Appl. sei. Res.

Section A, Vol. 13

T H E R A Y L E I G H AND STOKES PROBLEMS W l T H AN INCOMPRESSIBLE N O N - N E W T O N I A N F L U I D

b y W I L L I A M H. S C H W A R Z
Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Califor~lia, U.S.A.
Summary

The Rayleigh problem or impulsive motion of a flat plate has been solved using a perturbation scheme when the surrounding fluid is representable by the constitutive equations of O l d r o y d or C o l e m a n and Noll. The shear stress and normal stress at the wall were expressed allalytically for this unsteady motion. Further, an exact solution of the equations was found for a special case of the constitutive equations. The motion of the fluid above a harmonically oscillating plate or the Stokes problem has been determined for a special non-Newtonian fluid. The penetration of the shear ware into the fluid, the energy dissipation, the velocity profiles and the shear and normal stresses at the wall were expressed and compared to an equivalent Newtonian fluid. Some of the features of these non-Newtonian fluids were examined in simple shearing flows, and techniques to calculate some of the material constants discussed.

1. Introduction. I n order to analyze the m o t i o n of a fluid in a complicated situation, it is offen desirable to consider problems with simplified b o u n d a r y and initial conditions. The Rayleigh problem, or the impulsive start of a flat plate in an infinite fluid a n d the Stokes problem which is an oscillating plate in an infinite fluid are examined using several different hort-linear constitutive equations to represent the fluid. These problems have been previously solved for N e w t o n i a n fluids with a v a r i e t y of external conditions, for example, with compressibility effects and m a g n e t i c fields, a n d this a p p r o a c h has served as a p l a t f o r m to examine more complex situations such as b o u n d a r y layer a n d u n s t e a d y flows. Further, using different constitutive equations should give a d d e d
-161 --

162

W I L L I A M H. SCHWARZ

insight into the various representations currently used to describe non-Newtonian fluids*).

2. Rayleigh problem with an Oldroyd 6-constant/luid. The constitutive equation for the extra stress tensor proposed by O l d r o y d 1) for an incompressible non-Newtonian fluid may be written in rectangular cartesian tensor form as:
~tis + tiTc @ 11 ~ ~odi~tj--/*l(tijdjs @ tkdij) + vltldjl~ik = ~d,k ~
2/*0

(2.1)

dik @ i2

~0

2/*2ei]djlc @ v2eJleJl(}ik

where

~ B'~ Further

als aB, ao + u~-g~xj + w,jBj + wsjB~j.

(2.2)
(2.3)

1 di ---- ~(u~, k -1- u,t);

h = P~ + P~l,

where p~~ is the total stress tensor and wi~ is the vorticity tensor defined as 1 w~~ = ~ ( u ~ , ~ - u i , ~). (2.4) Now O l d r o y d 10) points out that when ~1 =/*1 > i2 = #2 >~ 0 (fluid B), the equation represents materials which show a positive W e i s s e n b e r g effect, that is, rise up along a rotating shaft in the fluid. Further, in simple shearing flows the W e i s s e n b e r g conjecture (P~2 = Pa3) is satisfied. Representative of this class are some dilute polymer solutions. Equation (2.1) m a y be rewritten as

Dti~ + t,~ + 21 ~ ~od~~tjj+ vld##d,s =

= 2/*0 ei~ + i2 -D eis + v2ejlejla~s

?,

(2.5)

where

D tBi~ a,s D-Bis =-- aO + ui ~ +

-t- w,mBmlc + wsmBIm - - e,mBmlc - - esmBtm.
(2.6) *) ttere, an incompressible non-Newtonian fluid is orte which does not obey the linear constitutive equation p~~ = --P~*k + 2/*od,~.

RAYLEIGH AND STOKES PROBLEMS

163

This equation of state has six constants, 21, ~0, Vl, #0, ~2 and v2, and the methods of measurement of some of these quantities is discussed in 3. One-dimensional u n s t e a d y flows will now be considered where

--(
Define

822

) =--(

8X3

) =u2=u3=0.

(2.7)

#l
8x2

= ,

0 = u~O/vo, Tsk = hk/pu 2,

K = vo,~/uL Y = uylvo,

E~lc = ~~~vo/U~, Us = us~u,

(2.8)

Xs = xsu/vo,

Wi~ = wskvo/U 2,

where u is the characteristic velocity of the plate and vo = o. For this flow situation, the rate of strain and vorticity components are all zero except

E21 = El2 = K,

W2z = --W12 = K.

(2.9)

The stress components m a y now be written as

Tl2 +
where

8K 8T1280 KT22] -+- ~n ~K - Tss = K + e n - ,80

(2.10)

~0/).1 = $, I'1/~1 = ~:, V2/~1 = ~, ~,2/~,1 = 8, 1t ~ ~lU2/VO, (2.11)

and ll Tl1 + It [ 8 T 80 -1 2 K T I 2 ] + ~nT12K = (~ -- 2~) rtK 2, (2.12a) 8T22

T22 @ i t ~ -

-+- } r t K T 1 2 :

~ n K 2,

(2.12b)
(2.12c)

Taa +

n-~-

8T83

+ ~nKT12 = ~rtK 2.

