Chapter 1 Introduction

General
Civil Engineering:
"Civil engineering is a vital art, working with the great sources of power in nature for the wealth and well-being of the whole of society. Its essential feature is the exercise of imagination to engineer the products and processes, and develop the people needed to create and maintain a sustainable natural and built environment. It requires a broad understanding of scientific principles, knowledge of materials and the art of analysis and synthesis. It also requires research, team working, leadership and business skills". Or "Civil engineering is field of engineering sciences, related to design, construction and maintenance of buildings, dams, bridges, tunnels, highways and other structures by the use of physical laws, mathematical equations and theories of mechanics".

Different part of civil engineering are as follow:

Structural Environmental Water resources Geotechnical Construction Transportation Surveying

Material used in construction

Adobe: A sun dried brick derived from a yellow silt or clay deposited by rivers. Brick: A block of clay hardened by drying in the sun or burning in a kiln. Bricks come in numerous shapes and sizes. Bricks come in numerous densities and hardness depending on the baking process, parent material and the material mixed with it for hardening (pebbles, hay, grass, twigs etc).

Earth, Rammed: Soils with high clay contents are pulverized moistened and dumped into frames or formed into walls. Compaction is created by ramming. These buildings are allowed to sun dry. Structurally sound and weather resistant, these buildings survive for several hundred years or more.

Metal Sheet: Thin sheets of metal including gold, copper, bronze, steel and aluminum or others, used for siding or roofing in architecture. This includes corrugated metal. Sheet metal is used to protect exposed surfaces or for aesthetic reasons, rather than load bearing.

Stone: Limestone, marble, granite, sandstone and other durable rocks are used for construction. These rocks are altered and polished for specific needs and come in almost any shape imaginable. They are load bearing and durable often lasting thousands of years or more. Stone is used as facing, for internal support and augments or is augmented by brick and timber constructions.

Timber: The most widely used material for building. It is light, durable, strong and easily managed. Woods range widely in density and durability.

Concrete: Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space among the aggregate particles and glues them together.

Concrete is widely used for making architectural structures, foundations, brick/block walls, pavements, bridges/overpasses,

highways, runways, parking structures, dams, pools/reservoirs, pipes, footings for gates, fences and poles and even boats.

Material used in concrete

Cement: Cement is binding material . It is used to bind sand and aggregate. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminum. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay and grinding this product

(called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum). Water: Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely. Lower water to concrete ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete, while more water gives a free-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure. Aggregates: Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates. The presence of aggregate greatly increases the durability of concrete above that of cement, which is a brittle material in its pure state. Thus concrete is a true composite material. Reinforcement: Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads. Sand: Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

Stages of concreting
Formwork: Formwork is an ancillary construction, used as a mould for a structure. Into this mould, fresh concrete is placed only to harden subsequently. The construction of formwork takes time and involves

expenditure up to 20 to 25% of the cost of the structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures is made to economic expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms. A group of elements and parts designed to impart the required form to cast concrete or reinforced-concrete structures erected at a construction site. Selection of the type of formwork is determined by the nature of the buildings or structures for which concrete is being poured and the relationship of their geometric dimensions, the production technology used, and climatic conditions.

The preparation of concrete: Concrete is made by mixing natural materials without heating: cement, aggregate (sand and chippings), water and perhaps additives. This mixture hardens after a few hours.

The placement of concrete: The placement of concrete is a very important operation, which largely determines the success of a structure and its durability. Particular care is therefore necessary and all the technical and climatic parameters must be considered. There are a number of different phases between the time when concrete leaves the mixer and the finished structure: transport, pouring into formwork or a mould, vibration, maturing, form removal and curing.

The vibration of concrete: Vibration is essential to obtain compact concrete with good mechanical and physical characteristics. Applying vibration to fresh concrete helps the packing of the particles in the concrete (the grains interlock leaving as little empty space as possible). During vibration, concrete behaves like a viscous liquid, which means it fills the formwork more completely and coats the reinforcement effectively. This is of two main types:

Internal vibrators, in which vibration is caused by a needle (consisting of a tube containing a rotating eccentric mass) that acts directly on the concrete. External vibrators, which act indirectly on the concrete via the formwork or a beam. Concrete curing: Curing involves protecting the surface of the concrete from drying out and making sure the concrete achieves satisfactory maturation. When concrete hardens, particularly during adverse weather conditions (wind, sun, low humidity) it is important not to allow the water it contains to evaporate before all the cement grains have been hydrated. Curing is particularly important in the case of slabs and pavements whose large surface area encourages evaporation.

