PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY TRAITS

What is Personality?
Personality is made up the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors that make a person unique. Personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.

What Is Development?
Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to death. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality development.

Personality development
Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environment.

Personality Development quintessentially means enhancing and grooming one s outer and inner self to bring about a positive change to your life. !ach individual has a distinct persona that can be developed, polished and refined. This process includes boosting one s confidence, improving communication and language speaking abilities, widening ones scope of knowledge, developing certain hobbies or skills, learning fine etiquettes and manners, adding style and grace to the way one looks, talks and walks and overall imbibing oneself with positivity, liveliness and peace.

Three aspects o personality

"n simple terms, it is made up of three aspects namely# !haracter "ehavior Attit#de Personality development is the improvement of behavior, communication skills, interpersonal relationships, attitude towards life and ethics. $haracter can be considered the basic factor in determining an individual s personality. There are several psychologists who say that improving character and behavior alone will largely influence one s personality. %ood behavior and co&operation makes a man popular. 's a result, the possibilities of his progress and success are much more. The person who wants to improve his personality has to have a desire and determination( he has to identify the direction for his goals to achieve it. )nce all the above three steps are taken he has to dedicate himself to the task of achieving his goal. !very human being is a unique creature. Therefore, in addition to the various common components, each one should develop his or her characteristics of personality.

!omponents o personality
Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon after birth. ' child*s personality has several components# temperament, environment, and character

$irst component
Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child*s approach to the world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits, but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls behavior.

Second component

' second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child*s specific environment. +ost psychologists agree that these two factors, temperament and environment,influence the development of a person*s personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as -nature,- while the environmental factors are called -nurture.-

Third component
.inally, the third component of personality is character,the set of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and behaves.

Learnin% and Personality Development

/earning is a very important part in the development of someone s personality, and two learning processes are especially important# operant conditioning and observational learning.

Operant !onditionin% & Personality

)perant conditioning takes place when a reinforcer shapes a behavior. ' reinforce is something which increases the occurrences of a particular type of behavior. "f we apply this to personality development, it becomes obvious why learning plays an important role in the type of personality we have.

O'servational Learnin% & Personality

)bservational learning is another form of learning which plays a highly influential role in shaping our personality. )bservational learning occurs when you watch someone else 0a role model1, and then attempt to imitate their behavior and incorporate it as your own.

Personality determinants(
)eredity(

2eredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical structure, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be completely or substantially influenced by who your parents were, that is by their biological, physiological and inherent psychological make up.

Environment(
The environmental factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends and social groups, and other influences that we experience.

Sit#ation(
' third factor, the situation, influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. 'n individual s personality although generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The varying demand of different situation calls forth different aspects of one s personality.

Personality Development and ho* it can chan%e o#r li e(

There are various factors you will need to consider for personality development so that it has a positive effect on your life. Personality development is all about your individualism and how you control your emotions to act in a way that is most beneficial for you.

POSITI+E SEL$,ESTEE2igh self&esteem leads to a happy, gratifying and powerful life. 3nless you perceive yourself as worthwhile, you cannot have high self&esteem. 'll great world leaders and teachers throughout history have concluded that one must be internally driven in order to be success.

Importance o Positive Attit#de

Positive attitude can do wonders. "t can make possible what is seemingly impossible for the others. Positive attitude is the seed out of which positive traits, which are essential for success sprout forth. "t is the positive attitude again which waters and

feeds the sapling of positive traits.

Why Personality Development is Important

' person s personality is defined by their characteristics, behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. These aspects start developing during childhood, and are strengthened and molded as the person grows into adulthood. ' very important thing you need to remember is that your personality, regardless of what it is now, can develop and evolve. The significance of this understanding is that you can still do something about your personality today, which means that if you think your personality needs to be changed or improved, then you can make this happen. 4hy is personality development important5 The following points will help you understand why.