The equations of motion are written in rectangular cartesian form as : F 8us 8us ] _ 0ps~ 8p 8ts (2.13)

~L~+u~~~

~x~

~x, + ~x~

164

WILLIAM

H. SCHWARZ

These reduce to

aU(O, Y) ao
and aT22 aY
--

~T12 aY
aTa2 - - 0. aY

(2.14)

aP - - 0, 8Y

(2.15)

The continuity equation beeomes

~ui

OUi
(2.16)

axt-- -- aXt -- trace &~ = 0.

The above equations will be solved using a perturbation technique similar to that adopted b y L e s l i e a) and C a s w e l l and S c h w a r z a ) for the very slow motion past a sphere of a nonNewtonian fluid representable b y equation (2.4). Let
B : B(O) q - l t B ( 1 ) @ n 2 B ( 2 ) q_ . . . . (2.17)

where B represents any of the components U, K, T~~ or P, and n is a small parameter. This series m a y be inserted into the equation of motion, equation (2.14) and the stress equations (2.10) and (2.12). Equating terms in equal powers of n, obtain for the zero TM approximarion or the Newtonian problem aU(O) a~-aTm(o) a2U(O) aY -- a y ~ ' (2.18)

which is the one-dimensional, homogeneous heat equation. Also T ~ ) = T(0) - ~ 2 j = T(0) 33 = 0.

(2.19)

The fluid mechanical problem considered b y R a y l e i g h will be considered, that is, an infinite plate in an infinite medium initially at rest which is given an impulsive start to some velocity u. The boundary and initial conditions in dimensionless form become U(O>O,O) = 1, U ( O , Y - - > c o ) =-0,

U(O, Y) =0.

(2.20a,b,c)

The solution of equation (2.18) with conditions (2.20) is written U() = erfcr] = 1 ~/~__

