall angles are often 3uch higher than the absolute 8alues of their negati8e stall angles. This cur8e defines the negati8e stall area. 2/4' CALC2LATIONS1 "ro3 table, nQ8eOC and n-8eO -* 2/4/1 ,OSITI3E C2R3E1 "ro3 eAu, C Maneuvering speed 63A:1

VA OIJ.. 3;s "ro3 eAu, D Di7! 89!!+ 63D:1

V#O.**.JJ3;s

Then, LO+.DR,.**DRCH..CDR,.GCDR

Fro3 that we get nO4,IIDG*J.G+7;4,C*J.D.D7 >4/;?56 ''''''''''''''''''''' 6 we get cur8e

In eAu H,by substituting 8arious 8 u6to 2/4/2 NEGATI3E C2R3E1 "ro3 eAu, C Maneuvering speed 63A:1

VAOHG.GC3;s "ro3 eAu, D

LO,HCCI.C & And nO-+.,,D* In eAu J,by substituting 8arious 8 u6to 4Insert V-n 3aneu8er diagra37 4/ Gu8t En7!%"9! 4/1D!8$ i9ti"n1 The at3os6here is a dyna3ic syste3 that enco36asses 8ariety of 6heno3ena. $o3e of these 6heno3ena include turbulence, gust, wind shear, 9et strea3, 3ountain wa8e and ther3al flow. In this section, we concentrate on only gust, since it is not 6redictable, but is ha66ening during 3ost high altitude flights. /hen an aircraft e06eriences a gust, the i33ediate effect is an increase or decrease in the angle of attack. . /hen an u6ward gust with a 8elocity of Vg, hits under the nose of an aircraft with the 8elocity of V, the instantaneous change 4increase7 in the angle of attack 4 >7 we get cur8e.

This indicates that gust will change load factor and will generate a load called gust load. The loads e06erienced when an aircraft encounters a strong gust 3ay so3eti3es e0ceed the 3aneu8er load. Thus we 3ust 6ay attention to gust load when 6lotting V-n diagra3. As soon as we know the gust 8elocity, we are able to deter3ine gust load. It is 8ery hard to 3easure gust 8elocity, since it ha66ens suddenly. The design reAuire3ents for gust 8elocities are e0tracted fro3 flight test data. eference %ust Velocity 4B ref 7 Sat sea le8el ,D3;s. #esign %ust Velocity 4B ds7 S Bref R 2 4/2 C"n8t u$ti"n The increase in the load factor due to the gust can be calculated by "or cur8e abo8e V-a0isE

/here, K -%ust Alle8iation "actor 2 3a0 -Ma0i3u3 deri8ed %ust Velocity a - Lift !ur8e $lo6e for wing "or cur8e below V-a0isE

Gust Alleviation Factor (K):

Lateral Mass Ratio ():

/here,

g -Acceleration due to %ra8ity @ -Mean Aerodyna3ic !hord

TO $t -!hord at ti6 $ -!hord at root where, cr O...*3 ct O,.HH3

O,+H.HG

2O+.JH "or cur8e below V-a0isE

O..HGP,+-CPuP8 By using the eAuations and for 8arious s6eeds of B3a0 we get the following gust lines load factors at the 8arious 6oints can be found using the for3ula using the corres6onding 8alues of B3a0

;/SCHRENKAS C2R3E

x 0 1 " 3 #

elliptic 1773.7 17!3.! !3 1733.0 #$ 1!$0.7 $ 1!0#.7 !1 1 01.3 !%

! 7 $ % %.3#

13!#.# 0" 11$"." #$ %"$.!$ % 0 .$1 #$ 173."3 0"

x 0 1

schren & 11%33. 113$". #!

" 3 #

! 7 $ % %.3#

10$10. % 10"17. !% %!00.7 11 $% !.3 !% $"7$.# " 7 .3 #$ !7!0.$ 3% 7%7.0 1 "77.$ 0"

;/1 D!8$ i9ti"n Lift 8aries along the wing s6an due to the 8ariation in chord length, angle of attack and swee6 along the s6an. $chrenkFs cur8e defines this lift distribution o8er the wing s6an of an aircraft, also called si36ly as Lift #istribution !ur8e. $chrenkFs !ur8e is gi8en by

/here y, is Linear Variation of lift along se3i wing s6an also na3ed as L, y* is Elli6tic Lift #istribution along the wing s6an also na3ed as L* ;/2 Lin!a Li#t Di8t i)uti"n Lift at root

Lroot O *+.,I.D &;3 Lift at ti6

Lti6 O,+,DI.JD &;3 By re6resenting this lift at sections of root and ti6 we can get the eAuation for the wing. EAuation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing y, O-,+,G,.I0Q*+.,I.D EAuation of linear lift distribution for 6ort wing we ha8e to re6lace 0 by )0 in general, y, O ,+G,.I0Q*+.,I.D

linear 101 %. 0 7 1 %!1$.$ %077.$ " 3 $ 3!.%

7%% .% # 7# !%1#.0 ! 7 $ % %.3# !373.1 $3".1 "%1." 10#. 7"