Formwork:
Definition: "Formwork is a die or a mould including all supporting structures, used to shape and support the concrete until it attains sufficient strength to carry its own weight. It should be capable of carrying all imposed dead and live loads apart from its own weight." Types of formwork Timber formwork Steel formwork Plywood formwork Hardboard formwork Aluminium formwork Plastic formwork

Timber formwork: Timber is required for practically all jobs of formwork. The timber bring used for formwork must satisfy the following requirements: It should be durable and treatable. It should have sufficient strength characteristics. It should be light weight and well seasoned without warping. It should be easily workable with nails without splitting. It should be free from loose knots.

Advantages of using timber forms: It is economical for small construction jobs It is design flexible and easy to erect It has good thermal insulation which makes it useful to be used in colder Regions It can easily be made into any shape or size

Steel Formwork: This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures. Advantages of steel formwork over timber form: Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their reuses are more in number. Reuses can be assumed to vary from 100 to 120 wares timber varies from 10 to 12. Steel can be installed & dismantled with greater ease & speed resulting in saving in labor cost. Excellent quality of exposed concrete surface obtained. Thus saving in the cost of finishing the concrete surface. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

Plywood Formwork: Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favorably with that of timber shuttering Advantages: It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing and dismantling.

Numbers of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.

Hardboard forms: Hardboard is a board material manufactured of wood fiber, which is then refined or partly refined to form a panel having a density range of approximately 50 to 80 pounds per cubic foot.

Hardboards are standard / non-tempered or tempered. Advantages The tempered one being used for formwork. Tempered hardboard is solid or perforated hardboard panels impregnated with resin under high pressure to make them stronger and more resistant to moisture and abrasion. The boards available in large sheets have a hard, smooth surface that produces a concrete whose surface is relatively free of blemishes and joint marks. The thin sheets can be bent to small radii, which is an advantage when casting concrete members with curved surfaces. Aluminum formwork: Forms made from aluminum are in many respects similar to those made of steel. Advantages: Because of their lower density, aluminum forms are lighter than steel forms, and this is their primary advantage when compared to steel. As the strength of aluminum in handling, tension and compression is less than the strength of steel, it is necessary to use large sections. The formwork turns out to be economical if large numbers of reuses are made in construction. Disadvantage: No changes can be made once the formwork is fabricated.

Plastic formwork: These forms have become increasingly popular for casting unique shapes and patterns being designed in concrete because of the excellent finish obtained requiring minimum or no surface treatment and repairs.

Different types of plastic forms are available like glass reinforced plastic, fiber reinforced plastic and thermoplastics etc. Fiberglass-reinforced plastic is the most
commonly used. Advantages:

The material allows greater freedom of design. Unusual textures and designs can be molded into the form. It allows the contractor to pour structural concrete Simultaneously. Because sections can be joined on the job site in such a way so as to eliminate joints, there is no size limitation. and finished

If carefully handled, a number of reuses are possible making it highly Economical. It is lightweight and easily stripped.

Disadvantages: It does not lend itself to field fabrication Hence, the design and planning of this form must be carefully carried out. Care must take not to damage the plastic by the heat applied for accelerated curing of the concrete.

Type of formwork
Traditional formwork Climbing formwork Sliding formwork or slipping formwork Special formwork

Traditional formwork This usually consists of standard framed panels tied together over their backs with horizontal members called waling. The waling is provided with the basic function of resisting the horizontal force of wet concrete.

One side of the wall formwork is first assembled ensuring that it is correctly aligned, plumbed and strutted. The steel reinforcement cage is then placed and positioned before the other side of the formwork is erected and fixed. Plywood sheet in combination with timber is the most common material used for wall formwork. The usual method is to make up wall forms as framed panels with the plywood facing sheet screwed on to studs on a timber frame. This allows for the plywood to be easily removed and reversed and used on both sides so as to increase the number of reuses.

The wall forms are susceptible to edge and corner damage and must be carefully handled. Special attention must be given to comers and attached piers since the increased pressures applied by wet concrete could cause the abutments to open up, giving rise to unacceptable grout escape and a poor finish to the cast wall.