~.r
0

e-t'dt=

1 --erf

E~ T ~]

~~~,~

R A Y L E I G H AND STOKES PROBLEMS

] 65

and K(o) -- I --1

(~0)~

exp (--~~).

(2.22)

The first approximation to the equations of motion obtained by equating terms of order It is written 8U(1)
O

8K(1)
8Y - - ( e - - 1)

82K(O)
808~' (2.23)

which becomes

8U(1)
80

8K(1)(l_s){3
8Y

_y3}

4~/~ O~ 8 V a 0 } exp (--tl2), (2.24)

with boundary and initial conditions" U(~)[O,O~ = 0 ; U(0[O,Y~ooJ i= 1,2 . . . . . =0,

(2.25)

U(i)[0, Y] = 0 ;

The stress components are written as" T(1) @

11

1 ST() ~11 80

2K()T~ )1 -[- 8[K()T~) 1 = (~ --2e)EK()I 2, (2.25a)

8r()
T(1) @ _ _ 22

"80 8O

-~-~K(O)T~ ) = ~EK(O)J~,
+ ~K()T[ ) = V EK(O)J2,

(2.25b)

T(1)

8T3 ()

33 @ - -

(2.5c)

and T(1) @ 12
8TJo)

80

-- K(1) + e

8K(o)

8---01

(2.25d)

With equations (2.19) and (2.25), write T(1) ii

~--

[2(1 -- e) + 3(~ -- ~)][K()] 2

(2.26)

To find the specia] solutions to the inhomogeneous hcat cquation (2.24) ler

U(~I)(Y,O)

= Oa(~]).

(2.27)

166

WILLIAM

H. S C H W A R Z

E q u a t i o n (2.24) then becomes

tl t O-l[L(a)~a] ---- Oa-l[(a)(~) @ 2t]B(a)(~)
-

4g~(a)(~]) ~ = (2.28)

--(1 -- e) O-2"E6~e_,= _ 4*/a e_n=3.

v'=
W i t h a = --1, the solution of this inhomogeneous ordinary differential equation (2.28) m a y be found b y standard techniques. H o w ever, observe that the linear operator L(_I), operating on ,]m e-~ = gives L(_I)E*] m e -n=] = e - ' ' Em(m -- 1) ~]m-2 __ (2m -- 2)/]mj. (2.29)

If m = 3, obtain the right h a n d bracket of equation (2.28), and U(1)(Y, O) -- --(1 -- e) via e -,=. (2.30)

ex/=

The solution to the homogeneous heat equation (2.24) m a y be combined with the special solution, equation (2.30) to give U(1)(Y, O)

=Olle-*
t/o

t/

d~-k U(1)(~/o)

(1 -- ) y a

(2.31)

W i t h conditions (2.25), obtain U(1)(Y, O) -- --(1 -- e) y a e -~v4.

8x/= ~)

Ot

(2.32)

Also
-(I -

K(1) - -

2 ~ / 7 Os e-"" [3*]2 -- 2,]4].

(2.33)

The second approximation m a y be obtained b y equating terms of order two in the expansion in terms of n and find for the stress components:
12 -{90

K()T(~ 1) -[- ~- ~VK(0)T(1)q i~ K(1)

= K(2) + s - - - - ,

a0

(2.33a)

RAYLEIGH AND STOKES PROBLEMS T (2) @

~li

t67

[ ~T(1) V~ll 80

2K(O)T~~ ) j- K(1)T~~ )] +
(2.33b) (2.33c)

4- ~ [K()T~ 1) @ K(1)T~ )] = (r] -- 2e)[2K()K(1)],

2T(1)

~2eT(~)+ ~~228__ + }[K()T[i) + K(i)T~)] -- r][2K()K(i)]'

ST(1)
~33

80

-}- $ [K()T~~ ) + K(1)T~~)] = n[2K(O)K(1)],

(2.33d)

and the equation of motion

8U(2) ~'w(2) o~i~
-- O, (2.34)

80

8Y

with the b o u n d a r y and initial conditions (2.25). E q u a t i o n (2.34) becomes ~U(2) D0 cOK(2) 8Y -- 71 e-'~ (9-8( - 15tl + 55~/a -- 321/5 -}- 4~]73 -}-1- 72 e -n~" O - z [ ~ t i -- 5~ a -J- tiP] + 7a0-2[~ e-Z'~~],

(2.35)

where

(1 --e)2
71-73 :

(1 --~)
, y2-,V/~ ,
(2.36)

4~/~

3 -~- 7(W -- ~:)(1 -- ~~') -- (1 -- e)].

The same set-up m a y be used to find the special solutions of equation (2.35) as was used in equations (2.27) and (2.28). The terms involving the yl and 72 coefficients m a y be obtained from the ordinary inhomogeneous differential equation
~tt t \3 t L(_2)[(_~)(~)] = ~(_~)~~) + 2~(_2)~~) + 8(_~)(~) =

--471["

] -- 472[. ].

(2.37)

W i t h the observation that

L(_2)E~ e -'~~] = e - " ' [ m ( m - - 1) ~m-*, _

(2m -- 6) ~m],

(2.38)

168

W I L L I A M H. S C H W A R Z

The solutions which cover the yl and y2 parts are

--(1 - - s) 2 e_,~ ~ ( _ ~ ~ , 7 3 + ~l-t] 5 _ ,/7) _

4s(l--e)
1/~ e-"

(
~~3_

~5)
4 "

(2.39)

The remaining special solution may be obtained by finding solutions to the homogeneous equation L(_1)[(_1) ~ and using the variation of parameters method to find the solution of the inhomogeneous equation L(-~)[(-1){~)] ---12
:n~ [(~ -- ~')(1 -- ~-$) -- $] fl e -a'~2. (2.40)

The homogeneous solutions are written 1FI(I', ~1. ,--~2),

i T e _,~2,

(2.41)

where 1Fl(a; b; x) is the confluent hypergeometric fUllction. Now, the solution of the inhomogeneous equation (2.40) is written _4y3[e_~~lFl(_;l_.t]2)(~t]e_3~ 2_
, 121/3

1/7c

erI(1/3*])

+ ~] e -'~ f ~ e -3~2 1FI(--; ; ~2) dt . 0 The complete solution to equation (2.35) becomes

(2.42)

1/~

02

4e(1 -- e) e -'~'

]+
n

_~ ~--.~ f e-35~ $1~FI(_;1.$2)d$} 0

and with conditions (2.25), U(2) (70 = O) = f12 = O.

(2.43)

R A Y L E I G H AND STOKES PROBLEMS

169

Of interest is the shear stress at the wall given b y TI2(*] = 0). Since T l z = T i2 () q- n T { 1) + ~2T(2) ,, 12 + ... (2.44) then
--1 (1 - - )

T l z ( r / = 0) =

(~O)} -- ~ =0

(~ -

~)(

1t

--

1--e
- - 1 1 ~ +

~~O~

....

The value of the extra normal stress at the wall T22 is given b y
T22(~ = 0) - -

(~--~) _ _ 7~O

(W--~)--~(1--)
11 @ ~0 2

ii2 -[- ....

