Diodes

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1 DIODES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES
Semi-conductor diodes embrace a very wide field of devices using varied modes of operation. Before discussing these, it is necessary to briefly describe semiconductors themselves. 1.1 SEMI-CONDUCTORS Germanium and silicon are the most common semi-conductor elements. Figure 1 shows an element in pure crystalline form. The circles represent atoms and the dots valence electrons, electrons able to combine with those of another atom.
ELECTRON
HOLE
Silicon Structure Figure 1
1.1.1 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Note that one of the atoms has lost an electron, leaving a 'hole' but the free electron is still present inside the crystal lattice, so the crystal as a whole remains.
A crystal of pure semi-conductor material with no other atoms, such as in Figure 1, is called an intrinsic semi-conductor.
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MODULE 4
Figure 2 shows current flow in an ELECTRONIC intrinsic semi-conductor. The electrons (negative charge) are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery, while the FUNDAMENTALS holes (positive charge) are attracted to the negative.
ELECTRONS HOLES
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
Intrinsic Semiconductor Figure 2

1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semi-conductors are poor conductors. By adding an impurity to the crystal, conductivity can be improved. Figure 3a shows an impurity having five electrons added. The 'extra electron' is not needed for crystal bonding and so is free to move about the lattice as a conduction electron. Since it is not a part of the lattice, it does not leave a 'hole' when it moves; but a 'positive ion'. The more impurity atoms added, the more conductive the material. The semi-conductor is now 'extrinsic' and of the 'N type'. Electrons are the majority carriers, they are negative, and hence 'N' type. Figure 3b shows a lattice with an element having only three valence electrons added. This time there is a shortage of electrons and this produces 'holes' in the material and negative ions. With fewer negative electrons, the majority carriers are positive 'holes'. Now the material is described as 'P' type. The impurity added to give more electrons to make N type material is known as a donor impurity. The impurity added to give more holes to make P type material is known as an acceptor impurity. The process of adding either type of impurity is known as doping.
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EXTRA ELECTRON
DONOR IMPURITY ATOM

5 4
(a)
ACCEPTOR IMPURITY ATOM

4 3
HOLE
4 4
(b)
Extrinsic Semiconductor Figure 3
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1.2 THE HALL EFFECT

When experimenting in 1879 with current flowing in a strip of metal, E M Hall discovered that some of the charge carriers were deflected to one of the faces of the conductor when a strong magnetic field was applied. This gave rise to an emf (the Hall voltage) between opposite faces of the conductor. The emf is only a few microvolts in the case of a metal conductor, but is much larger when the current flows in a semiconductor. An experiment, making use of what is known as the Hall Effect, can be conducted to demonstrate that the majority carriers in a bar of semiconductor material are electrons in N type and holes in P type. Figure 4 shows the Hall Effect The Hall Effect
2 0V
+10V
+2 0V
0V
0V P.D.
SE MICONDUCTOR M AT ERIAL
CURRE NT FLOW
+10V
2 0V
+11V
+9V
+ 11 V
POSITIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (HOLES)
+ 9V
+ 9V
NEGATIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS)
+ 11 V
Figure 4 Consider the arrangement illustarted in figure 4a, this shows a bar of semiconductor material, with a D.C. voltage of 20V applied. Conventional current will flow as indicated by the arrow. A further two
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MODULE 4 connections A & B are taken from opposite faces of the bar at the mid-point along the axis. Thus under ELECTRONIC static conditions, the voltgae at connect A and B will be +10V relative to the negative terminal, and there is FUNDAMENTALS no voltage difference between them, i.e. no potential difference. No consider what happens when we place this bar in a transverse magnetic field as in figure 4b. the charge carriers moving in the semiconductor are deflected by the magnetic field in the direction given by Flemings Left-Hand rule. Thus, whether the charge carriers are holes or electrons, they are deflected upwards in figure 4b, towards connection A. This will result in a redistribution of charge carriers between A & B, with the consentration towards A. If the charge carriers are positive (holes), connection A becomes positive with respect to connection B as shown in figure 4c. Conversely, if the charge carriers are negative (electrons), connection A becomes negative with respect to B as shown in figure 4c.
The voltage difference between connection A & B is called the Hall Voltage and has many pratical applications such as Contactless switches (proximity detectors). It can also be used in a dc starter/generator system as a means of measuring generator output current and providing an input signal to a Generator Control Unit (GCU) which controls generator field current (voltage regulation)m and protection. Figure 5 shows Hall Effect Sensors in a DC starter/generator system as fitted to the ATR 42/72 aircraft.
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HALL EFFECT SENSOR