Climbing formwork Method of casting walls consists of a climbing formwork, the climbing of which may be manual or crane assisted. It employs a common set of forms used in a repetitive manner for casting walls in set vertical lifts. After each casting the forms are removed and raised to form the next lift until the required height has been reached. These forms are widely used in the construction of industrial chimneys, silos, high rise towers & building cores, bridge piers & pylons, airport control towers, telecommunication, towers etc. Advantages Staged construction process allows balance of site resources. Anchor accessories can be reused after each pour, reducing material costs on current and future construction programs. In case of trolley mounted formwork, the panel retracts from the face, providing space for cleaning and fixing of concrete.

Formwork & access platforms lifted as one, minimizing crane support, reducing labour and material costs. Fine adjustments of the form face can be made during construction, providing accurate alignment of the form face vertically & laterally.

Sliding formwork or slipping formwork: Slip form means a continuously moving form, moving with such a speed that concrete when exposed has already achieved enough strength to support the vertical pressure from concrete still in the form as well as to withstand lateral pressure caused by wind etc. Thus, the slip form concreting technique is a rapid and economical construction method that can be applied with great advantage to many types of construction projects such as chimneys, silos, water towers, bridge-columns, lift shaft cores and shaft lining etc. The technique is based on movable forms which are gradually lifted by hydraulic jacks. It is a continuous process where wet concrete is added to wet concrete. Reinforcing steel and/or post tensioned cables are continuously fixed as the normal slipping speed is 3 to 6 meters per 24 hours. The slip form construction is designed for each project depending on the structure of the project. Advantages Minimum consumption of timber and steel plates. Total elimination of traditional scaffolding Minimum requirements of carpenters for assembling. It gives a monolithic structure. The concrete surfaces can be treated and finished while concrete is green, Depending on the weather conditions, it is possible to achieve a vertical rise to the tune of 4 to 5 m in summer and 2 to 3 m in winter. The procedure of continuous slipping is applied to making both inner and outer walls as well as columns of a building. Form climbs.

Permanent formwork Permanent form or stay-in-place formwork is one in which the form is left as an integral part of the structure. Permanent formwork can also be utilized as the facing materials of in situ reinforced concrete. They can be of two typesparticipating and non-participating. The material used for these forms must be durable and of sufficient strength. Commonly used materials include polyvinyl chloride (pvc), galvanized coiled sheet steel, fabricated steel, carbon/epoxy thin shell. The high initial cost of design and installation, lack of familiarity for installation and maintenance and more specified form design are some of the barriers to the use of this form. However, there are various advantages like low cost of transportation and installation, precise form design, maximum flexibility, greater durability with reduced long term maintenance and versatility.

Special formwork These are those forms that are specially designed and manufactured for a particular kind of construction. The need for a special formwork

may arise due to several factors such as when the contract demands the highest class of dimensional tolerance to be followed Where the form work shape required becomes uneconomical or impracticable for site fabrication Where the formwork is required to be self-contained i.e. self propelled, Where rate of concreting, admixtures or types of concrete are such that concrete pressure developed within forms and stresses in the forms demand special attention where a substantial number of re-uses is envisaged

Formwork for different element like:

Column Beam Wall Slab

Columns The function of column formwork is to enable the construction of columns that have the specified surface quality and are acceptably accurate in shape

and position with good alignment to other adjacent columns, walls and building facades . Columns are often constructed with the column

reinforcement extending well above the form. This is done so it can lap with the reinforcement of the next column or floor to be constructed above. The accuracy requirements for columns vary according to their position in the building. The tolerances, which are the maximum permitted deviations, are normally specified in the project documentation. Column Formwork Construction To avoid plywood joints, it is normal practice to cut the sheets length wise in widths to match the column faces. Most column forming methods use plywood to form faces. The corner junctions of the plywood must be detailed to achieve the maximum tig htening action from the column clamps. The corners of the form are usually formed to have a 45 degree arris. Timber angle fillets are used to form the arris. Care must be taken to align the fillet inside the column form.

Erection of formwork for columns Before erecting column formwork, apply a release agent to all internal surfaces. If specified, fix any required edging, metal corners, arris pieces or casted inserts. Prior to the erection of formwork for structural members, it is important to check the exact location of grids relating to the structural member being forme d. The location, size of column, height, and specified finish should be clarified from site documentation. Often hurdles restrict the positioning of grid locations, therefore offsets may be required. It is the contractors responsibility prior to the erection to check site documentation for the exact position of the structural member you are working on. Erection sequence for a column. Prior to positioning column formwork check that steel for the column has been inspected and cleared for casting. Position formwork for the column from predetermined grids. Plumb formwork both ways and securely support using adjustable steel props. The propping angle should be 45 to the floor. Ensure the steel props are safely secured to the column formwork and t he floor, and that adjustment for pushing and pulling is operational.