These results indicate that the solutions obtained b y the perturbation technique are not valid as O -+ 0. The series would diverge unless n < 0 or 0 > 21. T o m s (1958) has found A1 to be about i sec. for a solution of poly (methyl) methacrylate in n-butyl-acetate. We would expect, however, the results to be applicable for times sufficiently large, or shear stress sufficiently small.
3. Discussion o/Oldroyd's 6-constant constitutive equation. 0 l dr o y d 1) has shown that for a steady simple shearing flow of a material which is represented by the 6-constant constitutive equation, the extra shearing stress tl2 becomes
t12 = ~ F ( ~ ) = ~ ~o (1 + a l ~ z )

(1 q- 2K )

'

(3.1)

where
~2 =
V2(~,1 --

a~]0) @ *]0~2;

'l "~-- Vl[~.l

--

~No] -I- ~oil

(3.2)

and F(K) is called the shear dependent viscosity. In terms of the dimensionless variables of equations (2.11), we may write
~2 -- 'z = A~E(rJ ~)(I -- ~-$) -- $(I -- e)]. (3.3)

With the requirement that the shear stress is a monotonic increasing function of the rate of shear, i.e., t12/aK >~ 0, and noting

170

WlLLIAM H. SCHWARZ

the experimental work of Roberts14), O l d r o y d sets the inequality 81 > , ~> ~1 > 0. (3.4)
A 1 A

Also from the work of T o m s and Strawbridge5) 16), the inequality 21 > 22 > 0 (3.5) is found. Equation (3.1) may also be used to show that the O l d r o y d model predicts an upper and lower limiting viscosity since as
K - , o, F ( ~ ) - , ffo, F(K) --> ff0(~2/(}1. (3.6) (3.7)

and as
K -+ OO,

However
~- ~ < - - ~ <
ffl

1.

(3.8)

This fluid has a viscosity which seems to decrease with increasing shear rate and at most can have a reduced viscosity of one-ninth the lower Newtonian viscosity, and is called pseudoplastic.

The ratios of the upper limiting viscosity to the lower limiting viscosity is given by dz/#l. Polyisobutylene in decalin exhibits this effect and values for the two ranges were obtained by B r o d n y a n , G a s k i n s and P h i l i p p o f f l ) . Similar data for polystyrene in decalin have been given by Merrill, M i c k l e y , R a m and Perkinson~). Data from simple shearing experiments allow calculation of ~~. -- ~i by Lim [ K~o L ~(K)/K -i-- #0 1
'

#o(2

--

l).

(3.9)

The normal stress components in simple shear are given by:

t l l ~-= [(ff0vZ - - 2Z2) -t- (2~,1 - - V l ) (K2)] K 2,

t22 -= [#0v2 -- vlF(K2)] Kz,

and

(3.10)

As will be discussed in a later section, C o l e m a n and Noll 4) have shown that any non-linear fluid in steady, simple-shearing motion

RAYLEIGH

AND

STOKES PROBLEMS

171

m a y be described by three material functions el(s: 2) = t11-- tsa; (r2(K2) = t22-- t88; 7(s:) = t12. model: (3.11)

In terms of the material constants of the O l d r o y d

~(~2) = 2[-~~ + ~-~~(~)],

~(,~) = o; ,-(,:) = ,~F(K).

(3.12)

It must be remarked that in the theory of simple fluids, the W e i s s e n b e r g conjecture does not appear and in general a2(K2) = 0. There is still u n c e r t a i n t y concerning this concept (Mar k o v i t z and BrownS)). 1 21 -- 22 TI2(~ = 0) . . . . . . .

.[1+
3 (~1-

(2-,)

u2olu2o
ffo ffo (3.13)
1i4

2i,2) ~1114

~~0~

o 2 p 2 + ....

T22 (*7 = 0) -- (~2 -- ~1) u2p + (~2 - 2~1 + Z2) Z l _ _ 02 + .... (3.14)
~O

ffo

~0~

ff,~

The velocity distribution is given by

{(1 -- ) .73
U= {1 -- erf *7} -- n ~/zr 0

e-~~--

_ n 2 {-(1 - ~ ) 2
~/~

e-~'

02 [ - - -

~.7~

+T

11.75 *77]+ --

4e(l--s) + ~/~
I-" e -~2

e-~2 [

15,a_

.7 5]
4

12 '~~1

0 ~.

-n-,

+-~(aa-al).

L - 6 - , F , ( - ~ ; -~; *72){*7e-~,' _ V~/12 erf(V5 .7)) +

t/

q-*Te -~' J e -3' $ i F l ( - - 1 ; 1; $ 2 ) d $ / } -t- ....

0

(3.15)

F r o m the measurements of T o r e s and S t r a w b r i d g e , e is positive hence the non-Newtonian effect is to reduce the veloeity profile.

172

WILLIAM H. SCHWARZ

Further, there is not the universal velocity profile obtained for Newtonian fluids or the zeroth approximation since the nonNewtonian terms have a power of O in the denominator. It is seen however, that as time becomes large, the fluid acts as if it were Newtonian. In the formulae for the velocity distribution and the shear stress at the wall, all the material coefficients which describe the fluid are obtainable from present viseometric techniques. However, the material coefficients vl a n d v2 which appear in the equation for the normal stress (3.10) have not been determined.

4. Rayleigh's problem with a Rivlin-Ericksen fluid. If a fluid is representable b y a constitutive equation in which the stress is proportional to the spatial gradient of the velocity, the acceleration, and higher acceleration terms, R i v l i n and E r i c k s e n la) have shown that the general tensor form for an isotropic fluid which is properly invariant to t h e coordinate system m a y be written in matrix form as = /(A1, A2, Aa .... ),
