Filtration

By: V K Saxena Filtration is nothing but the removal of solid particles from a fluid stream by passing through the fluid stream through a filtering media i.e. Septum, on which the solid are deposited. he fluid stream may be li!uid or gas" the solid particles may be of different types vi#., coarse or fine, rigid or plastic, round or elongated, regular to irregular shape, separate individuals or aggregates. he feed suspension may carry heavy load of particles or almost none. he feed may be very hot or cold or it may be under vacuum or high pressure. Feed may have more complexities by way of relative values of two phases. Sometimes fluid may be valuable phase" sometimes the solids and sometimes both. $n some cases the separation of phase must be virtually complete or in other cases partial suspension is desired.

Filter %edia:
&hoice of filter medium i.e. Septum is often considered to be more important in assuring satisfactory operation of a filter. he filter medium should be selected primarily for its capabilities to retain the solids that are to be separated from fluid, with acceptable length of life in the environment in which it is to perform. Characteristics of Filter media: he septum in any filter must satisfy certain re!uirements, which are as follows: $t should have minimum propensities to bleed i.e., $t should have the ability to bridge solid across its pores !uic'ly after the feed is started. $t should have minimum propensities to blind i.e., Septum should have low rate of entrapment of solids within its interstices. $t should have minimum resistance to filter flow i.e., high production rate. $t should be resistive to chemical attac'. $t should be sufficiently strong enough physically to withstand the process condition. $t should have acceptable resistance to mechanical wear. $t must permit the ca'e formed to discharge cleanly and completely $t must not be very expensive.

Filter (ids:
Filtration may fre!uently encounter with the problem of slow filtration rate, rapid medium blinding or unsatisfactory filtrate clarity. hese problems may be overcome by using filter aid.

Filter aid can be defined as granular or fibrous material capable of forming a highly permeable filter ca'e, within, which the troublesome particle)solids will be incorporated. Characteristics of filter aid: Filter aid should be of low bul' density to minimi#e their settling. Filter aid should be porous and capable of forming a porous ca'e. $t must be chemically inert. Use of Filter aid: $t can be mixed with the slurry to trap the difficultly filterable particles in permeable ca'e. $t can be pre coated i.e. depositing a layer of filter aid on septum he filter aid may subse!uently be separated from the filter ca'e by dissolving away the solids or by burning out the filter aid. $f the solids have no value than solid and filter aid can discard together. ypical filter aids are *iatomaceous earth +,-./ lb)cu. ft., 0 12 micron3, asbestos, wood, cellulose, and inert porous solids.

4rinciple of Filtration
Filter is nothing but a flow device in which, by means of a pressure difference applied between slurry inlet and filtrate outlet, the filtrate is forced through the e!uipment. *uring filtration solid in slurry is retained in the unit and form a bed of particle through which a filtrate must flow. Slurry

&a'e
Filter %edium

Filtrate

$n a typical filtration operation" during filtration, ca'e is gradually built up on the filter medium)septum and the resistance to flow progressively increases. *uring the initial period of flow, particles are deposited on the surface layer of the medium to form the true filtering medium.

Rate of Filtration:
he rate of filtration is an important aspect of any filtration operation and is usually depend on following factors: $t depends on the drop in pressure from the feed to the far side of the filter medium. $t depends on the area of the filtering surface. $t depends on the viscosity of the filtrate. $t varies with the resistance of the filter ca'e. $t also depends on the resistance of the filter medium and the initial layer of the filter ca'e.

Filtration Resistances:
he filtrate passes through three 'inds of resistances in series, which together produce the total pressure drop. 5esistance of the channel conducting the slurry to the upstream face of the ca'e and the filtrate away from the filtering medium. 5esistance of the filter ca'e. 5esistance associated with filter medium. . $n a well-designed filtration system, the pressure drop in the inlet and outlet is negligible in comparison with the other pressure drops and may be neglected. Filter medium resistance :$nitially the resistance of filter medium to filtrate is higher then that offered by a clean filter medium to clear filtrate as solid particles are embedded in the interstices of the filter medium and causes increase in the resistance to flow. he entire resistance in the medium included embedded particles is referred as filter medium resistance and re!uire a pressure 4m to overcome it. Filter ca'e resistance: he resistance offered by the solids not associated with filter medium is represent as ca'e resistance and re!uire a pressure 4c. (t the start of the filtration ca'e resistance is #ero, but as the filtration proceeds this becomes dominant and filter medium resistance becomes negligible.

