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MARIANNE MDLINGER

FROM GREEK BOARS-TUSK HELMETS TO THE FIRST EUROPEAN METAL HELMETS: NEW APPROACHES ON DEVELOPMENT AND CHRONOLOGY

Summary. After more than a century of research into Bronze Age helmets throughout Europe, both the development and chronology of conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets still remain unclear. The comprehensive studies and analysis of the helmet from Biecz have not completely resolved the discussions. Other helmets, when not solitary nds, have been usually dated according to their alleged associations in a hoard but have never been extensively discussed as a single helmet type of one date range. By introducing to the discussion a Greek bronze helmet with incised boars tusks as well as those boars-tusk helmets with bronze cheek plates, more light is shed on the development and chronology of these very rst European bronze helmets.

INTRODUCTION

Finds of European metal defensive armour, as opposed to those of weapons, are scarce. Omitting a few older nds, metal armour really rst appears at the beginning of the Urneld culture (c.1300 BC). Approximately 95 shields, 120 helmets, 30 cuirasses and 40 greaves (sometimes found as pairs) are known. The best studied objects are shields (Uckelmann 2012) and helmets (v. Merhart 1941; Hencken 1971; Clausing 2001; 2005). The distribution areas of the various classes differ signicantly. For example, we do not have any secure nds of bronze helmets or greaves from the United Kingdom and just two secure helmet nds from the Iberian Peninsula, though depictions are known. Again, metal shields are lacking in France, the Alpine region and Italy. The only regions where all types of armour are found together are the Carpathian Basin and Moravia/Slovakia. Helmets are usually distinguished according to their construction technology as well as their shape. In western Europe, two-piece, crested helmets are the main types; another type of crested helmet, the Pass Lueg, is distributed throughout the Austrian Alps (for the most recent discussion, see Lippert 2011). In central and eastern Europe, conical helmets, cap helmets and bell helmets dominate. Apart from some cap helmets, all the above types have a socket or knob on the top, which generally sports an opening in the middle so as to attach a plume.
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Conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets have received many appellations: rst described as Kegelhelme (cone-helmets; v. Merhart 1941), then as helmets of the Lc ky type (Mozsolics 1955, 356), later as conical bell helmets (Hencken 1971), once more as Kegelhelme (Borchhardt 1972), becoming helmets with spool-like socket (Mozsolics 1985, 24) and most recently Helme mit konischer Kalotte und Scheitelknauf (helmets with conical calotte and a crest-knob; Clausing 2001, 21718). In the following account, they will be called conical helmets. The oldest-made nds, namely the helmets from Oranienburg, Biecz and Lc ky, were then considered as part of v. Merharts group of Glockenhelme (bell-helmets) (1941, 5, g. 2, 46). Hencken (1971, 334) rened v. Merharts denition into conical bell helmets and rounded bell helmets, placing the three oldest helmets in the rst group. Furthermore, he added to his group of conical bell helmets the examples from Knossos, Spisk Bel, akov and Keresztte. Borchhardt (1972, 1267) added to his Kegelhelme corpus the helmets from Biecz, Oranienburg, Keresztte, Lc ky and Csnge. The helmet from Csnge dates to Hallstatt (hereafter Ha) C/D (800550 BC); in shape it does not resemble the other conical helmets. Thus, this helmet will not be discussed here. Thirty years and several new nds later, Clausing (2001, 218) augmented Henckens group of conical bell helmets with the nds from Sg, Dunafldvr and Nadap. Today, one more piece can be added: a helmet with an unknown nd-spot, coming from a private collection, was sold at Christies in New York on 18 December, 1998 (Buchholz et al. 2010). While analysing a polished micro-section of this helmet at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, R. Stone and K. Roth noted inter-granular corrosion in the metallic matrix. Furthermore, corrosion grew over the tool marks, respectively chasing lines. Both observations, which are usually found on antique bronzes (as on other conical helmets, see Mdlinger et al. 2013), certainly eliminate any doubt as to the authenticity of the helmet.
DESCRIPTION

Almost all conical helmets are complete or missing just a few parts (Figs. 1 and 2), though only the spool-shaped sockets of the Slovakian nds from Spisk Bel and akov are preserved today (Fig. 3). From the helmet from Keresztte only one fragment of the edge now

Figure 1 Conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets (scale 1:4). 1 Oranienburg. 2 Dunafldvr. OXFORD JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY
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MARIANNE MDLINGER

Figure 2 Conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets (scale 1:4). 1 Biecz (cross-section after Hencken 1971, g. 13, d). 2 Nadap (cross-section after Makkay 2006, pl. 1). 3 Sg (after Soroeanu and Lak 1981, g. 9.4). 4 Lc ky (cross-section after Hencken 1971, g. 13, b).

remains; however, a photograph published by Mozsolics (1985, pl. 150:9) shows a more complete object (Fig. 4). The helmets from Dendra and Knossos and that with boars-tusk decoration and unknown nd-spot (Buchholz et al. 2010), all related closely to the conical helmets, are almost whole (Fig. 5). The conical helmets were usually worked into shape out of a at, cast disc made of tin-bronze (Mdlinger et al. 2013). All are rather thin, as is also indicated by their light weight: this characteristic distinguishes them signicantly from the later and more massive bell helmets. In size and weight they closely resemble each other (Table 2). Once the conical cap was nished, the socket or knob was usually cast on. This last feature served to hold a crest or plume of some organic material, as we know from older depictions of boars-tusk helmets (Borchhardt 1972). The caps (or bodies) of the conical helmets have rivet holes, regularly distributed, running all round and parallel to the lower edge. The helmet from Biecz alone has them only on the broader sides: three rivet holes to attach each of the cheek plates, and on the neck three further (rivet) holes to attach a neck guard. Here the lack of further rivet holes probably indicates the presence of a separate cap made of organic materials over which the bronze helmet was worn. All the other helmets probably had such an organic cap or inner padding permanently attached to the inside of the helmet by the rivets. The helmets from Biecz, Keresztte and Lc ky show a small alteration to the lower edge prole, either a shallow semicircular bite taken out or a gentler
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Figure 3 Conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets (scale 1:1). 1 Spisk Bel (cross-section after Hencken 1971, 35, g. H). 2 akov (cross-section after Hencken 1971, 38, g. 17, b).