Set out the positions of column clamps from a storey rod. Transfer the column clamp. positions from the storey rod onto column formwork. Use nails to support the arms of column clamps while wedging. Position and wedge the bottom, middle and top clamps sets. Check the formwork at the top for square. Position and wedge the remainder of the column clamps. Using a plumb bob suspended from a gauge block plumb the column. When all the column formwork is securely propped a final check must be made for plumb and column alignment before and immediately aft er the concrete has been.

poured and vibrated.

Column formwork construction stages Column formwork bracing Column formwork bracing performs two functions: It must maintain the accuracy of the column form position and plumb so that it is within tolerance. With stand results of forces acting on either the column formwork or the bracing. The forces may be wind or impact. These impact forces can occur from the collision of concrete buckets or cranes hoisting materials.

Braced column

BEAM AND SUSPENDED SLAB FORMWORK In a typical reinforced concrete building frame, the slabs are the primary load carrying element. They transfer their load to secondary elements such as walls or beams. Beams can be grouped in two categories. When located in the interior of the structure they are usually TEE Beams and when on the perimeter are L Beams.

Design and construction of beam formwork Beam soffit must be thickened timber or strengthened plywood. Beam sides 18mm plywood or 25mm boards, with studs (cleats)500 to 600mm centres. Deep beams (over 600mm) should have walers and ties. Props or false work must be placed under the head tree, or under the bearers, and must be spaced to suit the weight of concrete. Use angle fillets in the beam side to soffit joint where possible. Allowance must be made for height adjustment of the props or work. Erection sequence for constructing beam formwork includes: Position of sole plates; Marking out and setting heights for false works; false

Assemble and position props, adjustable head jacks, false bearers and Spreaders; Construct and erect side walls and beam soffit. Position of sole plates.

works ,

The purpose of a sole plate is to transfer vertical load from one vertical support member to the foundation. The vertical support requires a base plate fitted to help distribute the load to the sole plate, which is usually a sleeper. If the sole plate is positioned on natural ground, it is important the ground is graded and consolidated to a level surface.The objective is to achieve maximum bearing beneath the sole plate. Once sole plates are positioned and f irmly bedded they should be checked for level.

SUSPENDED SLABS Suspended floor slabs can be constructed using cast insitu, precast units or a combination of both. Whichever method isused, it is im portant to support the proposed method of construction using a combination of timber or steel bearers and adjustable shoring. The spacing and type of suppo rt system required is determined by the load imposed during the construction process. Manufacture rs provide tables to assist in the selection and spacing of adjustable shoring systems. The erection sequence for constructing a suspended floor slab includes: Determining the bearer spacing; Erecting bearers and joists; Fixing the sheeting; Preparation for concrete.

Design and construction of slab formwork As a number of collapses have occurred when pouring suspended slabs, caref ul attention must be given to the overall support system. Unless using a proprietary or well proven system, eng

ineer design is required.Decking will probably be plywood sheets or shutters, but boards and joists could be used. Thick sheets of fibre cement arealso suita ble. Props and other falsework must be perfectly plumb at the time of pouring the concrete. All props and falsework must be tied together and braced. Proprietary bearers in timber or steel are often used as their bearing capacity is easily determined. Consideration must be given to the order of striking, and the installation of permanent or back propping.

Determining The Bearer Spacing

To calculate the bearer spacing measure the span between the supporting wall s. Divide the span by the recommended bearer spacing. This will determine the number of spaces bet ween bearers. Divide the span by the number of calculated spaces. This will establish the centre to centre spacing of bearers.

Erecting Bearers And Joists

Bearers Positioning bearers for a suspended slab are the same as for a beam however: i t is important that sole plates are firmly bedded on either compacted ground or level concrete. Bearer supports must be adequately braced. Extra bearers may be required to support joists and sheeting either side of major penetrations.

Check the following:

bearers are positioned and set in line and adjusted to the correct level. sole plates are bedded firmly and positioned central to the bearer. all bearer supports are plumb. bearer joins are supported. bearers are seated centrally in U heads. supports spaced as specified and are firmly fixed at the head and bearing p

late. all supports are horizontally and diagonally braced.