GENERATOR CONTROL UNIT
STARTER GENERATOR
HALL EFFECT SENSOR
CURRENT MEASURING
TO DISTRIBUTION
Hall Effect Sensors Figure 5
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MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC
1.3 THE JUNCTION DIODE
FUNDAMENTALS
So far N type and P-Type materials have been considered separately. However, most semiconductor devices contain regions where P-type material is joined to N-type material at one or more places. These places are called P-N junctions and the behaviour of the devices depends upon the electrical behaviour of the region around the junctions.
By doping a semi-conductor so that there is N type material at one end and P type at the other, a Junction Diode is made. Refer Figure 6. In this arrangement, the electrons in the N type are repelled by the like polarity of the negative ions in the P type. Similarly the positive holes in the P type are repelled by the positive ions in the N Type. This leaves an area at the junction without any majority carriers and it is called the depletion layer.
DEPLETION LAYER
POSITIVE IONS NEGATIVE IONS
N-TYPE ELECTRONS
P-TYPE
HOLES
Junction Diode Figure 6
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MODULE 4
By connecting a battery across a junction diode, positive to N type, negative to P ELECTRONIC type, (reverse biased), majority carriers cannot flow, hence there is no current FUNDAMENTALS flow in the circuit. If the battery is connected positive to P type, negative to N type, (forward biased) majority carriers are allowed to flow and there is current flow in the circuit. This is the characteristic of the diode. It will allow current flow in one direction only, when forward biased, but not in the other direction when reverse biased. Figure 7 shows a junction diode reversed and forward biased.
N O CU R R EN T
N O CU R R EN T
N -TYPE
P-TYPE
D EPL ET IO N L AY ER W ID EN S
SM A LL VO LT A GE
D EPL ET IO N L AY ER N A RR OW S
SM A LL VO LT A GE
P-TYPE
N -TYPE
N O CU R R EN T
C U RR EN T F L OW S
N -TYPE
P-TYPE
D EPL ET IO N L AY ER VE RY W IDE
L AR GE VO LT A GE
L AR G E VO LT A GE
P-TYPE
N -TYPE
Junction Diode Reversed/Forward Biased
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MODULE 4
Figure 7 ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
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1.4 DIODE SYMBOL

Figure 8 demonstrates, using the circuit symbol for a diode, how the device is placed in a circuit to allow or block current flow. Note that (conventional) current flows in the direction of the arrow in the symbol.
+
ANODE CATHODE
REVERSED BIASED FORWARD BIASED
NO CURRENT
CURRENT FLOW
Diode Symbol Figure 8
1.5 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

With all diodes there are four parameters to be considered, these are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Maximum permissible forward current (mA). Maximum voltage drop (V) at nominal operating current (mA). Typical reverse current (A).
Maximum permissible reverse voltage (V).
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MODULE 4 Figure 9 shows the static characteristics of a ELECTRONIC silicon diode and figure 10 show s the characteristics for a germanium diode. FUNDAMENTALS Note: That the reverse current axes on both graphs are different.
mA 200 150 100 50 VOLTS -200V -150 -100 -50V -0.02 -0.04 REVERSED BIAS -0.06 -0.08 A 0.25V 0.5V 0.75V 1V FORWARD BIAS
Silicon Diode Characteristics Figure 9
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mA 200 150 100 50 VOLTS -200V -150 -100 -50V 0.25V 50 100 REVERSED BIAS 150 200 A 0.5V 0.75V 1V FORWARD BIAS
Germanium Diode Characteristics Figure 10
1.6 DIODES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL Diodes may be connected in series or parallel. For carrying high voltage, a series configuration would be used. If a high current carrying capability were required, the diodes would be connected in parallel.
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1.7 RECTIFIER DIODES