Figure 4 Conical helmet with spool-shaped sockets (scale 1:4). Keresztte (after Mozsolics 1985, pl. 150:9).

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Figure 5 Conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets (scale 1:4). 1 Knossos. 2 helmet with unknown ndspot. 3 Dendra.

upward curve in its line; these are most likely to be positioned at the back of the helmet, to permit the wearer easier head movements. However, on the helmet from Biecz the larger cut-out is in the front of the helmet, while on the back the cut-out is much smaller. It might also have permitted the placing of a neck guard, as an integral part of the internal organic padding. Other than the helmets from Dunafldvr and Keresztte, where the upper part is missing and so with it any potential socket, all the helmets have a spool-shaped attachment, small in size and cast on, which contains a central hole. The socket of the helmet from Knossos alone was held in place by seven rivets. The knob of the helmet without a nd-spot is unique in its nature neither cast nor riveted on, but worked up directly out of the sheet of the helmet. Additionally, this specimen is decorated with abstract motifs: boars tusks and running spirals. The different manufacturing or joining processes of helmet and knob seen in the Greek helmets mean that production sites separate from those of the European helmets must be considered for them (see below).
DISTRIBUTION AND DEPOSITION

Though the distribution area of conical helmets is rather wide it ranged from the HavelOder region in northern Germany to the Carpathian Basin and the Aegean, the similarity of the helmets as well as the fact that they do not resemble any other type of helmet should indicate a close connection. This belief is also supported by other imported Aegean nds that have turned up in the HavelOder region, such as the spearhead from the hoard from Kyhna (Hnsel 2003, 82), as well as the fact that such elaborate sheet metalwork in bronze is scarce in the Nordic Bronze Age work of this period. According to Hencken (1971, 9), the helmets were produced in the general region of Slovakia, whereas Buchholz et al. (2010, 201) assume for the helmet with the unknown nd-spot a production area north of the Gulf of Corinth or in the Peloponnese.
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Figure 6 Distribution map of conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets.

However, the production area might be even broader in accordance with their distribution pattern, if we rule out the idea that they were all exports from the Aegean (Fig. 6). Different centres of production were suggested by Hood and de Jong (1952, 25960), who noted that the Biecz helmet is of lighter calibre, the knob applied differently and the helmet generally of worse quality than the helmet from Knossos; the last exhibited, in their opinion (1952, 259, note 86), higher standards of workmanship than would be found at some provincial centre. Hood and de Jong (1952, 258) pointed out that the conical helmets have their origin in the Aegean, if not specically in the Minoan culture: a view which remains probable today, despite the fact that the quality of the more western helmets does not seem to be inferior. This question of provenance, however, can be discussed only by means of detailed material analyses of all the helmets (Mdlinger et al. 2013). However, it seems more reasonable to assume that the initial production centre was in the Aegean with some helmets (i.e. Biecz) being exported and that later a second production area developed on the way in the Carpathian Basin. 396
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We should note that so far only complete caps of conical helmets and sockets from conical helmets are known. Fragments coming only from the cap or from the rim with its rivet holes have not been identied yet, though there might exist pieces, as for example in the hoard at Jszkarajeno (Mozsolics 1985, pl. 251:26), that are worth further examination. However, since the helmets found in hoards are all complete or represented by the knob only, perhaps some tradition prevented the placing of only a fragment of the cap in hoards. Generally speaking, the circumstances under which the conical helmets have been found are not at all uniform and thus are not dictated by the type of helmet involved, but rather more by the deposition practices operating in the region where they were found (Table 1). Regrettably for the unusual helmet with the unknown nd-spot, no further information is available. The helmet from Knossos is from a grave, while the helmets from Dunafldvr and Oranienburg are each a single nd from a river. All other helmets were parts of hoards. The high numbers and condition of those helmets deposited in hoards are highly surprising: those from Nadap, Keresztte, Lc ky, Biecz and Sg were more or less complete. This situation is poles apart from, say, circumstances surrounding cap helmets with rib- and star-decoration, which date to HaA and overlap in their distribution area with the conical helmets. They are usually represented by just a single fragment in their hoards (Mdlinger 2013). In the same way, only the spool-shaped sockets of the conical helmets were deposited in the hoards from Spisk Bel and akov. Further, the composition of the hoards differs. The helmet from Biecz was allegedly deposited with two ingot torques and one triangular blade of an Early Bronze Age Oder Elbe-type dagger. The helmet from Nadap is part of one of the biggest Bronze Age hoards in Europe with, roughly, all the categories of known bronze objects being represented (Makkay 2006); other defensive armour was present, namely two pairs of greaves, as well as shield and decorated cap helmet fragments. According to Mozsolics (1985, 135), the hoard from Keresztte consists of one fragmented bronze disc, one spearhead with a proled socket, three further similar spearheads and another smaller example, one cauldron with both triangular handles and a thick, round-sectioned wire which served for the cauldrons suspension-handle, a biconical jug of sheet bronze, 16 bracelets, some with round cross-sections and chevron decoration, another one with rhomboid cross-section, one ring and the helmet. The composition of the hoard from Lc ky might be open to question, since the nd circumstances are not completely secure: the hoard was bought from an itinerant salesman and the corrosion on the allegedly companion objects a situla of Hajdbszrmny type and a cauldron with cross-shaped handles differs from that on the helmet. The hoard from Sg contains in addition to the helmet a vessel of Hajdbszrmny type, further vessel fragments with crossshaped handles, a handle of yet another vessel, ve bronze cups of the Kirkendrup and Fuchsstadt types, ve bracelets, phalerae, one spearhead, sickle fragments, two socketed axes with double V-ribs and a possible fragment of a saw. The hoard from Spisk Bel yielded, besides the spool-shaped socket of the helmet, three spearheads, four plain bracelets (three with an oval cross-section, one with a rhomboid cross-section) and parts of two cups of the Spisk Bel type. Further recorded nds, namely four spearheads, four bracelets and three socketed axes (two with Schnabeltlle, one with ribs parallel to the rim of the socket) and a round object, are now missing (Hencken 1971, 33). Lastly, the hoard from akov consists of the spool-shaped socket of the helmet, alongside socketed axes, the hilt of a Liptau-sword, rings and a bowl of Satteldorf type, pins, a socketed chisel, sickles, two spearheads and two ingots.
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TABLE 1