Types of Filtration:
Filters can be operated on two basic modes, i.e. constant pressure filtration and constant rate filtration. Constant pressure filtration: $t maintains the constant pressure, so that the flow rate falls slowly from the maximum at the start of the cycle, here flow rate is maximum at the start of the filtration and decreases continuously till the end. %ost continuous filter can be

considered to operate on this principle, using a vacuum to provide the pressure difference. Constant rate filtration: $f the pressure drop is varied, usually it is 'ept small at the start of the filtration and then increased either continuously or in steps and is maximum at the end of the filtration as the ca'e built up, this is done by maintaining the flow rate constant by continuously increasing the inlet pressure. ( common process is to use the constant rate until the inlet pressure reaches the specified maximum and then to continue at constant pressure until the end of filtration. his can minimi#e the loss of solids through the septum when the resistance is low and avoids pac'ing the solids into the septum.

Mechanics of Filter Cake:

he variation in resistance from layer to layer is the result of mechanical effects in the ca'e. he fluid pressure in a filter ca'e is maximum at the upstream face and minimum at the filter medium. $t might seem that the porosity of the ca'e should be minimum at the upstream face and a maximum at the filter medium. But in fact, the reverse is true. (ctually a filter ca'e is relatively open and porous at the upstream face and compressed at the filter medium. he reason for this may be explained by considering a particle in the bed at some distance away from the filter medium. he stream of the filtrate flowing past the particles imparts a drag force on the particle tending to move in the direction of medium. his drag is resisted by an e!ual and opposite force from the particle immediately ahead of the particle in consideration" forces from these immediately upstream from itself also act upon the particle. Since each layer of solids, starting from the upstream face of the ca'e, transmit its drag force ahead of itself, the drag force acts cumulatively through the bed and each layer is acted on by a force e!ual to the sum of the drags of all layers between itself and the upstream face of the ca'e. 6ach layer transmits its cumulative force, augmented by its own drag to the next layer. his cumulative force can be represented as pressure by dividing them by area. Such pressure is referred as Stress 4ressure. he stress pressure is #ero at the upstream face and maximum at the filter medium. he fluid pressure at a given points acts e!ually in all direction, whereas, the stress pressure acts in a direction parallel with that of flow and tends to s!uee#e the particles and flatten them. Stress pressure increases as the fluid pressure decreases. 4 4 4S
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Filtration Equipment
Filters are classified, into those, which operate with a pressure above atmosphere on the upstream side of the filter medium referred as Pressure Filter and those, which operate with atmospheric pressure on upstream side and vacuum on downstream side usually referred as Vacuum Filter.

Pressure Filters

4ressure Filters, with the exception of the 5otary *rum 4ressure Filter, are semicontinuous type machines that enter a wash and ca'e discharge mode at the end of the filtration cycle. he filtration cycle may extend from 1-.2 minutes on ca'e filtration applications and up to , or even more hours for the polishing of li!uids. Since the operation is in batches, that are usually fed from and discharged to a continuous process, a surge tan' is re!uired upstream the filter and batch collection of ca'e downstream the filter. he collection of filtrate depends on the operating mode of the filter which can be constant flow rate, constant pressure or both with pressure rising and flow rate reducing as for a centrifugal pump. %ost 4ressure Filters are batch operated but continuous filters are also available. 7owever, owing to the difficulty in removing the ca'e they are mechanically complex and expensive so mainly applied in fine chemical processes where the added value to the product is high. here are two constraining factors that determine the duration of the filtration cycle: For ca'e filtration it is the volume available for ca'e build-up and once the volume is filled the cycle must terminate even if the permissible pressure was not reached. For polishing, or when the solids are fast blinding, the cycle must terminate once the permissible pressure has been reached regardless of ca'e thic'ness. he filtration rate is influenced, in broad terms, by the properties of the slurry. he trend is that the rate goes up with increased pressure, coarser particles, and particle distribution with high uniformity, non-slimy or non-gelatinous solids, non-compressible ca'es, lower li!uid viscosity and higher temperatures. The Types of Pressure Filters

he typical si#es for standard e!uipment are as follows: Filterpress up to .222 m/ and /2 m8 ca'e. 7ori#ontal 4late Filter up to 92 m/ and : m8 ca'e capacity. Vertical ;eaf Filter up to .22 m/ and < m8 ca'e capacity in vertical pressure vessels and up to 822 m/ and /2 m8 ca'e capacity in hori#ontal vessels. =utsche Filter up to .9 m/ and , m8 ca'e capacity. (utomatic Filter up to ./2 m/. &andle Filter up to ./2 m/.