;/4 E%%i9ti$ Li#t Di8t i)uti"n Twice the area under the cur8e or line will gi8e the lift which will be reAuired to o8erco3e weight !onsidering an elli6tic lift distribution we get

/here b, is Actual lift at root And a- is wing se3i s6an Lift at ti6 b,OIHJJ.,.&;3 EAuation of elli6tic lift distribution, y*O.JJ.G4GG.,J-0*7+.D then y*;*O,GG.I4GG.,J-0*7+.D
x 0 1 " 3 # 17!3.! !3 1733.0 #$ 1!$0.7 $ 1!0#.7 !1 1 01.3 !% 13!#.# 0" 11$"." #$ %"$.!$ % 0 .$1 #$ 173."3 0" elliptic 1773.7

! 7 $ % %.3#

;/; C"n8t u$ti"n "# S$( !nBA8 Cu 7! $chrenkFs !ur8e is gi8en by

yO-DC+.ID0Q,+,DI.JDQ,GG.I4GG.,J-0*7+.D $ubstituting different 8alues for 0 we can get the lift distribution for the wing se3i s6an

/e get the following schrenkFs distribution for lift.

x 0 1 " 3 # 113$". #! 10$10. % 10"17. !% %!00.7 11 $% !.3 !% $"7$.# " 7 .3 #$ !7!0.$ 3% 7%7.0 1 "77.$ 0" schren & 11%33.

! 7 $ % %.3#

5/ LOAD ESTIMATION ON 0ING

5/1 D!8$ i9ti"n

The solution 3ethods which follow EulerFs bea3 bending theory 4U;yOM;IOE; 7 use the bending 3o3ent 8alues to deter3ine the stresses de8elo6ed at a 6articular section of the bea3 due to the co3bination of aerodyna3ic and structural loads in the trans8erse direction. Most engineering solution 3ethods for structural 3echanics 6roble3s 4both e0act and a66ro0i3ate 3ethods7 use the shear force and bending 3o3ent eAuations to deter3ine the deflection and slo6e at a 6articular section of the bea3. Therefore, these eAuations are to be obtained as analytical e06ressions in ter3s of s6an wise location. The bending 3o3ent 6roduced here is about the longitudinal 407 a0is.

5/2 L"a+8 a$ting "n <ing As both the wings are sy33etric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are three 6ri3ary loads acting on a wing structure in trans8erse direction which can cause considerable shear forces and bending 3o3ents on it. They are as followsE Lift force 4gi8en by $chrenkFs cur8e7 $elf-weight of the wing /eight of the fuel in the wing

5/4 S(!a #" $! an+ )!n+ing *"*!nt +iag a*8 +u! t" %"a+8 a%"ng t an87! 8! +i !$ti"n at $ ui8! $"n+iti"n Lift "orce gi8en by $chrenkFs !ur8eE

lift distributionE yO-DC+.ID0Q,+,DI.JDQ,GG.I4GG.,J-0*7+.D

5/4/1 S!%#'0!ig(t 6&4: $elf-weight of the wing,

//I&%O+.,*DIP,CDD+PI.G,O,JIJ+..I& //I&%O,JIJ+..I& /6ortwing O GIGD.,I4Acting #ownwards7 /starboardOGIGD.,I4Acting #ownwards7 Assu3ing 6arabolic weight distribution /here b ) wing s6an /hen we integrate fro3 0O+ 4root location7 to 0Ob 4ti6 location7 we get the net weight of 6ort wing.

y.O-C.,*40-I..CD7* $ubstituting 8arious 8alues of 0 in the abo8e eAuation we get the self-weight of the wing

0 + , * . C D H J

self weight -.DI.JIDDG. -*GH.I,*JG. -***.*HIIG. -,HD.GHJ,G. -,,J.J+C.G. -JJ.JG,DG. -CH.+IGJG. -**.HDDIG.

G I

-J.CD.,G. -+.CI+.G.

I..CD +

5/4/2 Fu!% <!ig(t This design has fuel in the wing so we ha8e to consider the weight of the fuel in the wing. Again by using general for3ula for straight line yO30 Q c we get, yfODD*J.*D2g 0 self weight + -.DI.JIDDG. , -*GH.I,*JG. * -***.*HIIG. . -,HD.GHJ,G. C -,,J.J+C.G. D -JJ.JG,DG. H -CH.+IGJG. J -**.HDDIG. G -J.CD.,G. fuel dist. -.+*.I, -*HD.HCG -**G..GH -,I,.,*C -,D..GH* -,,H.H -JI...G -C*.+JH -C.G,C

