Media and Politics in South East Asia Introduction Communication is both "sending and receiving".

. Without communication, there's no understanding, in turn no motivation, mobilization and support for policies Politics (and politicians) must communicate. There could be emphasis on information or manipulation, depending on the people or the s stem involved. Communication is strategic. !t involves areas of attention, perception and orientation, values and evaluation, goal"see#ing and decision"ma#ing. $o% po%erful is the media& !t provides information to as man people as possible. Popular belief that media polic , or even the mere presence of media, can lead to democratic processes. The challenge ho%ever is finding the "right" polic that %ill either serve the people or the elites in po%er. 'edia and politicians ali#e need their audiences. The have different interests, though media has one more permanent( to serve as a critic of societ )mphasis on "responsibilit " for media *ournalists and politicians both communicate and %ant to e+ert influence. !t boils do%n to the ,uestion of "Who is in charge&" There is no denial that a free media is important for as long as the #no% %hat the are responsible for. Media in South-East Asia -s diverse as the political, social and cultural s stems and norms e+isting in the region. .ome are free, others restrained at different levels Presence of policies, la%s and other regulations restricting the media for the sa#e of "preserving harmon and diversit " .ome are o%ned b government entities, others b businesses and elites .erving the agenda e+pected of them /ifferent perceptions on its role in societ .ome see it as corrupt, irresponsible and unreliable 0thers see it as tool for freedom (e.g. Philippines) 'ethod to set political agendas 1ange of issues and problems facing the industr -sian Crisis caused closure 2 merger 2 rationalization of publications and stations )+istence of "ne% media" such as blogs, social media, etc. Media and Politics in Singapore Introduction $as an e+tensive media industr disproportionate to its size. 'ostl o%ned b government (directl or indirectl ), though commerciall "operated 3overnment has e+tensive control over the media "toughest in the region" development of "self"censorship", %ith media careful of not disturbing its relation %ith the government controls "necessar " to preserve racial harmon constant need for government to have a space %here the can repl on issues rules appl ing to local media e+tends to foreign media, even in the !nternet

History 4irst ne%spaper( .ingapore Chronicle (5678) 9ongest"running ne%spaper( .traits Times (568:) %itnessed the developments in the countr , from ;ritish colonial rule, merger %ith 'ala sia, to full independence and rise of 9ee <%an =e% and his part . .traits Times is no% part of .ingapore Press $oldings (.P$), the largest print publishing compan in .ingapore. !t o%ns a variet of ne%spapers in )nglish, Chinese, 'ala and Tamil, as %ell as magazines. 1adio broadcasting came to .ingapore in 5>?@ TA broadcasting %as introduced in 5>@?. 4ull"color broadcasts commenced in 5>B8 Cable TA service called ".CA Cable Aision" %as introduced in 5>>:. Ownership Structure -ll ne%spapers in the countr must be publicl listed, and no single individual can o%n more than ?C of shares. .hares are divided into "ordinar " and "management" shares, %ith the government having a sa on %ho sits on the management of the compan . 'ost radio stations are o%ned b the .ingaporean 3overnment and allied organizations, such as the Dational Trade Enion Congress (DTEC) and the -rmed 4orces. -ll TA stations are o%ned b 'ediaCorp, a commercial entit o%ned b Temase#, the countr 's investment arm. 3overnment"o%ned media entities also has presence in the !nternet, but independent blog sites and discussion forums e+ists, such as The Online Citizen. Modes of Control and Censorship The Newspaper and Printing Press Act on 1974 re,uires all ne%spapers to obtain a permit %ith the government. This ma be revo#ed an time if proven in violation of the countr 's la%s and policies. The same act re,uires the approval of 'inistr of Communication and !nformation ('!C-) on the sale or transfer of "management" or voting shares. 'C! is also tas#ed to approve an resolution to the appoitnment or dismissal of directors or staff of an ne%spaper. *ournalists ma be sued under the Internal Securit Act if the are accused as "e+tremists". The la% provides for detention %ithout trial. The O!!icial Secrets Act prohibits publication of ne%s related to national securit and defense unless the have been officiall cleared. 9ibel la%s in .ingapore are one of the most stringent in the region. *ournalists ma be sued for an comments that "hurt officials' reputations" The 'edia /evelopment -uthorit ('/-) enforces the countr 's codes regarding TA, radio and film programming. The "il#s Act o! 19$1 bans an film that offends a race or religion or "threatens national interest". "Political films" about .ingapore or its politics are banned for e+hibition in the countr . 4oreign ne%spapers and ne%s magazines ma be "gazetted" or have its circulation restricted if its found to have "obFectionable" content "detrimental to .ingapore's national interests". .ome e+amples are The %cono#ist and "ar %astern %cono#ic &e'iew. Private o%nership of satellite dishes is illegal in .ingapore. .everal internet sites (mostl pornographic content) is bloc#ed in the countr per government orders. $o%ever, this can onl be considered as s mbolic. .ome bloggers and %ebsites have been sued b the government for posting content deemed obFectionable for them.