6our Personality 4ill 2elp 6ou 7uild 8trong Personal 9elationships 6our Personality 4ill Dictate 8uccess in 6our $areer Personality Development 2elps 6ou "mprove

PERSONALITY TRAITS
!ON!EPTIONS O$ TRAITS
Traits are defined as -a distinguishing quality or characteristic, as of personality.- "n other words, this means that personality traits are the distinguishing characteristics that make you -you.- Personality traits are the unique set of characteristics and qualities that only you possess.

+alidity o the "i% $ive

"n a :;<: symposium in 2onolulu, four prominent researchers, /ewis %oldberg, =aomi Takemoto&$hock, 'ndrew $omrey, and >ohn +. Digman, reviewed the available personality tests of the day. They concluded that the tests which held the most promise measured a subset of five common factors, ?ust =orman had discovered in :;@A. This

event was followed by widespread acceptance of the five factor model among personality researchers during the :;<Bs.

"I. $I+E $A!TORS

Openness !onscientio#sness E/traversion A%reea'leness Ne#roticism

Openness
Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are more likely to hold unconventional beliefs.

!onscientio#sness
!onscientio#sness is a tendency to show self&discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement against measures or outside expectations. The trait shows a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. "t influences the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses.

E/traversion
E/traversion is characterized by positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. !xtraverts en?oy being with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action&oriented individuals who are likely to say -6esC- or -/et*s goC- to opportunities for excitement. "n groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves.

A%reea'leness
A%reea'leness is a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. The trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. 'greeable individual value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to

compromise their interests with others. 'greeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy.

Ne#roticism
Ne#roticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. "t is sometimes called emotional instability. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. 'fter you answer the questions, you are given a percentile score. 8o, for example, a person might be#

<BD open EBD conscientious FBD extroverted @BD agreeable GBD neurotic

This combination of scores can give you a pretty good idea of the personality of the person who took the test.

Personality across the Li espan

Sta'ility vs0 !han%e in Personality across the Li e !o#rse
Evidence o Sta'ility(
' more level& headed look at personality in adulthood, taking issue with the attractive but facile notion that people grow and change, that they adopt different values and perspectives on life, even becoming wiser and more worldly as temperament cools with the years. 8ome evidence of differences in various age groups exists, the review fails to find strong, consistent evidence of change on any dimension. ' study found maturational declines in activity level and masculinity. 7ut because some of these effects were small or could not be replicated in later studies, the results find to be inconsequential. "n conclusion, they state# -The moral seems to be that so many factors && sampling, cohort differences,

practice effects, time of measurement artifacts, selective mortality && affect results that most so&called aging effects are probably spurious.-

Evidence o !han%e(
There is evidence of both stability and change, depending largely upon the construct under investigation, the instrument used, the length of the observation interval, and the kind of stability examined. 3nfortunately, virtually all of these studies restrict their analysis to the personality changes that occur in young to middle adulthood.

Interpretation Di ic#lties(
8tability in personality can essentially refer to two kinds of stability, absolute stability and relative stability. ' person who scores a ;H out of :BB points on a personality measure at the first assessment point and receives the same score at the second assessment point has demonstrated absolute stability over the interval. 2is or her mean level has not changed at all. 2owever, one might interpret stability to mean that a person*s personality score at the first assessment point correlates highly with the score obtained at the second measurement point. This is a measure of relative stability. "t is crucial to understand, however, that these kinds of fluctuations are precisely what the developmental psychologist is looking for, i.e., they are likely to reveal the maturation of personality over time.

-ethodolo%ical -iscalc#lations(
a1 the relia'ility o personality meas#res across time( )ne of the hallmarks of a good personality measure is sufficient reliability. ' very common method of ensuring reliability is to retest the same individuals after a certain interval, i.e., retest reliability. "n other words, the personality measure is administered once and then again at some later time point. 7y using this criteria of test reliability, however, the developers of personality scales have virtually assured themselves of some measure of temporal stability. 2aving created a measure using retest reliability criteria, it would be rather silly to express surprise over the fact that the measure is indeed stable over time. '1 the %enerali2a'ility o personality meas#res across a%e %ro#ps( Personality questionnaires undergo continual refinement until the instruments have demonstrated their applicability to a wide range of individuals. 'n implicit assumption of the differential approach is that people of all colors and from all walks of life can be measured using the same personality instruments. This simple premise has far reaching consequences for the stability of the construct being measured.