Find circumstances and alleged nds made with conical helmets


Axes x x x x x x x unknown nd circumstances single nd from the River Havel single nd from the River Danube x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Sickles Swords/ dagger Metallurgical objects Phalerae Other ornaments Defensive armour Other x x x x Total no. of objects in hoard/grave

Arm rings

Metal vessels

Spearheads

x x x x x

x x x x x

x x x x x

(x)

FROM GREEK BOARS-TUSK HELMETS TO THE FIRST EUROPEAN METAL HELMETS

Nadap akov Sg Spisk Bel Keresztte Biecz Lc ky Knossos Unknown site Oranienburg Dunafldvr

> 700 43 50 23 25 4 3 13

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CHRONOLOGY AND TYPOLOGY

The course of the development from boars-tusk helmets to the oldest European metal helmets so far is marked by three helmets: the helmet from Dendra (the only boars-tusk helmet with metal cheek plates), the helmet from the unknown nd-spot and the one from Knossos. The last is considered to be the oldest European metal helmet and so the oldest of the conical helmets with spool-shaped sockets: it is dated to the fteenth century BC (Mller-Karpe 1962, 271; Hencken 1971, 20). The Dendra helmet, also dated to the rst half of the fteenth century BC (Verdelis 1967, 7), is still a boars-tusk helmet but with bronze cheek plates added, thus testifying for the rst time in Europe the adoption of metal in the construction of helmets. The helmet with the unknown nd-spot is completely metal, but in its cap prole and also its incised decoration refers directly to the boars-tusk helmet with spool-shaped socket as exemplied by the ivory appliqus from Mycenae or further depictions from Mycenae and Delos (for further depictions see Borchhardt 1972, catalogue 35, 9). Unfortunately, no cheek plates for this helmet are preserved. However, the cheek plates of Europes rst completely metal helmet, that from Knossos, closely resemble the cheek plates from the Dendra helmet (Hood and de Jong 1952, g. 12; Borchhardt 1972, 58, pl. 6:23). Both sets of cheek plates were dened as type IA by Borchhardt (1972, 72, g. 6). The similarity of the caps prole of the helmet from Knossos with that from the unknown nd-spot is surely no coincidence. Of course, we have to take into account the heavily fragmented original state of the helmet from Knossos at the time of its discovery, deformed owing to the collapse of the tomb chamber. However, these similarities might indicate that the adoption of metal in the construction of helmets happened rather fast. This in turn would allow us to date the helmet with the unknown nd-spot to around 1400 BC, probably holding some intermediary position between the helmets from Dendra and Knossos. Such a premise is consistent with dates in LH II and LM IIIA respectively, i.e. the middle of the fteenth century BC, in accordance with the nature and manner of its decoration (Buchholz et al. 2010, 193, 201). Further, the spool-shaped socket also places this unprovenanced helmet close to the helmet from Knossos. The incised decoration of boars tusks, arranged in the same way as we know from such helmets, makes this piece a perfect transitional type between the older boarstusk helmets proper and the conical helmets, and would thus suggest a date for it prior to that of the helmet from Knossos. Even so, we have to bear in mind that later Aegean depictions of boars-tusk helmets might be representing ones such as this and not always actual boars-tusk helmets for example the yellow-coloured boars-tusk helmets with neck guards seen with the chariot riders in the Pylos fresco (Borchhardt 1972, pl. 5:1). An indication for the contemporary appearance of boars-tusk helmets and bronze helmets might be derived from thirteenth century BC frescos at Pylos. Here are to be seen white boars-tusk helmets, yellow helmets with several registers similar to boars-tusk helmets and yet other yellow helmets with bosses, nose guards and sockets (Borchhardt 1972, pl. 11:1). On the ship-fresco from Thera-Akrotiri dated to the sixteenth century BC, both white boars-tusk helmets and yellow bronze(?) helmets with knobs are visible. Both types hang from the ship timbers, set over their owners. Another very probable bronze helmet with a knob (similar to the European bell helmets, but not actually connected with them) is depicted on a fresco from Mycenae and dates to 1400 BC (Borchhardt 1972, pl. 37:3).
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Searching further for early bronze conical helmets with spool-shaped knobs, we have to travel to the north-east of central Europe to Biecz, Poland. Hnsel (2003, 7784) convincingly concludes that the helmet from Biecz is part of the hoard with an ne tice dagger and ingot torques, so assigning a possible date to this helmet of already within the late Early Bronze Age (around 1600 BC). Hnsel (2003, 7784) agrees with Hencken (1952), who rst suggested this date in print and was criticized heavily for it (Sprockhoff 1956, 85; v. Merhart 19561957, 144; Hachmann 1957, 176; Gimbutas 1965, 58). If the dating of the hoard is correct and the helmet really belongs to it, the helmet from Biecz would be even older than the helmet from Knossos and would thus become the oldest metal helmet in Europe (for the detailed discussion of nd circumstances of each helmet see Catalogue, pp. 4019). However, the appearance of the helmet with the unknown nd-spot mitigates against the helmet from Biecz being older than the helmet from Knossos, as Hnsel (2003, 7784) considered, since the helmet with the unknown nd-spot proves a direct and later connection between boars-tusk helmets and conical helmets. To assume that the hoard from Biecz was actually deposited in the late Middle Bronze Age (fourteenth century BC), and its helmet is thus younger than the helmet from Knossos, seems therefore a more reasonable position (see Catalogue, p. 403). However, it would most likely still be the oldest bronze helmet from central and eastern Europe (assuming the helmets from Dunafldvr and Oranienburg were not placed in their rivers even earlier). All other conical helmets found in hoards are usually dated to Bronzezeit (hereafter Bz) DHaA12 (13001050 BC) or, according to the presence of vessels of alleged Hajdbszrmny type, at times as early as HaBl (i.e. the tenth century BC). Since the helmets from Oranienburg and Dunafldvr were found in rivers, they have to be dated according to their resemblance to the other conical helmets. This has already been done: Egg and Waurick (1990, 14) placed the helmet from Oranienburg in the twelfththirteenth century BC; Szab (1994, 224) considered the helmet from Dunafldvr, which he dated, according to Mozsolics (1985, 24) for Keresztte and Petres (1982, 58) for Nadap, to HaAB. The hoards from Nadap (discussed most recently by Uckelmann 2012), Spisk Bel, akov and Keresztte (Schauer 1988, 1834) are dated to BzDHaA1. Novotn (1964, 21) dates the hoards from akov and Spisk Bel generally to HaA. Mller-Karpe (1959, 158, note 3) places the hoard from Keresztte in HaA2, as does v. Brunn (1968). Mozsolics (1985, 135) most recently dates it to the horizon Krd B Vb, resp. HaA1. According to the presence of alleged fragments of vessels of Hajdbszrmny type in the hoards from Lc ky and Sg, these are to be dated to HaB1 (Soroeanu and Lak 1981, 156; Schauer 1988, 18491; Patay 1969, 205). Mozsolics argues that helmets of the Knossos type therefore date to the Krd horizon/ HaA1 (1985, 24). However, it must be noted that it is not securely proven that the helmet from Lc ky was found with this hoard or even that Lc ky is the actual nd-spot (see Catalogue, p. 406). It seems that the most reasonable course is to assume the conical helmets are one of the oldest objects in all the hoards, and thus should date to BzD. Excluding the hoards from Lc ky and Sg, most authors place the hoards in the time-span from BzD to HaA. Including these same two hoards extends the date down to HaB1 (thanks only to the presence of the Hajdbszrmny type vases); the helmets can still thus be tted within the shorter date range, if one accepts they are one of the oldest objects within the two hoards. As recent analyses have also demonstrated (Mdlinger et al. 2013), the alloy composition of conical helmets is quite uniform. With the exception of the cap of the helmet from Spisk Bel with 8.6 wt% tin, the tin content of conical helmets is quite uniform in the 400
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range c.1014 wt% tin. Lead is usually a trace element, as are silver, arsenic and nickel; sulphur and iron are also trace elements, but with higher amounts than the previously mentioned elements. The higher amounts of lead in the helmets from Dunafldvr and Keresztte might be due to the non-invasive analytical methods used (PGAA, PIXE). The Biecz helmet was analysed by qualitative XRF for the State Archaeological Museum, Warsaw in 1993, which showed that the cap was made of tin-bronze with traces of lead and nickel. The knob turned out to be made of slightly leaded tin-bronze containing traces of nickel and silver (Cowell and Hyne, British Museum, Department of Conservation and Scientic Research, internal le number 6427). We hope that the recently undertaken quantitative XRF analysis on the cap of the Biecz helmet at the British Museum will be published by S. Hansen soon. At present, the helmet from Biecz ts perfectly within the group of conical helmets, whose caps so far contain 10.314.4 wt% tin (Mdlinger et al. 2013).
CONCLUSIONS