I -+.CI+.G. I..CD +

.*.CCG CD..+..I

Ta)%! 5'11 L"a+8 8i*9%i#i!+ a8 9"int %"a+8 Cu 7! C $"*9"n!nt y,;* y*;* /ing "uel A !a !n$%"8!+ C 8t u$tu a% <!ig(t 6N7 ICIC*.GH ,HDJD.** GIGD.,I *J,,,.,H C!nt "i+ 6# "* <ing ""t7 C.,CI +.J.,. ..D+* ..C*I

5/4/4 R!a$ti"n #" $! an+ B!n+ing *"*!nt $a%$u%ati"n8

Then, ICIC*.GHQ,HDJD.**-GIGD.,I-*J,,,.,H-VA O+ VAO JDC*,.J.&

Then, MA Q4,+JJ.CCP..C7Q4**G,.,GP*..J7-4J*,H.+.PC.+.7-4J*.GI.GPC.,G7 O + MAO .**H++.*J&3 &ow we know VA and MA, using this we can find out shear force and Bending 3o3ent. 5/4/; SHEAR FORCE

By using the corres6onding 8alues of 0 in a66ro6riate eAuations we get the 6lot of shear force. @ + , * . C D H J G I I..CD + -, -* -. -C bc -JDC*,.J -HC+C*.D cd -HC.*H.J - D.HCC.H -C.CC*.* -..JIC.G -*CJI..J -,HDDI.I -I*JH.GH da

-IGGD.I -*DC*.,G .CHJ..C J+CI.IDI H*H+.HH.

- JDC*,.J -HC+C*.D

-HC.*H.J -D.HCC.H -C.CC*.* -..JIC.G

-D -H -J -G -I -I..CD

-*CJI..J -,HDDI.I -I*JH.GH

-IGGD.I -*DC*.,G .CHJ..C J+CI.IDI H*H+.HH.

5/4/5 B!n+ing *"*!nt

By substituting the 8alues of 0 for the abo8e eAuations of bending 3o3ents obtained we can get a continuous bending 3o3ent cur8e for the 6ort wing.

0 +

bc C*HG... J

cd

da

, * . C D H J G I I..CD + -, -* -. -C -D -H -J -G -I -I..CD

.DH*D+. C

.DH,+D. * *I*JDG. . *.HCC,. , ,GHJGJ ,C.C++. H ,+DG*D. C J.CDC..

JHJJ.., C++DD.DD JD,C.DGC -*CCI,.G -C+ICH.H

C*HG... J .DH*D+. C

.DH,+D. * *I*JDG. . *.HCC,. , ,GHJGJ ,C.C++. H ,+DG*D. C J.CDC..

JHJJ.., C++DD.DD JD,C.DGC -*CCI,.G -C+ICH.H

5/; S(!a #" $! an+ )!n+ing *"*!nt +iag a*8 +u! t" %"a+8 a%"ng $(" +<i8! +i !$ti"n at $ ui8! $"n+iti"n Aerodynamic center- This is a 6oint on the chord of an airfoil section where the bending 3o3ent due to the co36onents of resultant aerodyna3ic force 4Lift and #rag7 is constant irres6ecti8e of the angle of attack. 5ence the forces are transferred to this 6oint for obtaining constant Ma.c Shear cente - This is a 6oint on the airfoil section where if a force acts, it 6roduces only bending and no twisting. 5ence the force is transferred to this 6oint and the torAue is found. !ruise !LO +.,DV VO*.+.D 3;s !ruise !#O +.+* Angle of attackO-D.D W 4obtained fro3 the lift cur8e slo6e7 Lift and drag are the co36onents of resultant aerodyna3ic force acting nor3al to and along the direction of relati8e wind res6ecti8ely. As a result, co36onents of the3 act in the chordwise direction also which 6roduce a bending 3o3ent about the nor3al 4?7 a0is. !o-efficient of force along the nor3al direction, !cO+.,CJ

!nO.++DD. !hordwise force at root

" ODIC.*

" ODIC.* &;3 !hordwise force at ti6 "TO*IJ., &;34sa3e chord throught out the wing7 By using y O 30 Qc again we get the eAuation as 1O-.,.JJ0QDIC.*

0 + , * . C D H J G I I..CD

loadchord DIC.* DH*.C. D.+.HH CIG.GI CHJ.,* C.D..D C+..DG .J,.G, .C+.+C .+G.*J *IJ..+IC

The abo8e eAuation gi8es the 6rofile of load acting chordwise, by integrating this abo8e eAuation we get a co36onent of $hear force and again by integrating the sa3e we get the co36onent of Bending Mo3ent y d0 O -,D.GG0*QDIC.*

0 + , * . C D H J G I

shear -JDC*,.J. -JCGC..C, -JC*IH.GD -J.JG*.+D -J.*II.+, -J*GCJ.J. -J*C*G.*, -J*+C+.CD -J,HGC.CD -J,.H+.*,

I..CD -J,*DD.J,DI*

 y d0* O -D.*I0.Q*IJ.,0*

To find fi0ing 3o3ent and the reaction force,

, Then, VAOJDC*,.J.