he advantages and disadvantages of pressure filtration compared to other separation methods are: d!anta"es &a'es are obtained with very low moisture content. &a'es may be disposed and flattened in layers provided they are not thixotropic and sufficiently stable to support a tractor. $ntensive soluble recovery or removal of contaminants from the ca'e may be achieved. &lean filtrates may be produced by recirculating the filtrate for .-/ minutes or by precoating if a clear filtrate is re!uired right from the start. Solutions may be polished to a high degree of clarity. 6xcept for Filter presses a gas tight construction may be provided. 6xcept for Filter presses it is possible to >ac'et the tan's with steam if heat preservation is re!uired. his is of particular importance for saturated brines. he filter bodies and internals may be constructed from a wide variety of alloys including synthetic materials for filter presses. 4ressure Filters are available in a wide level of automation from labor intensive operator controlled up to fully automatic machines. #isad!anta"es &loth washing is difficult and if the solids are stic'y a 8 mm precoat from diatomite or perlite is re!uired. his adds another step prior to filtration and if not done carefully and a too thin precoat is formed it may leave areas with exposed cloth which will blind rapidly. &onversely, if a too thic' precoat is formed since

the operator see's to be on the safe side, such a precoat consumes effective ca'e volume. he operator can hardly see the forming ca'e and is unable to carry out an inspection while the filter is in operation.

Filter 4ress
he Filter press consists of a head and follower that contain in between a pac' of vertical rectangular plates. 6ach plate is dressed with filter cloth on both sides and, once pressed together, they form a series of chambers that depend on the number of plates. he entire pac' of plates is supported by side or overhead beams.

he head serves as a fixed end to which the feed and filtrate pipes are connected and the follower moves along the beams and presses the plates together during the filtration cycle by a hydraulic or mechanical mechanism. he plates have generally a centered feed port that passes through the entire length of the filter press so that all the chambers of the plate pac' are connected together. ;i'ewise, four corner ports connect all the plates and collect the mother and wash filtrates in a ?closed discharge? towards outlets that are located on the same side as the feed inlet. Some filter presses have plates that are fitted with coc's at their lower side so that the filtrate flows in an ?open discharge? to a trough and serve as ?tell tales? on the condition of the filter cloth by the clarity of the filtrate that passes through each chamber. he disadvantage of this arrangement is that it cannot be used with filtrates that are toxic, flammable or volatile. ( typical flow scheme may loo' li'e this: he present day Filter presses, are e!uipped with features that enable fully automatic operation controlled by 4;&@s. he main features are: Shuttle shifters that separate the plates one by one for ca'e discharge at a rate of 1-9 seconds per plate. ( special design of the shifting mechanism ensures that two ad>acent plates are not pulled together due to stic'y ca'es. Sha'ers that sub>ect the plate to vibrations and assist in discharging the ca'e. &loth showers with movable manifolds and high impact >ets for intensive cloth washing.

he 7ori#ontal 4late 4ressure Filter

7ori#ontal 4late Filters are very well suited for handling flammable, toxic and corrosive materials since they are autoclaved and designed for ha#ardous environments when high pressure and safe operation are re!uired. ;i'ewise, they may be readily >ac'eted for applications whenever hot or cold temperatures are to be reserved. hese features are not possible on filter press, which re!uire the opening of plates to the atmosphere and shifting them one by one to allow ca'e discharge at the end of each cycle. he filter structure consists of a stac' of plates attached to a hollow shaft, which are mounted inside a pressure vessel with each plate covered with a suitable filter medium. he slurry is fed under pressure into the vessel and the ca'e, which is retained by the filter medium, forms on the top of each plate whilst the filtrate passes through the hollow shaft further to the process. Filter si#es may vary but generally the maximum is 92 m/ area and designed for a 9 bar operating pressure.
Slurry Inlet Filtrate Outlet Cake Outlet Air Vent Cake Scrapers Filtering Plates Scavange Plates Sight Glass Drive Shaft Hydraulic Drive

he Vertical 4ressure ;eaf Filter

Vertical 4ressure ;eaf Filters are !uite similar to the 7ori#ontal plate filter except for the orientation of the filter elements, which are vertical rather than hori#ontal. hey are applied for the polishing slurries with very low solids content of .-1A or for ca'e filtration with a solids concentration of /2-/1A. Bust li'e the 7ori#ontal plate filter the Vertical ;eaf Filters are also very well suited for handling flammable, toxic and corrosive materials since they are autoclaved and designed for ha#ardous environments when high pressure and safe operation are re!uired. ;i'ewise, they may be readily >ac'eted for applications whenever hot or cold temperatures are to be preserved. hese features are not possible on Filter 4ress, which re!uire the opening of plates to the atmosphere and shifting them one by one to allow ca'e discharge at the end of each cycle. he largest ;eaf Filters in hori#ontal vessels have a filtration area of 822 m / and vertical vessels .22 m/ both designed for an operating pressure of 9 bars. he slurry is pumped under pressure into a vessel that is fitted with a stac' of vertical leaves that serve as filter elements. 6ach leaf has a centrally located nec' at its bottom, which is inserted into a manifold that collects the filtrate. he leaf is constructed with ribs on both sides to allow free flow of filtrate towards the nec' and is covered with coarse mesh screens that support the finer woven metal screens or filter cloth that retain the ca'e. he space between the leaves may vary from 82-.22 mm depending on the ca'e formation properties and the ability of the vacuum to hold a thic' and heavy ca'e to the vertical leaf surface. he space is set by the filtrate nec's of the leaves at the bottom end and with spacers at the top end brac'ets. For fast filtering slurries the space may be doubled by removing every second plate so conse!uently the ca'e space doubles but the filtration area is cut in half.