Three helmets so far dene the development from boars-tusk helmets to the oldest European metal helmets: the boars-tusk helmet from Dendra with its bronze cheek plates, closely resembling those from the helmet from Knossos; the conical bronze helmet from the unknown nd-spot, ornamented with incised or punched boars tusk as decoration and with a spool-shaped socket; and, last, the bronze helmet from Knossos with its bronze cheek plates, conical cap prole and spool-shaped socket. Ten further bronze helmets with the same prole and spool-shaped knob are known: they range across to the north-east of central Europe, with a probable distribution centre in the northern Carpathian Bow. Paradoxically, the helmet from Biecz, chronologically the closest and probably an Aegean export, is the furthest distant from the Aegean. It is likely that this dates to BzC2 (fourteenth century BC). The helmets from Oranienburg and Dunafldvr were retrieved from rivers, thus not directly contributing to matters chronological. Most hoards with similar helmets, namely those from Keresztte, Nadap, Spisk Bel and akov, are dated usually to BzDHaA, whilst those from Lc ky and Sg run on down to HaB1. The helmets are almost certainly one of the oldest objects in these hoards, thus indicating a main period of usage for the conical helmet from the fteenth century in Greece down to the thirteenth century in eastern Europe.
CATALOGUE (Table 2)

Cat. no. 1. Greece (?) (Fig. 5, no. 2) nd circumstances unknown complete height: 17.8 cm; diameter: 19.5 x 21 cm; thickness: cap: < 1 mm; knob: 12.5 mm; weight: 497 gm private collection. The helmet was sold at Christies in New York, on 18 December, 1998 (Sale 9020, Lot 64) Born 2009, g. 24; Buchholz et al. 2010. In 1952 the helmet appeared on the market in Massachusetts; it had been offered earlier, together with other potential associated nds, to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. However, no securely connected nds are known (Buchholz et al. 2010, 139, 192). According to the nature of the corrosion, the helmet was most likely found in a grave. The chlorides in the corrosion indicate a deposition close to the sea. The helmet has 26 rivet holes approximately 4 mm in diameter along the edge, which were punched through from the outside to the inside. Five rivet holes were replaced during the restoration; further parts of the original helmet are missing close to the spirals. On the inside of
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TABLE 2

Overview and main characteristics of the conical helmets discussed


Weight 497 gm 695 gm 353 gm 638 gm 21.1 x 22.2 cm 18.5 cm 20 x 21 cm 19.5 cm ? x 22.5 cm 21 cm 19.5 x 21.5 cm 18 cm 19.5 x 21 cm 21 x 24 cm 17.8 cm 17 cm Diameter base Height Museum Inv. no. no inv. no. 1868-1228.248 3504 882 4518 31/1941/1-25 no inv. no. O.93.33.1 no inv. no.

Cat. no.