Rectifier diodes are designed to convert A.C. to D.C. and to be able to achieve this effectively and efficiently, they must have: 1. forward direction. 2. opposite (reverse) direction. High resistance to current flow in the Low resistance to current flow in the
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MODULE 4
Because of the need for a very low reverse current and a high breakdown ELECTRONIC voltage, almost all semiconductors rectifier diodes are silicon junction types; they FUNDAMENTALS usually have a junction area that is large relative to their size to assist in the dissipation of heat. An elementary rectifier circuit is where the diode is inserted in series between the input and output, this is shown in figure 11.
A.C. INPUT
D.C. OUTPUT
+ 0 INPUT
+ 0 OUTPUT
Basic Rectifier Circuit Figure 11 The diode effectively passes current only in the forward bias condition. As can be seen from figure 10, when A.C. input is applied, pulses of unidirectional D.C. voltages are developed across the output load resistance. Note; The polarity of the output D.C. can be reversed by reversing the diode connections.
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MODULE 4
1.8 EXAMPLES OF RECTIFIER DIODES ELECTRONIC Silicon rectifier diodes are available that are capable of supplying currents from about 200mA to about 2000A at voltages up to 3000 or 4000 volts. A sample cross-section of such diodes is illustrated in Figure 12. Compared with other rectifying devices, silicon junction rectifiers are small and lightweight. They are also impervious to shock and are capable of working at temperatures up to about 200C.
FUNDAMENTALS
250mA @ 200V
1A @ 1000V
1000A @ 2500V
10A @ 400V 1A @ 1500V
Silicon Rectifier Diodes Figure 12
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1.9 RECTIFIER DIODES

1.9.1 SELENIUM RECTIFIERS
The aluminium base serves as a surface for the dissipation of heat. The rectifying junction covers one side of the base apart from a narrow strip at the edges and an area around the fixing hole, which is sprayed with insulating varnish. Figure 13 shows the construction of a selenium rectifier element.
RECTIFYING JUNCTION
INSULATING VARNISH COUNTER ELECTRODE
SELENIUM HOLE FOR MOUNTING BOLT
ALUMINIUM BASE
Selenium Rectifier Figure 13 The counter electrode is a thin layer of a low melting point alloy, sprayed over the selenium coating and insulating varnish. The counter electrode is the cathode, while the base is the anode. These rectifiers may be stacked in series, suitable for high voltages, or in parallel, suitable for high current. When stacking, pressure applied during assembly tends to reduce the reverse resistance. This is overcome by application of varnish at the mounting studs. Reverse resistance is a limiting factor in rectifiers, as is temperature. The maximum operating temperature of these rectifiers is in the order of 70C.
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1.9.2 SILICON RECTIFIERS

The silicon rectifier is a far smaller unit than the selenium rectifier. This type of rectifier is used in the brushless ac generator. The silicon slice is extremely small. On one face it has a fused aluminium alloy contact to which the anode and lead are soldered. The other face is soldered to a base, usually copper. This is the cathode and acts as a heat sink. The aluminium - silicon junction forms the barrier layer. The whole is enclosed in a hermetically sealed case to protect it from environmental conditions. These rectifiers operate at temperatures up to 150C. Figure 14 shows a Silicon Rectifier.
ANODE LEAD
HERMETICALLY SEALED CAVITY
ALUMINIUM SOLDER RECTIFYING JUNCTION SILICON JUNCTION
COPPER BASE
THREADED MOUNTING STUD AND CATHODE TERMINAL
Silicon Rectifier Figure 14
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MODULE 4
Figure 15 shows the circuit for a Full-Wave bridge rectifier. ELECTRONIC