Interaction between media and go ernment .ingaporean government Fustifies the restrictions it imposes to the press as necessar to preserve racial harmon and to promote "nation"building". Critics define this as follo%ing the government's official line, %hereas the government sets polic for the development of the press for the sa#e of its established development goals. $istorical developments ma give an e+planation on %h the countr decided to impose these restrictions 1acial riots in the 5>@Gs attributed to stories released b 'ala and Chinese press Corruption problems haunting the press in the earl da s of independence, especiall in the Chinese"language ne%spapers !.- %as introduced to %ard of communists, but has been e+tended to the media as %ell. .ingapore admits its lo% ran#ings in international surve s regarding freedom of e+pression and the press, but defends its position that a free press is not appropriate for the countr 's model of development. Compared to other first"%orld countries, the .ingaporean "elected" government positions itself as a victim of the pressH that the "unelected" press is in a position to protect onl the vested interests of its o%ners, hence, it must step in and prove that "it is in charge" )+amples of cases filed against media personalities and entities( Sinterco# case Nan ang Siang Pau Fournalists Failed Prosecution of (usiness Ti#es editor Patric# /aniel for lea#ing economic data ahead of official government announcement )o#an*s A!!air feature of female People's -ction Part members of parliament .ingapore /emocratic Part 's online video conference Se+.,iolence."a#il ,alues censorship issue Contrar to perception, Fournalists in .ingapore do not receive instructions on %hat to %rite. !n practive, government uses a mi+ of strategies to influence media content, such as press conferences, release of documents, to threat of legal action Political figures %ould prefer editors that %ould come to the right conclusions independentl instread of having Fust mere functionaries or "puppets". This model of control has been successful not because of coercion but of consent. 9ee <%an =e% understood that #edia is a -usiness. and that publishers and Fournalists value more their bottom line than editorial freedom. Ese of attractive pa schemes, stoc# options 4orced mergers of Chinese and )nglish presses to secure finances Changing landscape of the media The !nternet has gave rise to alternative sources of information and opinion regarding .ingapore, its societ and politics. .ites such as The Online Citizen. /r. (rown. Te#ase0 &e'iew and 1awning (read are popular for the host dissent as %ell as forums for discussion outside of government"sanctioned channels The government learned its ropes and s%iftl responded to changing trends 1e,uirement for "political content providers" to register %ith the government 9ibel cases While non"profit 2 cause"oriented sites ma e+ist, their future is uncertain, as the mainstream media e+tends its economic dominance in the !nternet -s the countr develops to%ards a more connected societ , there is a recognition that dissent %ill be more difficult to curtail .ites ma be closed and Fournalists ma be arrested, but there's no stopping citizens to spread information through other means (e"mail, social media) 'ainsream media must realize the presence of alternative media, competing %ith them for