Find-spot

Find circumstances

1 2

unknown Knossos, Greece

unknown grave

Biecz, Poland

hoard (bog)

Oranienburg, Germany

river

akov, Slovakia

hoard

Spisk Bel, Slovakia

hoard

Lc ky, Slovakia

hoard

Keresztte, Hungary

hoard

Nadap, Hungary

hoard

10

Dunafldvr, Hungary

river

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32 gm (not complete) not possible to measure 488 gm (without knob) 112 gm (not complete)

11

Sg, Romania

hoard

16.9 cm (without knob) 10 cm (not complete)

repository unknown Heraklion Archaeological Museum Heraklion British Museum London Heimatmuseum Oranienburg Slovensk nrodn mzeum Martin Podtatransk Mzeum Poprad Archeologick mzeum SNM Bratislava Magyar Nemzeti Mzeum Budapest Szent Istvn Kirly Mzeum Szkesfehrvr Wosinsky Mr Megyei Mzeum Szekszrd Muzeul Judet ean de Istorie s i Arla -Zala u Zala u

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the helmet horizontal traces of hammering are still visible (Buchholz et al. 2010, g. 57). Two ancient repairs can be seen: one 5.5 cm long crack was held together by a now lost bronze sheet patch which was xed on both sides of the crack by two rivets, again now missing. It is possible that the mend was carried out before the decoration was applied (Buchholz et al. 2010, 149). Another crack below the knob was xed with a bronze sheet patch and three rivets. Two further cracks from the knob downwards were not xed, though they are severe. The depressed knob and the latter cracks might be the result of an impact during ghting. At the knob, the bronze sheet is approximately double the thickness of the rest of the cap. According to Buchholz et al. (2010, 158, gs. 745), the knob is a skeuomorph: it reects the method of closing the top of a leather padding in earlier and contemporary helmets made of organic materials, such as boars tusks (envisage a bag closed at its neck with a band, leaving the upper part of the bag still projecting above). Such an act results in a spool-shaped form, as we can see, for example, on the ivory plaques from Mycenae. Depictions of helmets with spool-shaped sockets are known until LH/LM IIIA (14001300 BC) from Crete and the Argolid (Borchhardt 1972). The decoration on the helmet is punched; originally it was probably inlled to improve its visibility. However, the white pigmentation visible today was added to the decoration during the restoration process. The bronze helmet is decorated with registers of punched ornament: two below the nial and two above the bottom edge. The registers become broader from the top down to the rim of the helmet, as we also see in actual boars-tusk helmets (e.g. Vaphio, Delos or Dendra). Each of the registers is lled with simplied boar-tusk motifs, each set facing in the opposite direction to its neighbour. The lowest register also bears four left-turning running spirals. The lines making up the patterns are similar to those seen on the well-known Cypriot Whiteslip Ware: they look like ladders. Similar decoration is known from LH III ceramics from Crete, Kallithea or Tiryns, bronze vessels from Knossos or silver vessels and gold cups from Mycenae and Dendra (Buchholz et al. 2010, 170). The middle register, the broadest, is left without any decoration. There is no indication of gilding or silvering here (Buchholz et al. 2010, 156). Parallels for a blank register of this size in combination with others lled with boars tusks are scarce. However, blank registers per se are known: for example from the helmet depiction on the ceramic vase from Isopata, grave 5 or the marble engraving from Ayia Irini, Keos. If we do not want to consider a completely blank area and given that gilding or silvering has to be excluded, we might think of a perishable material such as a ribbon, whose ends could be left loose to utter in the wind, as we know from Syria. Spiral decoration is usually not found on actual bronze or depicted helmets, though circles are seen, as on the ivory miniature helmet from Knossos. However, as the vase from Isopata shows, spirals and helmets are connected. Similar spirals as on our helmet, also with inner open end, can be found in Gournia, Crete on LM II ceramics and on a bronze pan from Isopata, Crete. It must be noted that usually only precious goods or luxury objects bear this type of spiral decoration (Buchholz et al. 2010, 180). Cat. no. 2. Knossos, Crete, Greece (Fig. 5, no. 1) grave 5 complete Heraklion ), inv. no. unknown height: Archaeological Museum ( 17 cm; diameter: 24 x 21 cm; knob height: 3.9 cm; diameter at the knobs base: 5 cm; thickness: 11.5 mm; total weight helmet: 695 gm. Cheek plates: length: 16.5 cm; breadth: 9 cm; weight cheek plates together: 214 gm Clausing 2001, 218; Buchholz et al. 2010; Vasilakis 1999, 114, g. on the right; Hencken 1971, 20, g. 3, eg; Schauer 1988, 183; Kilian-Dirlmeier 1985, 1967, 199, table 1; Bouzek 1981, 213, g. 1, 1; 3; Borchhardt 1972, 567, 60, cat. no. 11, I;
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Mller-Karpe 1962, 2712; Schachermeyr 1960, 63, 66, g. 54; Yalouris 1960, 55; Hachmann 1957, 176; Matz 1956, 126; Ventris and Chadwick 1956, 377, g. 26 A; Marinatos 1959, 113; Zervos 1956, g. 719; Hencken 1953, 107; Hood and de Jong 1952, 25260, pls. 502:a. The helmet was rst published in 1952, after two years of excavation at Ayios Ioannis and the new hospital site in Knossos. Grave V from the latter site contained the helmet: with it were a rapier and a spearhead, as well as stone vases (three of alabaster and two of other materials). Close to the helmet, a lead disc 5.5 cm in diameter with a cover of bronze was found. Evidently it was part of the helmet, e.g. an extra weight attached to an organic neck guard, so that it would not wave about. Unfortunately, the helmet had been smashed and crushed into over a hundred fragments when the tomb chamber collapsed. Nevertheless, it was possible to reconstruct it almost completely. Possible traces of usage or manufacture, however, were hard to detect. The helmet resembles the older boars-tusk helmets in prole and recalls the ivory carvings from the House of Shields at Mycenae (Hencken 1971, 8). The row of rivet holes parallel to the rim served to x an organic padding, as well as the cheek plates, thus connecting the helmet with the younger central European examples. It is also possible that the holes in the rim held a neck guard, such as is shown on the ivory heads of warriors equipped with boars-tusk helmets (Hencken 1971, 20). It