FUNDAMENTALS
Full-Wave Bridge rectifier Figure 15
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MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC
1.10 VOLTAGE REGULATOR/REFERENCE DIODES

FUNDAMENTALS
The operation of voltage reference diodes and regulator diodes is very similar, in that both are normally designed to operate under reverse bias conditions. These diodes are often referred to as Zener Diodes, other names include Breakdown and Avalanche diodes.
PREFERRED SYMBOL
ALTERNATIVE SYMBOLS
Figure 16 shows circuit symbols for Zener Diode. Zener Diode Figure 16 Zener Diodes are rated to their Zener (breakdown) voltage and also their power rating (IV), they must have a low temperature coefficients (0.001%C). They are all made of silicon, to satisfy the temperature requirements.
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MODULE 4
Their construction is such that, relative to the normal P-N junction diode, the ELECTRONIC reverse IV characteristics are normally extended into the breakdown region. As a FUNDAMENTALS a result, zener diodes usually operate at higher values of reverse voltage than that allowed in normal P-N diode circuits. Figure 17 shows the IV characteristics of a zener diode.
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BREAKDOWN REGION
V
NORMAL OPERATING CURRENT IN THIS REGION VERY SMALL REVERSE CURRENT
MAXIMUM CURRENT DETERMINED BY THERMAL DISSIPATION CAPABILITIES
Zener Diode IV Characteristics Figure 17 The reverse current is very small (microamps) and is virtually independent of voltage up to the breakdown point. At breakdown, the reverse current increases rapidly for very little increase in reverse voltage. The maximum current that the device can pass is determined by the Thermal Dissipation capabilities of the device (power rating). Zener diodes used in regulators are capable of carrying current in excess of 15A without destruction.
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MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC
1.10.1 VOLTAGE REFERENCE DIODE
FUNDAMENTALS
This develops and Holds across its terminal a very stable reference voltage when conducting within a specified narrow current range. The reference voltage developed depends, of course upon the particular device. Figure 18 shows a zener diode used as a voltage stabilizer to provide +5V stable output for a digital system.
R= V IN +28V I = 5mA
10% up 10% down
V IN - VZ IZ VR
30.8V 25.2V 25.8V 20.2V
IZ
5.6mA 4.4mA
R1
4600
1.2mA VARIATION
V INPUT 28V 10%
5V ZENER DIODE
14
STABILIZED OUTPUT VARIATION 1.2mA X 14 = 16.8mV
5V STABILIZED OUTPUT
0V
0V
Voltage Stabilizer Figure 18 The zener diode has a nominal breakdown voltage VZ of 5V, at a working current IZ of 5mA, and that its dynamic resistance RZ is 15 Ohms (typical figures). To provide the output voltage of 5V for a nominal input VIN OF 28v, the value of R must be such that the diode operates in the designed breakdown region; its value is calculated in figure 18. The arrangement then ensures that, for quite significant variations in VIN, the operating point moves very little and VOUT is held at the VZ reference point.
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MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC
FU Figure 18 shows for variations of NDAMENTALS 10% in VIN, the current operating point moves from 4.4mA to 5.6mA about its static value of 5mA. The resulting change in the value of VZ is shown to be 16.8mV, which is an almost insignificant variation compared with the original variation of the input voltage.
1.10.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR DIODE
Designed to ensure that the voltage developed across its terminals remains within a certain range for fairly wide variations in current through it. For example, a given device is desigend to hold the voltage within the reange 9.4V to 10.6V (e.e. 10.0V nominal) for variations of seeral milliamps of current through it. Its main use is in circuits where it is necessary to hold voltages reasonably constant as variations occur in circuit conditions. Figure 19 shows a typical voltage regulator circuit.
DC V IN
V OUT
Voltage regulator Circuit Figure 19
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The Silicon Controlled Rectifier
The SCR, or thyristor, is a semi-conductor device made up of both N and P materials. It has two stable states, OFF or ON, and is used as a switching device.
1.10.3 CONSTRUCTION
The SCR is made up of four regions of semi-conductor material, either NP NP or PN PN. There are three connecting electrodes, the anode, cathode and gate. The outer N and P regions are connected to the cathode and anode respectively while the central N and P region is connected to the gate. In this case the P section. Figure 20 shows the construction and circuit symbol for a SCR.
ANODE
FORWARD BIASED
REVERSED BIASED GATE FORWARD BIASED CIRCUIT SYMBOL
CATHODE
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Figure 20
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1.10.4 SWITCHING ON