, Then, MAO.**H++.*J

TorAue due to nor3al forces and constant 6itching 3o3ent at cruise conditionE

D!t! *inati"n "# 7a i"u8 $"*9"n!nt8 "# t" Du!

D!t! *inati"n "# 7a i"u8 $"*9"n!nt8 $au8ing t" Du!

5/5 T" Du! at $ iti$a% #%ig(t $"n+iti"n 5/5/1 T" Du! +u! t" n" *a% #" $!

T,O,H*.Hc* /here c - chord the eAuation for chord can also be re6resented in ter3s of 0 by taking cO 30 Qk,

cO-+.,JH0Q...* Therefore torAue T,O,.HJ0.Q,JI,.GD0-IC.I0*

0 + , * . C D H J G I I..CD

torAue-nf + ,HIG.H* .*,J.CH CDHH.DC DJDD.GG HJID.D JHID.C* GCHD.HH I,,H.*C IHDJ.,G IG*+.,GC

5/5/2 T" Du! +u! t" $(" + <i8! #" $!

T*O"c P+ T*O+

5/5/4 T" Du! +u! t" *"*!nt

O-,JHJ.+Cc*

0 + , * . C D H

torAue-3o3 + -,GCDI.+. -.CIH...H -CIH**.,I -H*DCC.J* -J.GC+.,D -G.H,J.HG

J G I

-I,IGH.D, -II+DD.GC -,+CI.C.GJ

I..CD -,+HJ+H.JJD

0 + , * . C D H J G

torAue-su3 + -,HJH+.C, -.,JCD.I -CD+DD.HD -DHJGG.GC -HJ+CC.HD -JDI**.*H -G.D*+.GD -GII.I.H

-ID*JJ.HI

I..CD -IHGGH.DI,.D

6/ F2SELAGE DESIGN
6/1 DESCRI,TION
To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The 3ain co36onents of the fuselage loading diagra3 areE /eight of the fuselage Engine weight /eight of the hori?ontal and 8ertical stabili?ers Tail lift /eight of crew, 6ayload and landing gear $yste3s, eAui63ent, accessories

$y33etric flight condition, steady and le8el flightE 4#ownward forces negati8e7 Values for the different co36onent weights are obtained fro3 aerodyna3ic design calculation Ta)%! 6'11 L"a+8 a$ting "n Fu8!%ag!

C"*9"n!nt Engine &ose landing gear Load due to wing and fuel crew fuselage 3ass 5ori?ontal stabili?er Main landing gear Vertical stabili?er

Di8tan$! # "* !#! !n$! %in! 6*: ,,.* *.. H.. C H.D ,*.. H.H ,*.J

*a88 6Bg: *,GG **+ HI+I.,+ C ,I+ C,+J ,G+ HG+ JD

<!ig(t 6N: *,CHC.* G *,DG.* HJJJG.. , ,GH..I C+*GI.H J ,JHD.G HHJ+.G J.D.JD

*"*!nt6N* : *C+.II.I.H CIH..GH C*J++...DCD JCDD.H *H,GG*.GDD *,J,I..C CC+*J.*G I.CC.+*D

Ta)%! 6'21 S(!a #" $! an+ )!n+ing *"*!nt ta)u%ati"n

Distance from reference line (m) 0 2.3 ".3 ".5 "." 11.2 12.3 12.# 15

mass (kg) 0 220 1!0 "!0!.10 10# "80 2188 180 #5 0

weight (N) 0 -2158.2 -18"3.! "###8.31 - 028!.# -""#0.8 -21 " .3 -1#"5.8 -#35.#5 0

SF (N) 0 -2158.2 - 022.1 "3#5".21 23 "".51 1"#5!.#1 - ""8.5! -" 3 .3! -#1#0.1 0

moment(Nm) 0 - !"3.8" -# 55." 2#003. -2"1883 - 02#.3 -2 0 00 -21#1!.3 -!3 .03 0

SF (N) #0000 "0000 50000 0000 30000 SF (N) 20000 10000 0 0 -10000 -20000 2 " 8 10 12 1 1"

moment(Nm) 500000 00000 300000 200000 100000 0 0 -100000 -200000 -300000 2 " 8 10 12 1 1" moment(Nm)