is not clear if the cheek plates overlapped the bottom of the helmet or if they were tted edge to edge. The assumed internal padding of the helmet and cheek plates might have been of a piece. The cheek plates each have 18 small rivet holes between 1.52 mm in diameter. The rivet holes on the helmet are set about 1.6 cm apart and were punched through from the outside to the inside of the helmet. The socket for the plume is attached to the calotte with seven rivets; it is pierced by a 4 mm wide hole to hold the plume. The helmet from Knossos is the only conical helmet with cheek plates preserved. Cat. no. 3. Biecz (Beitzsch), woj. maopolskie, Poland (Fig. 2, no. 1) hoard (bog nd) complete height: 16.2 cm (cap); 1.8 cm (socket); diameter: 19.5 x 21.5 cm; weight: 353 gm British Museum, reg. Num. 1868.1228.248 Buchholz et al. 2010, 201; Clausing 2005, 368; 2001, 218; Hnsel 2003, 7784, g. 2; Albrecht 1991; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 74, g. 3; 76, no. 4; Blajer 1990, 28, 33, 102; Egg and Waurick 1990, 14; Uenze 1990, 234, 41, no. 51, pl. 5.2; Schauer 1988, 185; Goetze 1984, 36; Bouzek 1981, 23, g. 1, 2; 4; Jaz dz ewski 1981, 288; Otto 1981, 60; Borchhardt 1972, 127, cat. no. 28, 1; Bukowski and Da browski 1972, 116; Hencken 1971, 33, g. 13, cd; 37; Patay 1969, 205, note 122; Hundt 1955, 105; Hencken 1952; Sprockhoff 1956, 85; v. Merhart 19561957, 144; Hachmann 1957, 176; Gimbutas 1965, 58; v. Merhart 1941, 11, g. 2, 6; Uenze 1938, 37, 83; British Museum Guide 1904, 97; Dahn 1881, 48; Genthe 1874, 1701; Klemm 1868; Kemble 1863, 52, 170, pl. 12:6; Lindenschmit 1858, pl. 1:1; Klemm 1854, 1578; 1851, 52, note 2; undated, V, 13. The helmet was found below a pine trunk in a peat bog in 1847. From the same nd-spot, a small deposition is known, consisting of two ingot torques and one triangular blade of a dagger of the OderElbe type. The hoard was purchased from Johannes Gustav Klemm (collection in Dresden) and is now stored at the British Museum, London. Analyses carried out at the British Museum in 1952 revealed that tin-bronze and leaded tin-bronze were used for the manufacture of the conical helmet. Since the X-ray analyses did not reveal traces of solder between the knob and the cap of the helmet, the rst was most likely cast on, as is the case with the other conical helmets, excepting that from the unknown nd-spot and the helmet from 404
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Knossos. Additionally, the notes on the analyses from the British Museum mention as well the presence of small fragments of charred oak and plum wood inside the helmet. Unfortunately, these fragments are not preserved any more, as the recent study of the helmet revealed. Though Hencken discussed in detail the nd circumstances and the changing ownership of the helmet (1952), doubts still remained about whether it was from a closed context. Great efforts were expended in trying to explain the contradiction of Early Bronze Age objects found together with an as assumed Urneld-period helmet. Thus, attempts were made to prolong the life span of the dagger (Goetze 1984, 36), while ignoring either the nd context (Schauer 1988, 185, note 37; Breddin 1969, 42) or the helmet (Billig 1963, 247). However, Hnsel (2003) has discussed the crux of the misgivings, namely the circumstances surrounding the nds and their rst recording. The rst report on the hoard leaves no room for any doubts about its unity (Hnsel 2003, 80). Even so, as is true in many other hoards, we have to consider the possibility of ancient objects, not in use perhaps for several centuries, being deposited together with recent objects. Such is the case, for example, with the Spindlersfelder hoard (BzB/CHaB1), that of Muov (BzC1HaA) or generally with tongue sickles (Hnsel 1995). However, if we take into account a possible earlier date for the Middle Bronze Age in the Carpathian Basin BzD to the fourteenth century BC (Della Casa and Fischer 1997), a longer duration of the ne tice culture in the Oder region and argue for a deposition history similar to that of the Spindlersfeld hoard, and if we consider as well the composition of the Biecz hoard (which differs from Urneld-period hoards) together with the fact that other Aegean objects (such as the spearhead in the hoard from Kyhna) were deposited in the same region (Hnsel 2003, 82), it seems reasonable to propose that there were deposited in the hoard from Biecz bronzes collected over a long period of time, including a helmet heavily inuenced by or even imported from the Aegean. Hnsel therefore reinforces the case for dating the hoard and the helmet to the Early Bronze Age, pointing out that there is a lack of convincing arguments for not doing so (2003, 83) though he rst argued for a deposition date between 2000 and the fourteenth century at the latest. Nonetheless, considering the arguments above, the close relationship to the helmet from Knossos and the presence of Early Bronze Age nds in the Biecz hoard, it might be more reasonable to date the helmet and the deposition of the hoard at earliest to the later Middle Bronze Age/BzC2 (fourteenth century BC). This would make the helmet from Biecz slightly later in date than that from Knossos. Cat. no. 4. Oranienburg, Lkr. Oberhavel, Brandenburg, Germany (Fig. 1, no. 1) a solitary nd from the River Havel complete height: 21 cm; diameter: approx. 22.5 cm; thickness: 0.33 mm; weight: 638 gm Heimatmuseum Oranienburg, inv. no. III/51 Lippert 2011, 31; Born 2009, gs. 212; Hnsel 2003, 823, g. 1; Clausing 2001, 218; Albrecht 1991; Bouzek 1981, 23, g. 2, 3; Borchhardt 1972, 127, cat. no. 28, 2; Hencken 1971, 33, g. 13, e; 378; v. Merhart 1941, 11, g. 2, 4; Sprockhoff 1930, 44, pl. 9, a. The helmet was found as a single nd in the River Havel before the 1930s. The helmet has 20 rivet holes, placed approximately 2.5 cm above the thicker rim and punched through from the outside to the inside of the helmet. On one side of the helmet a small section of the rim-line has been altered over a length of 8.5 cm it is raised by 0.6 cm: an act intended to improve the owners range of vision, or to permit more free space for movement at the back of the neck and/or to leave room for the organic padding of a neck guard. The socket is cast on; its hollow interior runs right through to the inside of the helmet. On one side of the helmet, at least three severe sword impacts are visible.