In the off condition with the circuit connected to a supply, the junction between the two bases is reverse biased whilst the junction between the base and the anode and the base and the cathode are forward biased. For all practical purposes, current flow is blocked, although a small leakage current will exist. The SCR is switched either by increasing the supply voltage to a value known as breakover voltage, or by application of a current pulse to the gate. In this state both inner regions are saturated with carriers and the junction between them is forward biased. In consequence, the potential difference across the SCR is very low. Beyond the breakover point the current increases rapidly, limited only by the resistance of the circuit. If the current should fall below a value termed the holding current, the SCR reverts to the off or forward blocking position. It should be noted that once the gate is pulsed it no longer controls the current so that its supply can be removed without affecting the operation of the SCR.
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1.10.5 SCR CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 21 shows a typical SCR characteristic with 10 milliamps on the gate. When the anode voltage reaches the breakover point, in this case 360 volts, the current through the device goes to a maximum. If the gate current is increased, then the breakover point occurs at lower anode voltages.
30A
GATE CURRENT 10mA BREAKOVER VOLTAGE = 360V
ANODE CURRENT
20A INCREASING THE GATE CURRENT WILL DECREASE THE BREAKOVER VOLTAGE 10A
360V BREAKOVER
20mA
IG 40mA
10mA
100
200 ANODE VOLTAGE
300
400
Breakover Voltage Figure 21 The advantage of the SCR can be seen from the fact that a large current can be switched with a very small controlling current.
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1.10.6 USE OF THE SCR

As well as a high current switching device (up to 1000A), the SCR can be used as a current controlling device. When a thyristor is used with an ac supply it can only conduct on the positive half-cycles like a rectifier. This means that a trigger pulse would be necessary to fire the thyristor every half-cycle. By synchronizing the firing point on the positive half-cycle, the amount of current flowing in the circuit is fixed, as shown in Figure 22 below.
SUPPLY
LOAD
TRIGGER PULSE
A.C. SUPPLY
TRIGGER LOAD CURRENT
Thyristor on Alternating Current Figure 22
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MODULE 4
By varying the firing point (phase ELECTRONIC shift) the current can be controlled. In this circuit, capacitance C and resistance R act as a potential divider. As R is FUNDAMENTALS decreased, so the phase difference between the anode and the gate will increase, delaying the firing time. Thus, R gives control over the firing point, so controlling the power to the load. A light dimming circuit can be operated in this manner. Figure 23 shows a typical circuit.
SUPPLY VARIABLE R
A.C. SUPPLY
TRIGGER PULSE POSITION DETERMINED BY C/R TIME
C
LOAD CURRENT
Thyristor on Alternating Current Figure 23
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MODULE 4
1.11 THE LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) ELECTRONIC

LEDs are made from a semiconductor material, which emits light when current flows through the junction. The most common colour emitted is red but green and yellow are available at a lower intensity. Figure 24 shows the circuit symbol for an LED and its operation.
FUNDAMENTALS
CIRCUIT SYMBOL EMITS LIGHT
+5V
EARTH
DIODE IS FORWARD BIASED
ON
EARTH
+5V
DIODE IS REVERSED BIASED
OFF
Light Emitting Diode (LED) Figure 24 The voltage drop across a LED is around 2 volts. Above this voltage, the current passing through it increases rapidly. For this reason a series resistor is used to limit the current to around 10 ma to prevent burnout of the junction.
1.11.1 USE OF LEDS
LEDs can be used to replace filament lamps, with the advantage of less current consumption, less heat and no filament to burn out. They are often found on aircraft fault panels.
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MODULE 4
1.12 THE PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE ELECTRONIC