Joists The position of joists is determined by the sheet length and the centre-to-

centre spacing of the intermediate joists. Check with the specifications of the s heeting material being used. Determine the perimeter support required, laying pattern and whether the face grain is to run parallel or at 90 degrees to the joists. This will effect the joist arrangement. Mark out the joist spacing on the side walls clearly identifying the joists at

the end of each sheet.

Fixing The Sheeting If using formply for sheeting, it is important to avoid damaging the edges

of sheets. By sealing the edges of sheets you will prevent swelling.

Position the first row of sheeting straight and square, this will make fitting

the remainder simpler. Fix intermediate sheeting. Nail off

sheets, seal and install any bevelled trim required to external and internal corn ers. Some specifications require surface tape to be applied over butt joints. Check that joints are sealed, level and tight. Intersections at edge beam formwork are planed flat. Sheeting is fixed as specified.

STAIR FORMWORK Points to consider when designing stair form work Stair formwork must support the weight of concrete. The weight of the thr

oat of the stair and the steps will have to be supported. Because of the slope of the stair, some of the force is transmitted sideways

. All formwork must be well tied together to prevent sideway movement. Consider the finish of the stair treads and type of nosing. Space may have

to be left for purpose made nosing.

The design of the stair must conform to the stair design regulations e.g. reside ntial or D1 for stair design and regulations. commercial. Refer to the Building Code

Stair Formwork construction Sheathing can be dressed boards laid across or longitudinally or use sheet mat erial such as plywood or particle board. Dressed boards may have sheet material fixed on top to prevent loss of grout. Joists and bearers must be spaced to avoid undue sagging of any part of the structure. Select timber carefully to avoid weaknesses caused by knots or cros s grain. Vertical struts must have a means of height adjustment and be very securely fi xed to the bearers to prevent Sideways movement. Place and fix riser boards accurately. For safety all steps must be the same siz e. Ensure that all reinforcing steel is placed exactly as shown on the drawings. M isplacing the steel, particularly in depth, can alter the strength of the finished s tair. Ensure adequate cover on exterior stairs. Place inserts for balusters and nosing pieces as required.

CROSS SECTION OF STAIR FORM WORK

Failure of formwork

Industrial Building in Kwai Fook Rord, Kwai Chung, 1995

A portal beam in the Ma On Shan Station of the KCR East Rail Extension

Economy of formwork
In the design of the form-work for a concrete structure, there comes into consideration 3 areas of cost: materials, labor, and the use of equipment required to fabricate and handle the forms. (1) Should a practice be used that can reduce the cost in any of these areas, or reduce the combined cost of these, money will be saved. Since the cost of concrete is fairly static, with the existence of ready-mixed concrete, there is little in savings to be had with the material itself. Thus, the most obvious place for savings is within the formwork itself. Economy of concrete formwork includes: Design the forms to provide the required strength but using the least amount of materials. When planning forms, consider the sequence and methods of stripping them. Using prefabricated panels as often as possible will save time and money. Use the largest practical prefabricated panels that can be handled by the men or equipment on site.. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of rooms, floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of the material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the quality of the formwork.

Need/Requirement of formwork
Containment: formwork must be capable of shaping and supporting the fluid concrete until it cures. Strength: formwork must be capable of safely withstanding without distortion or danger the dead weight of the fluid concrete is placed on it, labour weight, equipment weight and any environmental loadings. Resistance to leakage: all joints in form work must be either close fitting of covered with form tape to make them grout tight. If grout

leakage occurs the concrete will leak at that point. Leakages cause honeycombing of the surface. Ease of handling: form panels and units should be designed so that their maximum size does not exceed that which can be easily handled by hand or mechanical means. In addition all formwork must also be designed and constructed to include facilities for adjustments, leveling, easing and striking without damage to the form work or concrete. Finish and reuse potential: the form face material must be selected to be capable of consistently imparting the desired concrete finish (smooth, textured, featured or exposed aggregate etc.) At the same time it should also achieve the required number of reuse. Access for concrete: any formwork arrangement must be provide access for placing of the concrete. The extent of this provision will be dependent on the ease of carrying out the concrete operations. Alignment: The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane surface. Weight: It should be as light as possible. Material: The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the elements. Removal of debris: Provide all formwork with special cleanout holes to allow for the removal of sawdust, shavings, and other It should rest on firm base. Time for removal: Formwork should be such that time required for removal of erected formwork is less. Area: The area required by the legs of shore. Base: The formwork should rest on firm base.