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Cat. no. 5. akov, okr. Doln Kubn, Slovakia (Fig. 3, no. 2) hoard knob height: 2.7 cm; diameter: 2.1 cm (above), 1 cm (shaft), 2.8 cm (base); weight unknown Slovensk nrodn mzeum Martin, inv. no. 3504 Mrtz 2011, 370; Furmnek and Novotn 2006, 38, nos. 1737; Clausing 2001, 218; Hansen 1994, 509, CS 731; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 75, g. 4, b, no. 3; Novotn 1991, 14, no. 5; 24, no. 18; Mozsolics 1985, 24; Schauer 1988, 183; Hencken 1971, 37, g. 17, ac; Novotn 1970, 536; 1964, 21; Eisner 1933; Hampel 1892, 173. The hoard from akov consists of the spool-shaped socket of the helmet, socketed axes, the hilt of a Liptau-sword, rings and a bowl of Satteldorf type, pins, a socketed chisel, sickles, two spearheads and two ingots. To the spool-shaped knob, which was cast on, fragments of the cap of the helmet are still attached. Interestingly, the socket from the helmet from akov had been repaired: the upper part was cast onto the lower, thus resulting in the upper part being solid, with only the lower being spool-like in cross-section. From the inside of the helmet, a drop of metal from the upper and later repaired part of the socket can be seen inside the central hole, which once did pass completely through the original socket. A potential fragment of the helmets cap is cited in the literature and depicted by Hencken (1971, g. 17, c), but it could not be found at the museum. Cat. no. 6. Spisk Bel, okr. Kemarok, Slovakia (Fig. 3, no. 1) hoard I (1891) knob height: 2.2 cm; diameter: 2.2 cm (above), 1 cm (shaft), 3.2 cm (base); weight unknown Podtatransk Mzeum Poprad, inv. no. MK 882 Mrtz 2011, 370; Vachta 2008, 123, list V.1.5, no. 14; Clausing 2001, 218; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 76, no. 2; Novotn 1991, 22, nos. 1011, pl. 19:A3; Schauer 1988, 184; Hencken 1971, 33; 35, g. 15, fh; Novotn 1970, 536; 1964. The hoard today consists of three spearheads, four plain bracelets, parts of two cups and the spool-shaped socket of a helmet. Further nds, namely four spearheads, four bracelets, three socketed axes and a round object, are now missing (Hencken 1971, 33). The knob of the helmet was clearly cast on through a hole in the middle of the helmet. Cat. no. 7. Lc ky (?), okr. Ruomberok, Slovakia (Fig. 2, no. 4) hoard (?) complete height: 19.5 cm; diameter: 20 x 21 cm; weight unknown Archeologick mzeum SNM, 4518 Clausing 2001, 218; Novotn 1991, 47, no. 48; 589, no. 54; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 76, no. 1; Bouzek 1981, 23, g. 2, 1; Borchhardt 1972, 127, cat. no. 28, 4; Hencken 1971, 32, g. 13, ab; Novotn 1970, 536; Mller-Karpe 1959, 11415, 204; Mozsolics 1955, 42; 44, g. 9, 1; v. Merhart 1952, 63, 70; v. Merhart 1941, 11, g. 2, 5. Though the village of Lc ky is always named as the nd-spot, the actual nd-spot is unknown. The helmet was bought from an itinerant salesman by the museum in Martin; he was also selling Hallstatt cups. Hencken notes that the patina of the helmet differs from that of the situla of Hajdbszrmny type and of the cauldron with cross-shaped handles, which were supposedly found together with the helmet (Hencken 1971, 323). Thus, the objects might not have been really recovered together. However, the composition of the hoard is very similar to that of Mezo kvesd (Patay 1969, 211). The helmet is partly broken and distorted; the rim is thicker than the upper part of the helmet. The helmet bears eight rivet holes, punched through from the outside to the inside of the helmet. There is a slight upward curve to the rim at what was either the front or the back of the helmet. The spool-shaped socket of the helmet was cast on perfectly. On the inside of the helmet, traces of hammering in a horizontal zone are visible mainly the longer marks lie 406
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parallel to the rim for over 1.2 cm up towards the rivet holes, thus creating a little step or stage with respect to the rest of the cap. In this area, several vertical cracks are visible. Cat. no. 8. Keresztte, kom. Borsod-Abaj-Zempln, Hungary (Fig. 4) hoard two fragments length: 12 cm; bent: 2.1 cm; breadth: 5.3 cm; weight: 32 gm Magyar Nemzeti Mzeum, inv. no. 31/1941/8 Mrtz 2011, 362; Vachta 2008, 123, list V.1.5, no. 4; Clausing 2001, 218; Hansen 1994, 541, H 330; Patay 1990, 19, no. 3; Schauer 1988, 184; Mozsolics 1985, 24, 135, 388, pl. 150:9; Kemenczei 1984, 149, no. 17; Hencken 1971, 39, g. 18, a; Mller-Karpe 1959, 158; Mozsolics 1955, 412, g. 7, 7. The hoard, which was found during ploughing, consists of ve spearheads, 16 bracelets and rings, a cauldron, a bronze boss (diameter 11.5 cm), a biconical jug of sheet bronze and the helmet without its socket. It was found at the end of the 1930s in a eld. Today, only two fragments from the helmet soldered together during restoration remain. The rest of the helmet might have been lost during the Second World War. The surviving rivet holes were punched through from the outside to the inside of the helmet. As visible on the photograph from Mozsolics (1985, pl. 150:9), the calotte displays the same slight upward curve on part of the rim as, for example, on the helmets from Lc ky, Biecz and Oranienburg. The inner lining was xed also on the outside of the helmet by the rivets, as is indicated by the differential corrosion up to 2 cm above the rim. On this helmet the socket was missing. Cat. no. 9. Nadap, kom. Fejr, Hungary (Fig. 2, no. 2) hoard almost complete height (total): 18.5 cm; thickness (cap): 0.30.1 mm; height (socket): 1.8 cm; diameter (socket base): 2.2 cm; weight: not possible to measure, since the helmet is permanently attached to a modern bronze sheet Szent Istvn Kirly Mzeum, Szkesfehrvr, no inv. no. Uckelmann 2012, 1819; Makkay 2006, 7, pl. I; Clausing 2001, 218; Jankovits 1999/2000, g. 1, 2; 1998/1999, g. 1, 2; Schauer 1988, 184; Hansen 1994, 546, H 451; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 77, no. 12; Schauer 1988, 184, g. 4; Petres 1982, 578, g. 1, ab. Thirty-six years after its discovery, the hoard was nally published, for which I warmly thank Makkay (2006). The hoard was found at Jnoshegy (Johns hill) in spring 1970 after heavy ploughing in the autumn of 1969. People from the area found during the following months more than 350 bronze objects and several thousand sherds, in an area of dark earth approximately 25 sq m in size (Makkay 2006, 4). Mozsolics (1985, 151) and Hansen (1994, 546) mention 713 objects with approximately 80 