(4.1)

where T is the extra stress matrix and the matrix A1 has the components
a}1) = (ui,j @ u],i) = 2eij;

A1 = 2D.

(4.2)

Also the components of the higher order matrices An (n > 1) are given b y c~a(n-1) (n-l) Uk, t. (4.3) ~(n) __ ij _{_ U/Ca:(;.~,1)_{_ ~~~--1)Uk,j _~ ~k] ~* ii t The latter equation is written in a rectangular cartesian tensor form, which is suitable for this problem. The functional form of equation (4.1) m a y be assumed to be a polynomial representation and R i v l i n l 2 ) , and R i v l i n and E r i c k s e n la) have shown that for Ar = 0 when r > 2, the most general form of equation (4.1) for an incompressible fluid is P = 0I @ lA1 @ 2A2 @ aA~ + 4A~ @ 5(AIA2 + A2A1) @ @ 6(A~A2 + A2A~) + T(A1A~ + A~A1) + s(A1A 2 +A~A1) ~ (4.4) The general theory states that the coefficients ~ are to be

RAYLEIGIt

AND STOKES

PROBLEMS

173

polynomial expressions in the eight scalar invariants tr A~, tr A~, 2 2 trA1A2, trA~A2, trA1A~, trA1A2, t r A 1 and trA2. These are easily shown to be of the form ~ = G(~~, ,~) = [i)~~ + ~~~)~4 + ... + ~~%~ + q- c~(2i)K2k 2 @... q- (}~i)Kak q- 2(i)K5k@ ... (4.5)

for the Rayleigh problem. The complexity of this set of equations is enormous, and the classification of a fluid by the set of coefficients (/~~~>,?!% ff)) for this simple one-dimensional I!ow, seems to be asking too much from even the most patient experimentalist. Further, a basic assumption has been made, namely that A r = 0 when r > 2. For the type of flow being discussed, Aa, A 4 . . . . ,An :/= 0 unless the coefficients of these matrices are identically zero. Further, there are no estimates at present to tell which of the terms are more important. C o l e m a n and N o l l 4) have used the concept of a simple fluid (NollS)) and a smoothness assumption to show that for slow motions, the simple fluid may be approximated to various orders b y certain special R i v l i n - E r i c k s e n tensors. The constitutive equation which represents a second order fluid is given as = &A1 + 2A2 + C~(A~), and for a third order fluid8): (4.6)

= [& + 46 tr(A~)2~ A~ + &A2 + ~A~ +

-H ~4Aa -H 5(A1A2 -t- A2A1), (4.7) where the ~ are material cnstants. In the approximation scheme which is used to solve the resulting equations, it is necessary to have the parameter noc tt small, hence the method of solution is compatible with the form of the eonstitutive equation. For the system previously considered, that is, an infinite flat plate in a medium of non-linear fluid, the only non-zero components of a}~) are ~12 - ( ' ) = - (~2~ ~ ) = K. Then the stress components (4.7) become:

hl = CaK2 + 25~,~,
t22 = (242 -~- 43) K2 -I- (644 @ 245) Kk, taa
= 0 =

(4.7a) (4.7b) (4.7c)

t13 -~- t2a

174 and

W I L L I A M H. SCHWARZ

tl2 = t2i ---- 1~c + 2k + 4;~ + 2(+ + 6) K3. Define the dimensionless quantities

(4.7d)

,'o = 1b,

~ ~u*/p,~o~, r~ = 3/~, rt = i1/~ (i > 3); Tl~ = t~k/pU~. (4.8)

Then equations (4.7) become: T l l : s3nK 2 + 2e5rt2KK, T22 : and

TI~ = K + L/~ + ~2Vr4/~ + 2(r6 + rs) K31.

(4.9a)

(2 -~- ra) ~K 2 ~- (6r4 + 2r5) ~t2K]iT; Tsa = 0 (4.9b)

Making the assumpfion that B : B(0) + ~tB(1) + ~2B(2) + ..., where B stands for T,k, U, K, I~, and ~7, obtain: T(O) K () + Tl 1) : K (1) -~ -/17 (0), 12 = T(2) 12 7___ K (2) + E (1) + r4K () + 2(e5 + r)[K()] 2. Also T(O) 11 ---- T(O) 22 = Ta(~ ---- 0, Til ) = e 3 [ K ( 0 ) ] 2", and T~] ) : e3[2K(1)K(O)] + 2r512K()/17()]; T(2) (2 + e3)[2K(1)K(O)] + (6e4 + 2r)K()K(). 22 The equations of motion then become ~U(o) eO and ~U(2) aO
_ _

(4.10)

(4. I 1) (4.12) (4.13)

~22T(1):

(2 -~- eS) [K(O)] 2

(4.14)

(4.15)

~2U(O)

~U(1)
-- 0, eO

32U(1)
yz _

0
Y ~(o) (4.16)

y~

~2U(2) 0 -[~(1) + r4~(o) + 2(r5 + r6)[K()]8]. (4.17) aY 2 ~Y

The initial and boundary conditions are given by equations (2.20). The solutions of the equations (4.16) are readily found by the

R A Y L E I G H AND STOKES PROBLEMS

175

methods previously discussed as:

U(O)(O, Y) = 1 -- erf(4);

--1 K () -- - -

(~0)~

exp(--42),

{4.18)

U (1) (0, Y) =

--

ya

8,V'a 0~

e - r/4o,

--1 K(1 )-- ~C2--~0~ expl-- 42(342 -- 244)]. (4.19) Equation (4.17) becomes
U(2) ~2 U(2)

30 _

c~Y2 _ _ 1 0 .3 e -~2 [--- 15 -]- 5543 -- 3245 + 447] + 4C9r

84

+ ____

16CJr

0 - 3 e - , (154 -

2043 + 4~5) +

+ 6(e5 -}- e6) 0-~ 4 e _ ~ ,

and the solution is written as U(2) (O, Y) -1 e -~~

(4.20)

v'~
+

O2

(--~-43 -~ lq4 -- 47) Av

S4 e-'l 24(e5 q- e6) 16~/~r ~O (~43 -- 45) -~ri0

( e , , F , (

1.; 4~,)4 e - a e

~/~r/3 erI(V34) + (4.21)

+ 4 e - ' ~ f e-3~" ~1F1(--; 1; ~2) d~}.

0