!oncept#al $allacies(
a1 the de inition o personality( "t is common to refer to a personality trait as a characteristic manner of responding that is acquired in early childhood and changes little over time. 2owever, if this proposition is a priori true, then obviously, the stability issue cannot be settled by empirical means. 's an old college professor " knew was fond of saying, -2e who defines the term wins the argument.- 'ny theorist who defines personality as being a stable or enduring aspect of the self wins the stability vs. change debate, though he does so cheaply. +ore importantly, he must abandon all hope of ob?ectively resolving the issue by assessing personality across the lifespan. '1 the lac3 o theoretical e/planations o sta'ility( $hange and stability have been largely understood in terms of the self, not personality. "n a discussion of the resilience of the aging self, authors note that well&being and life satisfaction remain relatively stable over time, despite the fact that the elderly, at least relative to younger persons, more often suffer from poor health and bereavement. They then contend that -it is somewhat ironic that theories Iof successful agingJ have been developed to explain null effects Iin well&beingJ -." strongly disagree# stability under these circumstances is nothing short of miraculous and thus, clearly worthy of study. "n a re?oinder to the original article#

The stability vs. change debate has been described as an empirical quagmire, much akin to the nature vs. nurture feud in personality psychology. "t is perhaps time to recognize that the two positions are not mutually exclusive. 4e need to focus on other questions, such as -3nder what conditions does personality show stability and change5 4hat are the antecedents and consequences of stable and changing personalities during the aging process.

!han%e in Personality in Later Li e( Physical Dependency and the Dependent Personality

Temperament(

Temperaments arc often regarded as biologically based psychological tendencies with intrinsic paths of development. "t is argued that this definition applies to the personality traits of the five&factor model.

A Theoretical Perspective on Temperament(

There is no hard and fast distinction between temperament and personality.The 'merican 2eritage Dictionary of the !nglish /anguage defines temperament as -the manner of thinking, behaving, or reacting characteristic of a specific individual- a definition which might serve equally well for personality trait. Temperament is frequently regarded as a constitutional predisposition, observable in preverbal infants and animals, and tied, at least theoretically, to basic psychological processes. Personality traits, in contrast, are often assumed to be acquired patterns of thought and behavior that might be found only in organisms with sophisticated cognitive systems. $onstructs like authoritarianism, self&monitoring, and narcissism do not appear to be directly applicable to chimpanzees or human infants.

Personality Traits as Endo%eno#s "asic Tendencies )erita'ility o personality(

Personality traits have a substantial genetic component, little or no component that can be attributed to shared environmental effects 0e.g., attending the same school or having the same parents1, and a residual component about which little is yet known. 2eritability is virtually a sine qua non of biologically based theories of personality, so it is crucial to note that it is not limited to =euroticism and !xtraversion, which are often conceded to be temperamental traits. 'll five factors are heritable( in fact, some estimates find the strongest evidence of heritability.

St#dies o parental in l#ences(

7ehavior&genetic designs infer effects indirectly from the phenotypic similarity of people with different kinds and degrees of relatedness( they do not directly measure any putative cause of personality traits. There are, however, studies that have linked child&rearing behaviors or parent child relations to adult personality traits. +ost of these studies were retrospective, and many found some association., for example, previously reported that men and women who recalled their parents as being especially loving described themselves as being better ad?usted and more agreeable. 'lthough this appears to provide direct support for parental influences on personality, there are many alternative interpretations.