E/ MATERIAL SELECTION

E/1 DESCRI,TION Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This 3eans that one di3ension, the length, is 3uch larger than the others - width or height. "or e0a36le, the s6an of the wing and tail s6ars is 3uch longer than their width and de6thL the ribs ha8e a 3uch larger chord length than height and;or widthL a whole wing has a s6an that is larger than its chords or thicknessL and the fuselage is 3uch longer than it is wide or high. E8en a 6ro6eller has a dia3eter 3uch larger than its blade width and thickness, etc.... "or this si36le reason, a designer chooses to use unidirectional 3aterial when designing for an efficient strength to weight structure. Bnidirectional 3aterials are basically co36osed of thin, relati8ely fle0ible, long fibers which are 8ery strong in tension 4like a thread, a ro6e, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.7 An aircraft structure is also 8ery close to a symmetrical structure. Those 3ean the u6 and down loads are al3ost eAual to each other. The tail loads 3ay be down or u6 de6ending on the 6ilot raising or di66ing the nose of the aircraft by 6ulling or 6ushing the 6itch controlL the rudder 3ay be deflected to the right as well as to the left 4side loads on the fuselage7. The gusts hitting the wing 3ay be 6ositi8e or negati8e, gi8ing the u6 or down loads which the occu6ant e06eriences by being 6ushed down in the seat or hanging in the belt. Because of these factors, the designer has to use a structural 3aterial that can withstand both tension and co36ression. Bnidirectional fibers 3ay be e0cellent in tension, but due to their s3all cross section, they ha8e 8ery little inertia 4we will e06lain inertia another ti3e7 and cannot take 3uch co36ression. They will esca6e the load by bucking away. As in the illustration, you cannot load a string, or wire, or chain in co36ression.

In order to 3ake thin fibers strong in co36ression, they are Nglued togetherN with so3e kind of an Ne3beddingN. In this way we can take ad8antage of their tension strength and are no longer 6enali?ed by their indi8idual co36ression weakness because, as a whole, they beco3e co36ression resistant as they hel6 each other to not buckle away. The e3bedding is usually a lighter, softer NresinN holding the fibers together and enabling the3 to take the reAuired co36ression loads. This is a 8ery good structural 3aterial.

E/2 0OOD 5istorically, wood has been used as the first unidirectional structural raw 3aterial. They ha8e to be tall and straight and their wood 3ust be strong and light. The dark bands 4late wood7 contain 3any fibers, whereas the light bands 4early wood7 contain 3uch 3ore NresinN. Thus the wider the dark bands, the stronger and hea8ier the wood. If the dark bands are 8ery narrow and the light bands Auite wide, the wood is light but not 8ery strong. To get the 3ost efficient strength to weight ratio for wood we need a definite nu3bers of bands 6er inch. $o3e of our aircraft structures are two-di3ensional 4length and width are large with res6ect to thickness7. 'lywood is often used for such structures. $e8eral thin boards 4foils7 are glued together so that the fibers of the 8arious layers cross o8er at different angles 4usually I+ degrees today years back you could get the3 at .+ and CD degrees as well7. 'lywood 3akes e0cellent Nshear websN if the designer knows how to use 6lywood efficiently. 4/e will learn the basis of stress analysis so3eti3e later.7 Today good aircraft wood is 8ery hard to co3e by. Instead of using one good board for our s6ars, we ha8e to use la3inations because large 6ieces of wood are 6ractically una8ailable, and we no longer can trust the wood Auality. "ro3 an a8ailability 6oint of 8iew, we si36ly need a substitute for what nature has su66lied us with until now. E/4 AL2MIN2M ALLO5S $o, since wood 3ay not be as a8ailable as it was before, we look at another 3aterial which is strong, light and easily available at a reasonable price 4thereMs no 6oint in discussing

Titaniu3 - itMs si36ly too e06ensi8e7. Aluminum alloys are certainly one answer. /e will discuss the 6ro6erties of those alloys which are used in light 6lane construction in 3ore detail later. "or the ti3e being we will look at alu3inu3 as a construction 3aterial. E-t u+!+ A%u*inu* A%%"&81 #ue to the 3anufacturing 6rocess for alu3inu3 we get a unidirectional 3aterial Auite a bit stronger in the lengthwise direction than across. And e8en better, it is not only strong in tension but also in co36ression. !o36aring e0trusions to wood, the tension and co36ression characteristics are 6ractically the sa3e for alu3inu3 alloys so that the linear stress analysis a66lies. /ood, on the other hand, has a tensile strength about twice as great as its co36ression strengthL accordingly, s6ecial stress analysis 3ethods 3ust be used and a good understanding of wood under stress is essential if stress concentrations are to be a8oidedX Alu3inu3 alloys, in thin sheets 4.+,H to .,*D of an inch7 6ro8ide an e0cellent two di3ensional 3aterial used e0tensi8ely as shear webs - with or without stiffeners - and also as tension;co36ression 3e3bers when suitably for3ed 4bent7. It is worthwhile to re3e3ber that alu3inu3 is an artificial 3etal. There is no alu3inu3 ore in nature. Alu3inu3 is 3anufactured by a66lying electric 6ower to bau0ite 4alu3inu3 o0ide7 to obtain the 3etal, which is then 3i0ed with 8arious strength-gi8ing additi8es. 4In a later article, we will see which additi8es are used, and why and how we can increase alu3inu3Ms strength by cold work hardening or by te36ering.7 All the co33only used alu3inu3 alloys are a8ailable fro3 the shelf of dealers. /hen reAuested with the 6urchase, you can obtain a N3ill test re6ortN that guarantees the che3ical and 6hysical 6ro6erties as tested to acce6ted s6ecifications. As a rule of thu3b, alu3inu3 is three ti3es hea8ier, but also three ti3es stronger than wood. $teel is again three ti3es hea8ier and stronger than alu3inu3. E/; STEEL The ne0t 3aterial to be considered for aircraft structure will thus be steel, which has the sa3e weight-to-strength ratio of wood or alu3inu3. A6art fro3 3ild steel which is used for brackets needing little strength, we are 3ainly using a chro3e-3olybdenu3 alloy called AI$I C,.(& or C,C+. The co33on raw 3aterials a8ailable are tubes and sheet 3etal. $teel, due to its high density, is not used as shear webs like alu3inu3 sheets or 6lywood. /here we would need, say.,++N 6lywood, a .+.* inch alu3inu3