The stress components at the wall are found to be T12(4 = 0 ) 1 1 [1 (~rO) -]-,V/~~O t 2 2(e5+e6) ]~ zr 3 - e4 2 fr- ..., 4 C ~ O~ and T2~(~ = 0) -(2 @ e3) zrO (3e4 q- e5) ~t2 -};tO 2
. . . .

(4.22)

(4.23)

176

WILLIAM

H. SCHWARZ

The velocity distribution becomes

U(O,Y) = 1 - - e r f ~ + f i
F--

8x/z~ O9 e-~~ +

e-~ ~

+ n2 Lx/z, 02 (_~~a + ~5 _ #7) +

+ s4 e -~~ 24(e5 + e6) 16x/zc 0 2 ( ~ _ ~ a _ ~ 5 ) _ ~~0 -k

e - , ' 1FI(_~; 1~,~2) ~ e- ~, x/~-B/32 erf(x/5~)

+ ~ e-'~ le=3*' ~IFI(--1; ; ~2) d~} 1 .

0

(4.24)

The material constants which appear in (4.22), (4.23) and (4.24) may be evaluated from steady state viscometric data except for e4 and s5 (es + s6 may be determined). These techniques are. discussed in 6.

5. An exact solution to the Ray!eigh problem/or the linear constitutive equation, if the fluid may be reprsented by I) C o l e m a n and Noll's second order fluid or 2) the R i v l i n - E r i c k s e n Iluid where the coefficients 1 = 0 for i > 3 and the remaining coefficients are constant, then the equation of motion is linear and is written
DU = D2U +
co o y2

(D2U~
fi - g \ a - ~ / "

(5.1)

The boundary and initial conditions are given by equations (2.20a, b, c) and the stress component t12 is written in dimensionless form as T12 = K -k nR. (5.2)

Equation (5.1) may be readily solved in integral form by means of the Fourier transform. Define
oo

Us(O, ~) ~
o

U(O, Y) sin(~Y) dY.

(5.3)

RAYLEIGH

AND STOKES

PROBLEMS

177

Transforming (5.1), obtain 0

oo g d o , ) + 1 + fi~ G(,T) =
=
or

[1 + fi~2]

- d u(o, o) ,

(5.4)

06)

o G ( o , ~) +

1 fi$2

G(, T) =

1 ft 2 "

(5.5)

The first order linear equation has the solution 1 [l--exp(_l and since
oo

"~20

g ( o , Y) =

-~
0

Us(O, ~) sin(~Y) d~,

(5.7)

therefore
oo

U(O, Y) = 1

2
0

exp

The stress at the wall is given by (5.2) or

co

TI~[Y = O] --

Jr
0
co

exp ~

I + Re~

d~ +

2 ~ -- n j
o

,. exp[--~20/(l n~2)] d~.

(5.9)

If the stress equation is of the form T12 = K + ~ + e4fi2/~ + terms [_K~K Iv, K v, ...]. (5.10)

then the transformed equation of motion, which is analogous to (5.5) becomes

[ 2 ] t ~ = 2Us(, 0) + (1 +2h ) oUs(, O)

oO + O~Us + ~4~ 2 - g ~ (, o) + ....

(5.1 I)

178

WILLIAM

H. S C H W A R Z

which is a linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients. This m a y be readily solved for each specific case and the velocity distribution in physical space found by the inverse transform (5.7). Equation (5.8) reduces to (2.21) when ~t = 0. However, when rt :/: 0, then (5.8)taust generally be solved by numerical quadrature. When the terms in (5.10) are zero, (5.10) represents the C o l e m a n and N o l l third order fluid with either (65 + 68) negligibly small or the rate of strain K sufficiently small so as to neglect the non-linear term K 3.

6. Evaluation o/ the constants o~ the constitutive equations o~ Coleman and Noll. In simple steady shear flow, where the velocity field is given by
Ul ~ KX2;

U2 ~

U8 =

(6./)

and
~~1~__ 2e12 = K = constant,

(6.2)

the stress components for fluids up to fourth-order have been given by Caswell2). For a third order fluid, equation (4.7), the stress components are tll = 53K2; t22 : (252 + 53) K2; taa : 0, (6.3)

tl~ = 51 + 2(5 + 56) ~a.

(6.4)

For this fluid, the material constants m a y be determined in terms of the material functions (3.11) as:
51 = fl0 =

Lim [r(~)/K],
Je--+0

(6.5) (6.6)
'

52 = Lim a2(K) -- al()

K~___>0 2K 2

(55 -k 56) = Lim

~~-~0 2'~2 '

(6.7)

and
K2--->0

C a s w e l l 2) and M a r k o v i t z and B r o w n 6) have discussed some of the methods for measuring the material functions.

RAYLEIGH AND STOKES PROBLEMS

179

7. Steady harmonic motion/the Stokes problem. The equation of motion (2.13) for the constitutive equation (4.6) is written as

~
sb
-

~2

~ ~2
,

~2~ + m 86 ~2

(7.1)

where the dimensionless quantities are defined

c7 = u/; ~

= - - y ;

b
--

1~0
VO

= -0~ -;
~0

rrt--

~2 "
pv~ '
Q = ~ov0/u 2.

Tl2

t12/plI2;

(7.2)

The wall is assumed to oscillate as

~(o, o) = cos ~0;

(, o) = oos ~,

(7.3)

and also to obtain the steady state sohltion (after the transient has decayed), set

(O, Y) -~ (Y) e~.

Making this substitution into equation (7.1), obtain

(7.4)

a~(~)
df 2 and hence

(mg~ + in) (2) = o,

(1 @ Q2m 2)

(7.5)

O(~) = A e-~~ + B e~~',

where B2 _ m~92 + iQ 1 -t- -C22m2

(7.6)

(7.7)

The constant B = 0 b y equation (2.20b), and call

B2~-Z=a+ib,
where a= Now 2 :5 i 2 rot92 1 -t-s92m 2 ' b-Q 1 -t-z92m 2

(7.8)

(7.9)

. (7.10)

180

WILLIAM H. SCHWARZ

Only the positive terms are acceptable, hence

(~)=Aexp{_Ia+~/Y-+b~l~z .[---a+~/-2-+~-]~] 2 -'[~ AYI (711)

and ^ (O, ~) = Re[(~) therefore

e*O],

(7.12)

(O, ~)

exp{

fi a + ~v/2+ b2 ] ' } 2
cos ~f2O