!ross,c#lt#ral st#dies o personality str#ct#re(

"t is possible that environmental influences relevant to personality development lie outside the family, in the broader institutions that are collectively called culture. 's a biologically based phenomenon common to the human species, the fundamental structure of infant and child temperament ought to transcend culture, and there is some evidence that it does. 7ut over time, many psychologists would find it reasonable to argue that the pervasive forces of culture can arbitrarily redefine the parameters of personality,indeed, that was a central premise of the school of culture and personality that flourished in the first half of this century.

!omparative st#dies(
The five&factor model may be found in every culture because it is a product of human biology( recent research on animals suggests that at least some of the five factors may also be shared by nonhuman species. 'uthor asked cat and dog owners to describe their pets, with terms taken from the five&factor model or from a list intended to describe temperament in animals. "n both instruments and in both species, they found four factors# three corresponding to =euroticism, !xtraversion, and 'greeableness, and the fourth combining features of )penness to !xperience and $onscientiousness in a kind of animal "ntellect factor.

Temporal sta'ility o ad#lt personality(

7eginning in the :;HBs, several independent longitudinal studies began to address "he stability of individual differences in personality traits. 9esults, with researchers using a variety of samples, instruments, and methods of measurement, showed a consistent pattern of stability. 9etest correlations over @, :G, or GB years were not much smaller than short&term retest reliabilities( personality in HB& year&olds could be predicted with remarkable accuracy from assessments made AB years earlier.

Personality theories
Personality psycholo%y(
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and individual differences. "ts areas of focus include#

$onstructing psychological "nvestigating one another. "nvestigating

a coherent picture of a person and his or her ma?or processes individual differences, that is, how people can differ from human nature, that is, how all people*s behavior is similar

The word -personality- originates from the /atin persona, which means mask. 8ignificantly, in the theatre of the ancient /atin&speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character. The pioneering 'merican psychologist, %ordon 'llport 0:;AH1 described two ma?or ways to study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self&actualization, or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual. The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology, with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The ma?or theories include dispositional 0trait1 perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist and social learning perspective. Philosophical ass#mptions( +any of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five categories are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions on which theorists disagree# 40 $reedom vers#s Determinism( $ree *ill This is the debate over whether we have control over our own behavior and understand the motives behind it 0.reedom1, or if our behavior is causally determined by forces beyond our control 0Determinism1. 50 )eredity vers#s Environment( -ain article( Nat#re vers#s n#rt#re

Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology, by environment and experiences, or by some combination resulting thereof. There is evidence for all possibilities. 60 7ni8#eness vers#s 7niversality( The argument over whether we are all unique individuals 03niqueness1 or if humans are basically similar in their nature 03niversality1. %ordon 'llport, 'braham +aslow, and $arl 9ogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. 90 Active vers#s Reactive( Do we primarily act through our own initiative 0'ctive1, or react to outside stimuli 09eactive15 7ehavioral theorists typically believe that humans are passively shaped by their environments, whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists believe that humans are more active. :0 Optimistic vers#s Pessimistic( Personality theories differ on whether people can change their personalities 0)ptimism1, or if they are doomed to remain the same throughout their lives 0Pessimism1. Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are often, but not always, more optimistic than theories that do not emphasize learning. Personality theories( Trait theories( 'ccording to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the 'merican Psychiatric 'ssociation, personality traits are -enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts.- Theorists generally assume a1 traits are relatively stable over time, b1 traits differ among individuals 0e.g. some people are outgoing while others are reserved1, and c1 traits influence behavior. Trait models have been criticized as being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the underlying causes of personality. !ysenck*s theory, however, does propose biological mechanisms as driving traits, and modern behavior genetics researchers have shown a clear genetic substrate to them.

Type theories( Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come in different levels or degrees. The idea of psychological types originated in the theoretical work of $arl >ung and 4illiam +arston, whose work is reviewed in Dr. Travis 7radberry*s Self-Awareness. >ung*s seminal :;G: book on the sub?ect is available in !nglish as Psychological Types. The model is an older and more theoretical approach to personality, accepting extraversion and introversion as basic psychological orientations in connection with two pairs of psychological functions#

Perceiving functions# 8ensing and intuition 0trust in concrete, sensory&oriented facts vs. trust in abstract concepts and imagined possibilities1 >udging functions# Thinking and feeling 0basing decisions primarily on logic vs. considering the effect on people1.