sheet would be reAuired, but only a .+,+ steel sheet would be reAuired, which is 9ust too thin to handle with any ho6e of a nice finish. That is why a steel fuselage uses tubes also as diagonals to carry the shear in co36ression or tension and the whole structure is then co8ered with fabric 4light weight7 to gi8e it the reAuired aerodyna3ic sha6e or desired look. It 3ust be noted that this 3ethod in8ol8es two techniAuesE steel work and fabric co8ering. /e will be discussing tubes and welded steel structures in 3ore detail later and go now to Nartificial woodN or co36osite structures.

E/5 COM,OSITE MATERIALS The designer of co36osite aircraft si36ly uses fibers in the desired direction e0actly where and in the a3ount reAuired. The fibers are e3bedded in resin to hold the3 in 6lace and 6ro8ide the reAuired su66ort against buckling. Instead of 6lywood or sheet 3etal which allows single cur8ature only, the co36osite designer uses cloth where the fibers are laid in two directions .4the wo8en thread and weft7 also e3bedded in resin. This has the ad8antage of freedo3 of sha6e in double cur8ature as reAuired by o6ti3u3 aerodyna3ic sha6es and for 8ery a66ealing look 4i36ortance of esthetics7. TodayMs fibers 4glass, nylon, 2e8lar, carbon, whiskers or single crystal fibers of 8arious che3ical co36ositions7 are 8ery strong, thus the structure beco3es 8ery light. The drawback is 8ery little stiffness. The structure needs stiffening which is achie8ed either by the usual discreet stiffeners, -or 3ore elegantly with a sandwich structureE two layers of thin uni- or bi-directional fibers are held a6art by a lightweight core 4foa3 or Nhoneyco3bN7. This allows the designer to achie8e the reAuired inertia or stiffness. "ro3 an engineering stand6oint, this 3ethod is 8ery attracti8e and su66orted by 3any authorities because it allows new de8elo63ents which are reAuired in case of war. But this 3ethod also has its drawbacks for ho3ebuildingE A 3old is needed, and 8ery strict Auality control is a 3ust for the right a3ount of fibers and resin and for good adhesion between both to 6re8ent too NdryN or NwetN a structure. Also the curing of the resin is Auite sensiti8e to te36erature, hu3idity and 6ressure. "inally, the resins are acti8e che3icals which will not only 6roduce the well-known allergies but also the che3icals that attack our body 4es6ecially the

eyes and lungs7 and they ha8e the unfortunate 6ro6erty of being cu3ulati8ely da3aging and the result 4in 6articular deterioration of the eye7 shows u6 only years after initial contact. Another disad8antage of the resins is their li3ited shelf life, i.e., if the resin is not used within the s6ecified ti3e la6se after 3anufacturing, the results 3ay be unsatisfactory and unsafe. E/6 HEA35 AIRCRAFT RA0 MATERIALS The focus of our article is our Table which gi8es t&9i$a% 7a%u!8 for a 8ariety of raw 3aterials. !olu3n , lists the standard 3aterials which are easily a8ailable at a reasonable cost. $o3e of the 3aterials that fall along the borderline between 6ractical and i36ractical areE 1/ Magn!8iu*1 An e06ensi8e 3aterial. !astings are the only readily a8ailable for3s. $6ecial 6recaution 3ust be taken when 3achining 3agnesiu3 because this 3etal burns when hot. 2/ Titaniu*1 A 8ery e06ensi8e 3aterial. Very tough and difficult to 3achine. 4/ Ca )"n Fi)! 81 $till 8ery e06ensi8e 3aterials. ;/ K!7%a Fi)! 81 Very e06ensi8e and also critical to work with because it is hard to NsoakN in the resin. A nu3ber of 6ro6erties are i36ortant to the selection of 3aterials for an aircraft structure. The selection of the best 3aterial de6ends u6on the a66lication. "actors to be considered include yield and ulti3ate strength, stiffness, density, fracture toughness, fatigue, crack resistance, te36erature li3its, 6roducibility, re6airability, cost and a8ailability. The gust loads, landing i36act and 8ibrations of the engine and 6ro6eller cause fatigue failure which is the single 3ost co33on cause of aircraft 3aterial failure. "or 3ost aeros6ace 3aterials, cree6 is a 6roble3 only at the ele8ated te36erature. 5owe8er so3e titaniu3 6lastics and co36osites will e0hibit cree6 at roo3 te36eratures. Taking all the abo8e factors into considerations, the alu3inu3 alloy which has e0cellent strength to weight ratio and abundant in nature. The following list of alu3iniu3 alloys is considered. S/N" , * A%u*iniu* A%%"& Al *+*C- T.D Al *+*C- T. 5i!%+ 8t !ngt( M,a *G+ *JH 2%ti*at! 8t !ngt( M,a CJ+ C*J