-- (--a + %/22 +

b2 )Y'I"

(7.13)

The constant A was evaluated with e~uation (7.3) as one, and (7.13) becomes
(, ~) = exp E - a ' 2 ] oos [~) - '2J,

(7.14) (7.15)

where

c~--~ ~ r r t ~ Q 2
B --

~ Q ]~. 2(1 + m2f) 2) + 2(1 + f22m2)

E--of] eos [co0 -- flY],

In dimensional variables, (7.14) may be written

u(O, y) = exp
where [~b2 o)2
~ = Y

(7.16)

co

1 ~.

(7.17)

~~ ~o 2(1 + ~~co~l~l~) + 2~o(1 + ~~co~l~~)~

When m = 0, this becomes the classic Newtonian flow case which is written as

,@,y)

=exp

Y~0

cos Eco0 - (co/2~0)~y~.

(7.18)

Values of velocity were calculated for different values of m and D, and are shown in figures 1 and 2. It is observed that the nonNewtonian effect does not arise until IX2ml = 0[1]. In order to see how this non-Newtonian parameter affects the

RAYLEIGH AND STOKES PROBLEMS

18 1

y Dimensionless Distonce 0.08 0.30

Y Dirnensionless Distance

\
~=0 ; ~'i = t.OXlO s
~ Newl~Nan WL~0

....

non-Newtonlan ~=-I.OXIO "~

0.06 i

\~ \\

0=0~ ~~I.OXlO~ --Newtonian3rL=O . . . . non~Newfonian q.rL~_l.O i0 -4 \ \\ \ \

0.20

O'OZ

\'
//

,\
\\\\

0.02

- -

-01~

0.0 0.2 Dimensionles~ Velocity

014

--

-o12

o DJmensionless Velocity

.2

o14 "

Fig. 1. Comparison of velocity profile for a N e w t o n i a n and a nonN e w t o n i a n fluid.

file

Fig. 2. Comparison of velocity for a N e w t o n i a n and a Newtonian fluid.

pronon-

m a x i m u m shear stress at the wall during a cycle, we can calculate tl2 =/z0K + 2~. Equation (7.19) may be made non-dimensional as
^

(7.19)

T1~ = K + m K ,

(7.20)

where

r~~ = t12Ip2;

K = ele~.

With equation (7.13), obtain for the shear stress at the wall
T12

[--~t + ~1319] cos(~c~O) -~- Efl -t- 0~lTIff2] sin(f2).

(7.21)

The m a x i m u m shear stress occurs at m~x = arc ran [ ! -6 mf27 f2-1. - _ ~J (7.22)

The difference between the m a x i m u m shear stress during a cycle for a non-Newtonian fluid and a corresponding Newtonian fluid is shown in Table I. The constant ra roughly corresponds to a 15%

82

WILLIAM

H. SCHWARZ

TABLE

Maximum shear stress at the wall ~Q 1.0 10.0 102 10 a 104 105
oo

-- r r t ~ Q 0 i0-a 10-~ i0-1 1 10

oo

- - T i e (I1t = 10 -4) Non-Newtonian

- -

- - T l 2 (11t = 0) Newtonian 1.0 3.16 10.0 31.623 100.0 316.23

oo

1.0 3.16 10.1 56.3 119.1 1002.7

gl [nt[~ = oo

polyisobutylene solution in decalin and the shear stress is reduced. When m = 0 (non-Newtonian fluid), (7.21) beeomes 2F12 = --~/E cos(D + ~/4). (7.23)

Therefore, the stress at the wall is out of phase with and leads the velocity b y a/4 radians. For a non-Newtonian fluid, as Irn~l becomes larger, the lag angle between the maxima of the stress and velocity becomes less, and is in phase with the plate when Imf)l = 1, then leads the plate, becoming asymptotic to a/4. The extra-normal stress exerted on the wall is given b y

I-2~ + ~.J
E1 -- (1 -}- trt2f)2) -~ cos (2DO q- arctan (mD)-l)l. (7.24)

Of interest is the fact that the cyelie frequeney of the normal stress is twice that of the cyclic velocity and shear stress. A boundary layer or shear ware thickness m a y be defined as
~~E2 co2 1 ~o

~-~

At y = 6, the maximum amplitude of the shear ware has diminished to 1/e of the maximum value at the wall. This parameter then indicates the penetration of the shear wave into the fluid. For a Newtonian fluid, (z = 0), d = (~o/2~o)d. For a solution of 15% polyisobutylene in decalin, values of d are compared to an equivalent Newtonian fluid of the same zero shear stress viscosity in Iigure 3. For small values of ra, the shear ware thickness is the same as for

RAYLEIGH AND STOKES PROBLEMS

183

the Newtonian fluid. For large values of co, d -+ oo. At these values of m however, the constitutive equation of a second order fluid would probably not be applicable.

/
~2 =-11250 dynes-crn-~sec2 /

q~t = 9320 poise ~L = Icm/sec

8 (cm) IOs

I0 i0. 2

tO_i

I00

10I

"ts'~-b

Fig. 3. Variation of shear wave thickness wischfrequency for a non-Newtonian fluid. Of interest is to calculate the dissipation of energy for this case, the loeal dissipation function is given by
= 2T : D = 2hfitj.

(7.26)

W h e n the stress tensor is given b y (4.6), (7.26) becomes 0~ = 2~le~jd~j q- ~2a}~)eji q- 2~ae~ketcjej~. Define the invariants of D as I--trD; Then, ----~2aq ej~. (7.29)
II -- tr D2; III = det D.

(7.27)

(7.28)

For this one-dimensional, incompressible flow

I = III

= 0

(7.30)

and

= 4~K2 + ~2K.

(7.31)

The average dissipation per unit area per unit time of energy into heat m a y also be calculated by computing the work done at the wall. ~ = - - t l z [ , (7.32)

] 84

WILLIANIH. SCHWARZ

where the over-bar is a time average over a cycle of motion. This becomes =