7riggs and +yers also added another personality dimension to their type indicator to measure whether a person prefers to use a ?udging or perceiving function when interacting with the external world. Therefore they included questions designed to indicate whether someone wishes to come to conclusions 0?udgment1 or to keep options open 0perception1. Type A and Type " personality theory( During the :;FBs, +eyer .riedman and his co&workers defined what they called Type ' and Type 7 behavior patterns. They theorized that intense, hard&driving Type ' personalities had a higher risk of coronary disease because they are -stress ?unkies.- Type 7 people, on the other hand, tended to be relaxed, less competitive, and lower in risk. Psychoanalytic theories( Psychoanalytic theories explain human behavior in terms of the interaction of various components of personality. 8igmund .reud was the founder of this school. .reud drew on the physics of his day 0thermodynamics1 to coin the term psychodynamics. 7ased on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, he proposed psychic energy could be converted into behavior. .reud*s theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological conflicts. .reud divides human personality into three significant components# the id, ego, and super&ego. The id acts according to the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification of its needs regardless of external

environment( the ego then must emerge in order to realistically meet the wishes and demands of the id in accordance with the outside world, adhering to the reality principle. .inally, the superego 0conscience1 inculcates moral ?udgment and societal rules upon the ego, thus forcing the demands of the id to be met not only realistically but morally. "ehaviorist theories( 7ehaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior. "t was a radical shift away from .reudian philosophy. This school of thought was developed by 7. .. 8kinner who put forth a model which emphasized the mutual interaction of the person or -the organismwith its environment. 8kinner believed children do bad things because the behavior obtains attention that serves as a reinforce. Social co%nitive theories( "n cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions 0e.g. expectations1 about the world, especially those about other people. $ognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize cognitive processes such as thinking and ?udging. +ore central to this field have been#

8elf&efficacy # 4ork, dealing with confidence people have in abilities to do tasks. /ocus of control# Theory dealing with different beliefs people have about whether their worlds are controlled by themselves or external factors( 'ttribution style theory# Dealing with different ways in which people explain events in their lives. This approach builds upon locus of control, but extends it by stating we also need to consider whether people attribute to stable causes or variable causes, and to global causes or specific causes.

)#manistic theories( "n humanistic psychology it is emphasized people have free will and they play an active role in determining how they behave. 'ccordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on sub?ective experiences of persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behavior. 'braham +aslow

and $arl 9ogers were proponents of this view, which is based on the -phenomenal field- theory of $ombs and 8nygg 0:;E;1. +aslow spent much of his time studying what he called -self&actualizing persons-, those who are -fulfilling themselves and doing the best they are capable of doing-. +aslow believes all who are interested in growth move towards self&actualizing 0growth, happiness, satisfaction1 views. +any of these people demonstrate a trend in dimensions of their personalities. "iopsycholo%ical theories( 8ome of the earliest thinking about possible biological bases of personality grew out of the case of Phineas %age. "n an :<E< accident, a large iron rod was driven through %age*s head, and his personality apparently changed as a result 0although descriptions of these psychological changes are usually exaggerated , see the article on %age1.

Personality Disorder
Personality disorders are pervasive chronic psychological disorders, which can greatly affect a person*s life. 2aving a personality disorder can negatively affect one*s work, one*s family, and one*s social life. Personality disorders exists on a continuum so they can be mild to more severe in terms of how pervasive and to what extent a person exhibits the features of a particular personality disorder. 4hile most people can live pretty normal lives with mild personality disorders 0or more simply, personality traits1, during times of increased stress or external pressures 0work, family, a new relationship, etc.1, the symptoms of the personality disorder will gain strength and begin to seriously interfere with their emotional and psychological functioning.