. C D 6 J G

Al J+JD- TH AlJ+JD- THD, Al H+H,-+ A%606;'T; AlH+H,-TH AAH+G*TH

CJH CH* DD 110 *C, *,+

D.G D.G ,,* 20E *I+ .C+

Ta)%! E'11 Mat! ia% 9 "9! t& ta)%!

F/1 S9a +!8ign1

$6ars are 3e3bers which are basically used to carry the bending and shear loads acting on the wing during flight. There are two s6ars, one located at ,D-*+K of the chord known as the front s6ar, the other located at H+-J+K of the chord known as the rear s6ar. $o3e of the functions of the s6ar includeE They for3 the boundary to the fuel tank located in the wing. The s6ar flange takes u6 the bending loads whereas the web carries the shear loads. The rear s6ar 6ro8ides a 3eans of attaching the control surfaces on the wing.

!onsidering these functions, the locations of the front and rear s6ar are fi0ed at +.,Jc and +.HDc res6ecti8ely. The sy33etric airfoil4&A!A CC,D7 is drawn to scale using any design software and the chord thickness at the front and rear s6ar locations are found to be +.*J 3 and ,.,J 3 res6ecti8ely.

F/2 G!"*!t i$ +i*!n8i"n81

The s6ar design for the wing root has been taken because the 3a0i3u3 bending 3o3ent and shear force are at the root. It is assu3ed that the flanges take u6 all the bending and the web takes all the shear effect. The 3a0i3u3 bending 3o3ent for high angle of attack condition is C*J++...D &3. the ratio in which the s6ars take u6 the bending 3o3ent is gi8en as

/here h, - height of front s6ar h* - height of rear s6ar

'f('r)#"7003.3

The yield tensile stress Uy for Al Alloy4 AJ+JD7 is ;62M,a. The area of the flanges is deter3ined using the relation where M is bending 3o3ent taken u6 by each s6ar, A is the flange area of each s6ar, ? is the centroid distance of the area O h;*. Bsing the a8ailable 8alues, Area of front s6ar, Af O +.+*3* Area of rear s6ar, Ar O +.+*C 3* F/4 ASS2M,TIONS1 T sections are chosen for to6 and botto3 flanges of front and rear s6ars. Both the flanges are connected by a 8ertical stiffener through s6ot welding "ro3 the buckling eAuation,

the thickness to width ratio of web is found to be +.+C,D. Also fro3 YA&AL1$I$ A&# #E$I%& (" "LI%5T VE5I!LE $T B!TB E$ by B B5&Z, the flange to web width ratio of the T section .

By eAuating all the three 8alues of the ratio in area of the section eAuation, the di3ensions of the s6ar can be found. F/; S,ECIFICATION FOR FRONT S,AR1 tfO+.+*. 3 bflangeO+.DH 3 bwebO+..D 3 F/5 S,ECIFICATION FOR REAR S,AR1 tfO+.+,DH 3 bflangeO+.CJ 3 bwebO+..GIG 3

?/ DETAILED DESIGN OF F2SELAGE

?/1 D!8$ i9ti"n

"uselage contributes 8ery little to lift and 6roduces 3ore drag but it is an i36ortant structural 3e3ber;co36onent. It is the connecting 3e3ber to all load 6roducing co36onents such as wing, hori?ontal tail, 8ertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It also ser8es the 6ur6ose of housing or acco33odating 6ractically all eAui63ent, accessories and syste3s in addition to carrying the 6ayload. Because of large a3ount of eAui63ent inside the fuselage, it is necessary to 6ro8ide sufficient nu3ber of cutouts in the fuselage for access and ins6ection 6ur6oses. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being 3ore co36licated, less 6recise and often less efficient in design. As a co33on 3e3ber to which other co36onents are attached, thereby trans3itting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow bea3. The reactions 6roduced by the wing, tail or landing gear 3ay be considered as concentrated loads at the res6ecti8e attach3ent 6oints. The balancing reactions are 6ro8ided

by the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and the 8arious co36onents inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along the length of the fuselage, though need not be unifor3ly. Bnlike the wing, which is sub9ected to 3ainly unsy33etrical load, the fuselage is 3uch si36ler for structural analysis due to its sy33etrical cross-section and sy33etrical loading. The 3ain load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the for3 of shear only. The structural design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending 3o3ent diagra3s for the res6ecti8e 3e3bers. The 3a0i3u3 bending stress 6roduced in each of the3 is checked to be less than the yield stress of the 3aterial chosen for the res6ecti8e 3e3ber. .