~~~(~~)~

17,

(7.33)

where the dimensionless parameter S and the factor F are defined as

(1 + s~)~7 ~ S= ~=~O/~l; F = IF IL s + -1 +-s "~ _] -sI-S-+1-~1;$2)'1'}'(7"34)

Fig. 4. Ratio F of viscous dissipation of a non-Newtonian fluid to that of a Newtonian fluid versus the non-Newtonian parameter S. The factor F is shown plotted in figure 4. F increases as the non-Newtonian parameter 62 increases, and the dissipation increases above the Newtonian fluid. As S -+ 0, (Newtonian fluid), the energy dissipation becomes (P

~1~( ~)~
~U p

(7.35)

and is proportional to (o~. As S becomes large, and for S < 0, -+ co. However, the constitutive equation is probably invalid and also secondary motions will occur for this condition.

8. Discussion. The Rayleigh and Stokes problems have been of considerable importance as a starting point in the study of unsteady flow problems and have also been found useful in obtaining physical insight into the growth of boundary layers. These factors were the motivation for this work. The Rayleigh problem has been solved by a perturbation technique for fluids which m a y be represented by either the Oldroyd

RAYLEIGH AND STOKES PROBLEMS

185

6-constant constitutive equation or C o l e m a n and N o l l ' s thirdorder approximation to a simple fluid. The solution was carried out to the second approximation. Some of the characteristics of fluids described by these constitutive equations were examined when the flow was a steady simple shearing or viscometric flow, and techniques to evaluate some of the material eonstants or functions were considered. The shear stress and the normal stress at the wall were analytically expressed. A closed solution in integral form to the Rayleigh problem has been obtained when the fluid may be represented by C o l e m a n and N oll's second approximation for a simple fluid whieh gives a linear equation of motion. The technique of solution was by Fourier transform and it was indicated how the method m a y be applied to more complicated linear constitutive equations. The Stokes problem has been solved in closed form for a fluid representable by C o l e m a n and Noll's second approximation to a simple fluid. Velocity profiles are presented to compare the nonNewtonian fluid with a Newtonian fluid with the same zero shear stress viseosity. The shear stress and normal stresses at the walls were determined. Some calculations were made of the diIference in shear stress between a non-Newtonian and Newtonian Iluid. In the ease examined, it is Iound that the shear stress at the wall is reduced. Further, the normal stress at the wall varies harmonieally, hut the frequency of oscillation is twice that of the velocity at the wall. The boundary layer thickness was expressed in analytic form and it is seen that the penetration of the shear ware into the fluid is greater for a non-Newtonian Iluid. Also, the viscous dissipation of the non-Newtonian fluid examined is generally less than that of the equivalent Newtonian fluid. A c k n o w l e d g m e n t . The author is indebted to the National Science Foundation for funds provided under grant G 19819.
Received 18th December, 1962. REFERENCES
I) B r o d n y a n , J. G., F. H. Gaskins and W. Philippoff, Trans. Soc. Rheol. I (1959) 109. 2) C a s w e l l , B., Fluids mechanics of non-Newtonian fluicls, Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 1962.

18~ 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) I0) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16)

R A Y L E I G H AND STOKES P R O B L E M S C a s w e l l , B. and W. H. S c h w a r z , J. Fluid Mech. 13 (1962) 417. C o l e m a n , t3. D. and W. Noll, Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 6 (1960) 355. L e s l i e , F. M., Quart. J. Mech. and Appl. Math. 8 (1961) 36. M a r k o v i t z , H. and D. R. B r o w n , Trans. Soc. o5 Rheol., to appear (1962). M e r r i l l , E. W., H. S. M i c k l e y , A. R a r e and G. P e r k i n s o n , Trans. Soc. of Rheol. 5 (1961) 237. Noll, W., Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 2 (1958) 197. O l d r o y d , J. G., Proc. Roy. Soc. A 245 (1958) 278. O l d r o y d , J. G., Rheologica Acta 1 (1961) 337. R a y l e i g h , J., Theory of Sound, Dover Publications, 1945. R i v l i n , R. S., J. Rat. Mech. Anal. 5 (1956) 179. R i v l i n , R. S. and J. L. E r i c k s e n , J. Rat. Mech. Anal. 4 (1955) 323. R o b e r t s , J. E., Proc. Sec. Int. Congr. Rheology, Oxford (1953) 91. Tores, B. A. and D. J. S t r a w b r i d g e , Proc. Sec. Cong. Rheology, Ox~or4 (1953) 99. Tores, B. A. and D. J. S t r a w b r i d g e , Trans. Faraday Soc. 49 (1953) !225.