Eccentric Personality Disorders( Paranoid; Schi2oid; Schi2otypal

"ndividuals with these disorders often appear odd or peculiar, and show these patterns by early adulthood and in various contexts 0e.g., work, home, social situations1. 'n individual with Paranoid Personality Disorder generally tends to interpret the actions of others as threatening. Paranoid Personality Disorder is a condition characterized by excessive distrust and suspiciousness of others. This disorder is only diagnosed when these behaviors become persistent and very disabling or distressing.

These are amon% the most #npleasant people in the *orld0 Every remar3 yo# ma3e is e/ha#stively analy2ed or hidden meanin%s< everythin% yo# do is interpreted in the *orst possi'le li%ht< everyone is 'elieved to have an a%enda; an an%le0

$ause#
The specific cause of this disorder is unknown, but the incidence appears increased in families with a s chizophrenic member. Paranoid personality disorder can result from negative childhood experiences fostered by a threatening domestic atmosphere. "t is prompted by extreme and unfounded parental rage andKor condescending parental influence that cultivate profound child insecurities.

Treatment(
Treatment of paranoid personality disorder can be very effective in controlling the paranoia but is difficult because the person may be suspicious of the doctor. 4ithout treatment this disorder will be chronic. +edications and therapy are common and effective approaches to alleviating the disorder. 'n individual with Schi2oid Personality Disorder is generally detached from social relationships, and shows a narrow range of emotional expression in various social settings.

!a#se(
/ittle is known about the cause of schizoid personality disorder, but both genetics and environment are suspected to play a role. 8ome mental health professionals speculate that a bleak childhood where warmth and emotion were absent contributes to the development of the disorder. The higher risk for schizoid personality disorder in families of schizophrenics suggests that a genetic susceptibility for the disorder might be inherited.

Treatment(
People with this disorder rarely seek treatment because their thoughts and behavior generally do not cause them distress. Their inability to form relationships with others also poses a challenge for therapists because trust is an important component of treatment.

Psychotherapy L a form of counseling L is the most commonly used treatment for schizoid personality disorder. Treatment likely will focus on increasing general coping skills, as well as on improving social interaction, communication, and self&esteem. ' person with Schi2otypal Personality Disorder is uncomfortable in close relationships, has thought or perceptual distortions, and peculiarities of behavior. 8chizotypal Personality Disorder is a condition characterized by acute discomfort with, and reduced capacity for, close relationships as well as by cognitive or perceptual distortions and eccentricities of behavior.

!a#se(
9ecently there has been an increased interest in studying the neurobiology of personality disorders, and, in particular, schizotypal personaluity disorder 08PD1. 8PD is characterised by cognitive or perceptual distortions, an inability to tolerate close friendships, and odd behavior, but not frank psychosis. )f particular importance to 8PD is the concept of the -schizophrenia spectrum,- a concept derived from evidence that persons with 8PD and schizophrenia often share a common genetic diathesis and show similar, though not identical symptoms. ' comparison of findings in 8PD with those in schizophrenics may help to clarify what factors lead to psychosis.

Treatment(
.ew individuals with a $luster ' personality disorder are particularly inclined to seek treatment. They are often forced into therapy by family or the legal system. 2owever, once there, individuals with 8tPD may respond positively to an environment structured to allow them greater personal and interpersonal success than they can achieve outside of the treatment setting. They are not inclined to prefer isolation( they frequently move to greater and greater isolation via social distress and re?ection.

Dramatic Personality Disorders( Antisocial; "orderline; )istrionic; and Narcissistic

"ndividuals with these disorders have intense, unstable emotions, distorted self& perception, andKor behavioral impulsiveness. "ndividuals with Antisocial Personality Disorder show a pervasive disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others since age :F years.

$ause#

The cause of this disorder is unknown, but biological or genetic factors may play a role. The incidence of antisocial personality is higher in people who have an antisocial biological parents. 'lthough the diagnosis is limited to those over :< years of age, there is usually a history of similar behaviors before age :F, such as repetitive lying, truancy, delinquency, and substance abuse. This disorder tends to occur more often in men and in people whose predominant role model had antisocial features.