fragments; Uckelmann 628 objects/fragments (2012, 1819); Makkays total of 567 or 568 objects is very reasonable, as his is the most well-informed account (2006, 6). As well as the defensive armour a helmet, two pairs of greaves, a fragment of a shield of Nyrtura type, probably nine further fragments from the edge of a shield and potential fragments of a cuirass, the associated nds are: two hilts from Dreiwulst-type swords, fragments from daggers and spearheads, socketed hammers, chisels, punches, an anvil, socketed axes, winged axes, sickles, knives, a razor of the Ciumes ti variant, two razors of the Gromugl type, and Mixnitz variant, one fragment of a razor of the Gromugl type, and Mesic variant, bronze vessels of type A, variant A2, a bronze cup of the Gusen type, a bronze cup of the Gusen/Blatnica type, eight bronze cups of the Blatnica type (all fragments), another bronze cup and bowl, a sieve, bulae, pins, neck rings, arm rings, pendants, a belt plate, pieces of bronze, casting akes and off-casts. The list of associated nds varies in different catalogues; the list as cited here is after Mozsolics (1985, 163).
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The helmet today is heavily fragmented; less than a third of the cap remained. The cap has several cracks and missing parts and is heavily corroded. The spool-shaped socket was cast onto the top of the conical helmet. Parallel to the edge of the cap, a row of rivet holes is visible. The seven complete preserved rivet holes differ in size from 5 to 8 mm in diameter. They were punched through from the outside to the inside of the helmet. According to Petres, two further fragments from the hoard might belong to this helmet or another one (1982, g. 10, ce; Makkay 2006, pl. V:1011). From the prole, at least one of the two fragments might belong to a rib- or star-decorated cap helmet (Mdlinger 2013). Cat. no. 10. Dunafldvr, kom. Tolna, Hungary (Fig. 1, no. 2) single nd complete height (without knob): 16.9 cm; diameter: 21.1 x 22.2 cm; thickness: 2 mm (rim); 0.4 mm (calotte); weight: 488 gm Adm Bri Balogh Museum Szekszrd, inv. no. O.93.33.1 Mrtz 2011, 369; Clausing 2001, 218; Szab 1994, 21920, pl. 1. The helmet was found in the Danube at Dunafldvr in 1986 and bought by the museum from the private collection of Lajos Dn. The cap of the helmet is complete, just the formerly cast-on socket has broken off. It was not recovered with the helmet. A row of 23 rivet holes runs parallel to the edge at a height of 3 cm, with a distance of approximately 3 cm between each of them. Despite one (recent?) longer crack and a shorter one from the rim up to and slightly above one rivet hole, the cap does not show any damage. The rivet holes were punched through from the outside to the inside of the helmet. Inside the helmet traces of hammering on a horizontal alignment are visible all over the cap. Around the rivet holes and down to the rim the corrosion looks slightly different from that on the upper part of the cap. This indicates the presence of an original organic padding or lining, xed in place by the rivets on the inside of the helmet but also wrapped around to the outside surface: this inuenced the corrosion process of the metal in the areas so covered (as also noted by Szab in 1994). Interestingly, the helmet shows on the upper third, in one area, four more or less parallel, linear impressions 2.55 cm in length which might be the result of sword impacts. An axe-blow would have passed straight through the thin helmet, as is the case even with the much later and more massive helmets of the Negau type. Cat. no. 11. Sg (Sg), Jud. Sa laj, Romania (Fig. 2, no. 3) hoard almost complete height: 10 cm (incomplete cap); 2.5 cm (knob); thickness: 0.1 mm (cap); 1.1 mm (rim); weight: 56 gm (cap); 56 gm (knob) Muzeul Judet ean de Istorie s i Arla -Zala u, no inv. no. Mrtz 2011, 370; Soroeanu 2008, 58, nos. 1719; Vachta 2008, 123, list V.1.5, no. 12; Clausing 2001, 218; Rusu 1990, 77; Schauer 1988, 1845, g. 5, 8; Soroeanu and Lak 1981, g. 9.4, 147, 1534; Petrescu-Dmbovit a 1977, 134. The hoard was found in 1972 in Sg (Sa laj) at a depth of some 60 cm, when Lajos Kallay was extracting clay for bricks close to the area called Coasta Piscilii, approximately 150 m west of the school building. It consists of a vessel of Hajdbszrmny type, further vessel fragments with cross-shaped handles, ve bronze cups of the Kirkendrup and Fuchsstadt types, a handle of a vessel, bracelets, phalerae, a spearhead, sickles, two socketed axes, a possible fragment of a saw and the helmet. The heavily corroded fragments of the cap as well as the socket were sand blasted. Thus, they are in a rather delicate state today. The spool-shaped socket is rather massive; the hole at the 408
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centre of the top of the knob is only 3 mm deep and of not much practical use. The two preserved rivet holes differ in size from 5 to 10 mm in diameter.
Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) and the FP7/Marie Curie actions that supported the research through the Schrdinger Fellowship no. J 3109-G21. Furthermore, this research project has also been supported by the European Commission under the 7th Framework Programme through the Key Action: Cultural Heritage Advanced Research Infrastructures: Synergy for a Multidisciplinary Approach to Conservation/Restoration (CHARISMA). Many thanks are due also to Malcolm Wiener (INSTAP), Richard Stone (Metropolitan Museum of Art), Barry Molloy (University of Shefeld) and Svend Hansen (Deutsches Archologisches Institut, Berlin), for fruitful discussions on the topic. An especial debt of gratitude is owed to everyone who supported and helped me with information about and documentation of the helmets in the museums concerned: Juraj Bartk (Archeologick mzeum SNM, Bratislava), Ioan Bejinariu (Muzeul Judet ean de Istorie s i Arla -Zala u, Zala u), Magdalna Bekessov (Podtatransk Mzeum, Poprad; also for the assistance at the Tuc ianske mzeum Andreja Kmeta, Martin), Katalin Bir, Ildik Szathmri and dm Szab (Magyar Nemzeti Mzeum, Budapest), Gabriella Nador (Szent Istvn Kirly Mzeum, Szkesfehrvr), Mrta Vizi and Gza Szab (Wosinsky Mr Megyei Mzeum, Szekszrd) and Quanyu Wang (British Museum).

Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale DCCI Universit di Genova Via Dodecaneso 31 I 16146 Genoa ITALY E-mail: Marianne.moedlinger@univie.ac.at

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