This device is a normal PN junction with a transparent case or window. All semiconductor diodes are subject to some movement of hole/electron pairs when the junction is at room temperature and this gives rise to a small leakage current, even with the diode reversed biased but the current is measured in microamperes. When light falls on the junction, its energy produces a much larger number of hole/electron pairs and the leakage current is greatly increased. These devices have a rapid response to light and are used in the encoding altimeter to encode the grey code into binary code. Figure 25 shows the circuit symbol and construction of a Photo Conductive Diode.
FUNDAMENTALS
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
N TYPE PHO TO -C ON DU C TIVE MA TER IA L PRO TEC TIVE GLA SS CA P
P TYPE SUB STA NC E
C ON NECTING PIN S
Photo Conductive Diode Figure 25
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1.13 VARISTORS

The varistor is a semi-conductor device used for clipping 'noise spikes' off ac voltage. Noise spikes are of very short duration and large amplitude. They may pass through a power supply and appear on a dc regulated output voltage. Low pass filters are often ineffective against noise spikes so the spikes are attenuated before rectification of ac to dc.
1.14 METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV)

The MOV is a semi-conductor resistor made of zinc oxide crystals. When voltage across it exceeds a certain voltage, in negative or positive direction, the device conducts to clip off noise spikes. Figure 26 shows the characteristic of the varistor, the circuit symbol and equivalent circuit. Although the varistor acts in a similar way to a zener diode, it is much faster in operation.
TYPICAL MOV VOLT- AMPS CHARACTERISTICS
+I
POSITIVE BREAKDOWN
-V
200V +200V
+V
NEGATIVE BREAKDOWN
-I
CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) Figure 26
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1.15 TESTING DIODES

MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS Before testing a diode, the cathode must be identified and then an ohmmeter is applied as in Figure 27. In one direction the ohmmeter reading should be low but a very high resistance should be detected in the other direction.
LO W RE S IS TA NC E
F LUK E 2 3
S ER IE S
MU L TIME T ER
O HM S
0 0 0.2 3
0 10 20
30
O FF
V V 300 m V
P N
A
10A
R AN G E
P RE S S
A UT O R AN G E
V
CATHODE
! 300 mA
FU S E D 10 00V 75 0V C OM
SYMBOL
ST RUCTURE
Testing Diodes Figure 27
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

Silicon Structure Figure 1

1.1.1 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

Intrinsic Semiconductor Figure 2

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

DONOR IMPURITY ATOM

ACCEPTOR IMPURITY ATOM

Extrinsic Semiconductor Figure 3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

POSITIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (HOLES)

NEGATIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS)

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

GENERATOR CONTROL UNIT

HALL EFFECT SENSOR

Hall Effect Sensors Figure 5

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

1.3 THE JUNCTION DIODE

Junction Diode Figure 6

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

Junction Diode Reversed/Forward Biased

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

Diode Symbol Figure 8

1.5 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Maximum permissible reverse voltage (V).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

Silicon Diode Characteristics Figure 9

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

Germanium Diode Characteristics Figure 10

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

10A @ 400V 1A @ 1500V

Silicon Rectifier Diodes Figure 12

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

1.9.1 SELENIUM RECTIFIERS

INSULATING VARNISH COUNTER ELECTRODE

SELENIUM HOLE FOR MOUNTING BOLT

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 CONVERSION COURSE MODULE 4 JARELECTRONIC 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 4.1.1. DIODES

HERMETICALLY SEALED CAVITY

ALUMINIUM SOLDER RECTIFYING JUNCTION SILICON JUNCTION

THREADED MOUNTING STUD AND CATHODE TERMINAL

Silicon Rectifier Figure 14