Treatment(
!ffective treatment of antisocial behavior and personality is limited. %roup psychotherapy can be helpful. "f the person can develop a sense of trust, individual psychotherapy or cognitive behavioral therapy can also be beneficial. There is no research that supports the use of medications for direct treatment of antisocial personality disorder, though. "ndividuals with "orderline Personality Disorder show a generalized pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self&image, and observable emotions, and significant impulsiveness. !motionally 3nstable 07orderline1 Personality Disorder is a condition characterized by impulsive actions, rapidly shifting moods, and chaotic relationships. The individual usually goes from one emotional crisis to another. )ften there is dependency, separation anxiety, unstable self&image, chronic feelings of emptiness, and threats of self&harm 0suicide or self& mutilation1.

!a#se(
's with other mental disorders, the causes of borderline personality disorder aren*t fully understood. .actors that seem likely to play a role include#

.enetics0 8ome studies of twins and families suggest that personality

disorders may be inherited.

Environmental actors0 +any people with borderline personality

disorder have a history of childhood abuse, neglect and separation from caregivers or loved ones.

"rain a'normalities0 8ome research has shown changes in certain

areas of the brain involved in emotion regulation, impulsivity and aggression. "n

addition, certain brain chemicals that help regulate mood, such as serotonin, may not function properly. +ost likely, a combination of these issues results in borderline personality disorder.

Treatment(
Treatments for 7PD have improved in recent years. %roup and individual psychotherapy are at least partially effective for many patients. 4ithin the past :F years, a new psychosocial treatment termed dialectical behavior therapy 0D7T1 was developed specifically to treat 7PD, and this technique has looked promising in treatment studies . Pharmacological treatments are often prescribed based on specific target symptoms shown by the individual patient. 'ntidepressant drugs and mood stabilizers may be helpful for depressed andKor labile mood. 'ntipsychotic drugs may also be used when there are distortions in thinking. 7eginning in early adulthood, individuals with )istrionic Personality Disorder often display excessive emotionality and attention seeking in various contexts. 2istrionic Personality Disorder is a condition characterized by excessive emotionality and attention& seeking.

!a#se(
The exact cause of histrionic personality disorder is not known, but many mental health professionals believe that both learned and inherited factors play a role in its development. .or example, the tendency for histrionic personality disorder to run in families suggests that a genetic susceptibility for the disorder might be inherited. 2owever, the child of a parent with this disorder might simply be repeating learned behavior. )ther environmental factors that might be involved include a lack of criticism or punishment as a child, positive reinforcement that is given only when a child completes certain approved behaviors, and unpredictable attention given to a child by his or her parent0s1, all leading to confusion about what types of behavior earn parental approval.

Treatment(
"n general, people with histrionic personality disorder do not believe they need therapy. They also tend to exaggerate their feelings and to dislike routine, which makes following a treatment plan difficult. 2owever, they might seek help if depression , possibly associated with a loss or a failed relationship , or another problem caused by their thinking and behavior causes them distress.

Psychotherapy 0a type of counseling1 is generally the treatment of choice for histrionic personality disorder. The goal of treatment is to help the individual uncover the motivations and fears associated with his or her thoughts and behavior, and to help the person learn to relate to others in a more positive way. "ndividuals with Narcissistic Personality Disorder often have a grandiose view of themselves, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy that begins by early adulthood and is present in various situations. These individuals are very demanding in their relationships. =arcissistic personality disorder is a condition characterized by an inflated sense of self&importance, need for admiration , extreme self&involvement, and lack of empathy for others.

!a#se(
The exact cause of narcissistic personality disorder is not known. 2owever, many mental health professionals believe it results from extremes in child rearing. .or example, the disorder might develop as the result of excessive pampering, or when a child s parents have a need for their children to be talented or special in order to maintain their own self&esteem.