?/2 St ing! S9a$ing1

The stringers are sy33etrically s6aced on the fuselage with the s6acing calculate as shown below, !ircu3ference of the fuselage O Total nu3ber of stringers O ,H Therefore the stringers are s6aced at the inter8al of O

?/4 St ing! a !a $a%$u%ati"n1

The stress induced in the each stringer is calculated with the area kee6ing constant in the stress ter3. Then the 3a0i3u3 stress 4i.e. one which has larger nu3erator7 is eAuated with the yield strength of the 3aterial. "ro3 this area of one stringer is calculated. The direct stress in each stringer 6roduced by bending 3o3ents and is gi8en by the eAuationE /here
'x)#"7003.3 *m

is density O,.**D kg;3. V is cruise 8elocity O*.+ 3;s $t is the tail areaO,..* 3* at is the slo6e of the lift cur8e O+.+I ;deg is the angle of yaw for asy33etric flight

+)7.07 deg

0 is the distance between the aircraft c.g 6osition and hori?ontal tail c.g 6osition in O D.G 3 Then,

',)1!!"13 .71$ *m

/here is the stringer area , # is the dia3eter of the fuselage in O +.D 3. and reach their 3a0i3u3 only fro3 the stringers ,to .. Thus the stresses are high only on these stringers. !alculating, the stress for stringer , to .. @O+,:O+.II Then,
-1)1!%0%33."!!./0T1*234 *.m"

$i3ilarly it is calculated for other @,: 8alues The allowable stress in the stringer is CH*M'a. The 3a0i3u3 direct stress in the stringers is

/atinger)3!.!! mm"

Thus one stringer area is . The stringer chosen is : section. The di3ensions of the stringers are obtained fro3 the A&AL1$I$ A&# #E$I%& (" T5E "LI%5T VE5I!LE $T B!TB E$ by B B5&. T(! +i*!n8i"n8 a != twOtfOC33 bflangeO.+33 hwebOHJ33

?6a:/S(!a F%"< Di8t i)uti"n

The shear flow in the fuselage section is calculated by considering the fuselage as closed section. The shear flow is calculated and hence the 3a0i3u3 shear stress is found. The shear stress thus for3ed 3ust be less than the allowable shear stress. A cut is 3ade in the fuselage section and the shear flow for o6en cell is calculated. The shear flow for the o6en section is found out. Then by considering 3o3ent eAuilibriu3, unbalanced shear flow is found. This shear flow is then added to the shear flow obtained earlier. The 3a0i3u3 shear flow 8alue di8ided by its thickness yields shear stress this should be less than the allowable stress. I@@ O I11 O Astringer#*

The shear flow eAuation for the fuselage section is gi8en by As O A+ )

[ : dA &;3

T(! 8t ing! 8 an+ t(!i %"$ati"n a ! gi7!n )!%"<1

$tringer , * . C D H J G I ,+ ,, ,* ,. ,C ,D ,H 1 + +..G +.J +.I,C +.II +.I,C +.J+ +..JG + -+..JG -+.J+ -+.II -+.I,CH -+.J+ -+..JG +

CONCL2SION
The structural design Y6art *Z of the #E$I%& (" ME#IBM A&%E BB$I&E$$ JET which is a continuation of the aerodyna3ic design Y6art ,Z carried out last se3ester, is co36leted satisfactorily. As earlier said, 3any of the 3ethods used in the design are no longer in regular usage, ha8ing been su66lanted by finite ele3ent 3ethods. The older 3ethods are useful, howe8er for a66ro0i3ating the correct answers to insure that the finite ele3ent results are in the right Yball 6ark5 According to ay3er, the study of classical 3ethods is useful for learning the 8ocabulary of the structural design.

BIBLIOGRA,H5
,. ay3er, #.', Ai $ a#t D!8ign ' a C"n$!9tua% A99 "a$( = AIAA educational series second edition ,II*. *. T.5.%.Megson = Ai $ a#t St u$tu !8 #" !ngin!! ing 8tu+!nt8= Cth Edition Else8ier Ltd B$A *++J. .. E.".Bruhn = Ana%&8i8 an+ +!8ign "# #%ig(t 7!(i$%! 8t u$tu !8= ,st Edition, tri-state offset co36any,B$A,,IJ..

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