Slurry Feed Filtrate Leaf Screen Spacers

Vacuum Filter

Rotary Vacuum drum Filter he 5otary Vacuum *rum Filter belongs to the bottom feed group and is one of the oldest filters applied to the chemical process industry. ( drum that is supported by a large diameter trunion on the valve end and a bearing on the drive end. he drum face is divided into circumferential sectors each forming a separate vacuum cell. he internal piping that is connected to each sector passes through the trunion and ends up with a wear plate having ports that correspond to the number of sectors.

Flo$ #ia"ram of Rotary #rum Filter

#isc Vacuum Filter

he *isc Filters belong to the side feed group and have been around for many years. hey are generally used in heavy-duty applications such as the dewatering of iron ore taconite, hematite, coal, aluminum hydrate, copper concentrate, pyrite flotation concentrates and other beneficiation processes. he high time for *isc Filters was in the 92@s when the metallurgical industries were booming and filters with 822 m/ and larger were manufactured. he filter consists of several discs, up to .1 in the larger machines, each made up from sectors, which are clamped together to form the disc. he sectors are ribbed towards the nec' and designed for a high capacity drainage rate. Cne of the main features is that the re!uired floor space ta'en up by disc filters is minimal and the cost per m/ of filtration area is the lowest when compared to other vacuum filters. *uring operation each sector enters submergence and a ca'e is formed on the face of the discs. $t then emerges to the drying #one, the li!uid drains to a central barrel and from there through a valve to the vacuum receiver. he valve with its bridge setting controls the timing so that once the sector leaves the drying #one it moves over a separating bridge and a snap or low pressure blow is applied to discharge the ca'e. Scraper blades on the side of each disc guide the ca'e to discharge chutes, which are positioned between ad>acent discs and are wide enough to avoid their clogging by the falling ca'e. ( paddle type agitator located at the bottom of the tan' maintains the slurry in suspension, which in most of the metallurgical applications contains solids with high specific gravity, which are fast settling and abrasive.

Feed

anif!ld

Overfl!" #!$ Disc Sect!rs #arrel and Valve S"ing #lades Cake Snap #l!" Discharge Chute Agitat!r %ank Slurry Drain

he filter consists of the following subassemblies: *iscs and sectors, which may be made in in>ection, molded polypropylene, metal or special redwood. ( center barrel supported by the main bearings and consisting of piped or trape#oidal filtrate passages. he sectors are attached to the barrel through ?o? ring sealed connections in a number e!ual to the number of disc sectors. ( valve with bridges and internal compartments for form and dry under vacuum and ca'e discharge under pressure with /-/.1 bar snap or 2./-2./1 bar constant blow. %ost disc filters are fitted with one valve only however two valves are often mounted on both drive and non-drive ends with long barreled filters or when the hydraulic loadings are high. (n agitator with paddles that are positioned between the discs and far enough not to interfere with the forming ca'e. ( tan', which, on its discharge side, has separated slurry compartments for the discs and discharge, chutes for the blown-off ca'e. Dhen the solids are of an abrasive nature it is advisable to line the bottom portion of the tan' that cradles the agitator with rubber. wo ca'e discharge blades on both sides of each disc are suspended from a frame mounted on the tan' and serve to deflect and guide the ca'e to the discharge chutes. Cn large diameter filters the blades are of the swing type that float to maintain the ca'e to disc clearance and so allow for the wobble of the turning discs. (n overflow trough that spans across the entire tan' length and ensures full submergence of the sectors in the ca'e formation #one since an exposed sector in the 9 o@cloc' position will cause immediate loss of vacuum. %perational &equence he operation se!uence of a *isc Filter is, except for washing, similar to a *rum Filter Vacuum commences when the sector is fully submerged in the slurry and the port of the rotating barrel passes the dead #one bridge.

he ca'e forms until the leading edge of the sector emerges from the slurry and drying commences. he sector continues to dry the ca'e under vacuum until the port in the rotating barrel fully covers the bridge in the valve that separates the vacuum from the blow compartments. he port in the barrel passes the bridge and opens to constant low-pressure air blow or snap blow and the ca'e falls off to the discharge chute. Cnce the barrel port passes the blow opening of the valve the sector enters a dead #one that continues until the port opens to vacuum with the sector fully submerged.

References: Separation 6!uipment and Filtration 6!uipment on www.globalspec.com Enit Cperation: %c&abe F Smith %ineral 4rocessing: B ( Dills