Treatment(
There is no known cure for narcissistic personality disorder, but psychotherapy 0a type of counseling1 might help the person learn to relate to others in a more positive and rewarding way. Psychotherapy tries to provide the person with greater insight into his or her problems and attitudes in the hope that this will change behavior. The goal of therapy is to help the person develop a better self&esteem and more realistic expectations of others. +edicine might be used to treat the distressing symptoms, such as behavioral problems, that might occur with this disorder.

An/io#s Personality Disorders( Avoidant; Dependent; O'sessive,!omp#lsive

"ndividuals with these disorders often appear anxious or fearful, and like the other personality disorders, the generalized patterns described below typically begin in early adulthood, and are present in various contexts.

An/io#s =Avoidant1 Personality Disorder is a condition characterized

by extreme shyness, feelings of inadequacy, and sensitivity to re?ection. These individuals feel inferior to others. This disorder is only diagnosed when these behaviors become persistent and very disabling or distressing.

!a#ses(
The cause of avoidant personality disorder is not clearly defined, and may be influenced by a combination of social, genetic , and biological factors. 'voidant personality traits typically appear in childhood, with signs of excessive shyness and fear when the child confronts new people and situations. These characteristics are also developmentally appropriate emotions for children, however, and do not necessarily mean that a pattern of avoidant personality disorder will continue into adulthood.

Treatment(
Treatment of 'voidant PD can employ various techniques, such as social skills training, cognitive therapy, exposure treatment to gradually increase social contacts, group therapy for practicing social skills, and sometimes drug therapy. ' key issue in treatment is gaining and keeping the patient*s trust, since people with 'voidant PD will often start to avoid treatment sessions if they distrust the therapist or fear re?ection. The primary purpose of both individual therapy and social skills group training is for individuals with 'voidant PD to begin challenging their exaggerated negative beliefs about themselves. ' person with Dependent Personality Disorder shows an extreme need to be taken care of that leads to fears of separation, and passive and clinging behavior. Dependent Personality Disorder is a condition characterized by an over& reliance on others that leads to submissive and clinging behavior and fears of separation. The dependent and submissive behaviors arise from feeling unable to cope without the help of others.

!a#se(
'lthough the exact cause of dependent personality disorder is not known, it most likely involves both biological and developmental factors. 8ome researchers believe an authoritarian or overprotective parenting style can lead to the development of dependent personality traits in people who are susceptible to the disorder.

Treatment(
's is the case with many personality disorders, people with Dependent Personality Disorder generally do not seek treatment for the disorder itself. 9ather, they might seek treatment when a problem in their lives , often resulting from thinking or behavior related to the disorder , become overwhelming, and they are no longer able to cope. People with Dependent Personality Disorder are prone to developing depression or anxiety, and symptoms of these disorders might prompt the individual to seek help. 'n individual with O'sessive !omp#lsive Personality Disorder is preoccupied with orderliness, perfectionism, and control at the expense of

flexibility, openness, and efficiency. )bsessive&$ompulsive Personality Disorder is a condition characterized by a chronic preoccupation with rules, orderliness, and control.

!a#ses(
=o single specific cause of )bsessive $ompulsive Personality Disorder has been identified. 8ince the early days of .reudian psychoanalysis , however, faulty parenting has been viewed as a ma?or factor in the development of personality disorders. $urrent studies have tended to support the importance of early life experiences, finding that healthy emotional development largely depends on two important variables# parental warmth and appropriate responsiveness to the child*s needs. 4hen these qualities are present, the child feels secure and appropriately valued.

Treatment(
Treatment for )bsessive $ompulsive Personality Disorder normally involves psychotherapy and self&help. +edication in isolation is generally not indicated for this personality disorder, but fluoxetine has been prescribed with success. 'nti&anxiety medication may reduce feelings of fear while 889"s 0anti& depressants1 can ease frustration, reducing stubbornness and negative rumination. ' mild tranquilizer can reduce alcohol dependence, if present. 'DD medication can improve task completion by improving mental focus, which will provide visible success and improve outlook for recovery. $affeine sensitivity may be an exacerbating factor.