attention and respect of the public -s citizens become more comfortable %ith the alternative, government %ill have more difficult in maintaining its hegemon Media and Politics in !hailand History Western !nfluences " "0ne common feature of media in less developed countries is that the have been transferred, directl or indirectl , from advanced industrial countries." " The first ne%spaper %as published in 5668. !t %as called "The ;ang#o# 1ecorder", edited b /r. /an ;radle , an -merican 'issionar . " 1adio %as introduced b Prince ;urachat, a member of the ro al famil %ho studied in )urope. " Pha athai 1adio .tation (5>?G) " !t %as the maFor means of communication after 5>?7 coup to inform people about the political change. Wars " /uring World War !!, the 3overnment of Phibun .ong#ram used mass media for a Dationalist Campaign and to raise Public 'orale I so the honored Phibun. " There %as no positive ne%s about the -llies. 0nl 1adio Thailand and 1adio *apan %ere being aired. " 'oreover, *apanese troops %ere given free passage through Thai territor until -ugust 5:, 5>8:, the .urrender of *apan. " The stor of t%o fictitious characters I Dai 'un and Dai <ong "" %as being aired to propagate the idea of the De% Thai .ociet "" Phibun .ong#ram and his ideolog of a 'civilized' Thai societ . .tate Control " 3overnment -gencies (e.g. Post and Telegraph /epartment, Public 1elations /epartment) controlled 1adio ;roadcasting since its introduction until 5>8>. " 4rom 5>8>, the -rmed 4orces (and other agencies) controlled radio broadcasting. " !n 5>B:, the 1adio and Television ;roadcasting 1egulation %as set in place %hich constituted that ever radio station must be "supervised and controlled" b the 1adio and Television -dministrative ;oard I from legal to technical aspects, from administrative to programming concerns. " /uring po%er struggle, control is made even tighter. 'edia is utilized as political resources. " 'edia as a legitimizing tool " 'edia as a militar %eapon in staging a coup " 'edia used b ne% leaders to tal# "directl " to the people In April 19$1. when 2eneral Chalard #ade an atte#pt to seize go'ern#ent. the Thai 2o'ern#ent #ade use o! &adio Thailand. Pri#e /inister 2eneral Pre# announced repeatedl that he had escorted the &o al "a#il to 3orat and was sa!e with hi#. which was later con!ir#ed - the 4ueen. The coup ended in !ailure a!ter three da s. .ociet and 'obilization " Thailand in 5>BG %as called JThe Politics of 'obilizationK. It was against this -ac0drop that the traged on 14 Octo-er 1975 un!olded. The !la#es were sto0ed in 6une 1975 when student acti'ists were e+pelled !or anti7go'ern#ent acti'ities. The con!rontation reached a cli#a+ in Octo-er when 15 students led - student leader. Thira uth (oon#i. were arrested. Students !ro# Tha##asat 8ni'ersit #assed at the 9e#ocrac /onu#ent de#anding the release o! their colleagues. )or0ers and the general population who were e:uall disgruntled with Thano# rallied in support. %sti#ates o! nu#-er o! de#onstrators e+ceeded ;<<.<<<. the -iggest pu-lic de#onstration in Thai histor .

Things ca#e to a head when the student leaders who were released were rearrested. The die was cast !or a -lood con!rontation on that !ate!ul da on 14 Octo-er. " There have been 'edia mobilization efforts led b the Dational .tudent Center of Thailand. Products of these efforts include a bi"%ee#l ne%spaper characterized as anti"militarist, anti"imperialist, and highl politicized. The publication had a limited audience consisted of oung political activists and s mpathizers. " !n the rural areas, the 4armer 4ederation of Thailand "" %hose members later Foined the Communist Part of Thailand (CPT) I %as countered b government through 'edia. " "Conversation on /emocrac " I a TA program produced b conservatives attac#ing communism " 'ilitar 1adio .tations I established b conservative pressure groups (e.g. Aillage .couts, Da%apol L"4orce of Dine"M), and 1ed 3aurs. The 'ilitar argued that it served to protect the most important institution of the nation( The 'onarch . 1ecent /evelopments " 4rom then on, government has applied a number of strategies to maintain its legitimac in controlling 'edia. " 1eassuring the People " *ustif ing -ctions " 'a#ing -pologies " The challenge that elected leader Tha#sin .hina%atra poses has been a maFor threat to the evolving Thai 'edia.

Media Competition 3eneral Profile " !n general, the .tate practicall owns 'edia. 'anagement o%nership, ho%ever, %ould depend on ho% large a media corporation is. 4or middle"sized to large corporations, o%nership can be private. ;ut for maFor stations, even management belongs to government. " Classifications of the 1adio .tations( 5. /irectl o%ned b state agencies and managed b government " Don"commercial " 3overnment"budgeted 7. 0%ned b the state and managed privatel " Commercial and profit"see#ing (i.e. selling airtime) " /ecisions are made b the government. ?. 0%ned b state enterprises, %here state agencies are shareholders " Commercial 8. 0perated and managed privatel , but under government contracts J!n fairness, ho%ever, the government and Thai societ in general have become more liberal in the last several ears, freeing broadcasters some%hat from some erst%hile taboos in TA ne%s. 'odern broadcast technolog has also pla ed an important role in ma#ing the ne%s production more enFo able. -s a result, Thai TA ne%s have become more popular %ith the vie%ing public, %hich no% also seems fairl satisfied %ith the present ,ualit of the ne%s programs.K (.enator .om#iat 0n%imon) " 1ooms for !mprovement a. !nternationalization of ne%s content b. )nglish broadcast %ithin Thailand c. J- %or#able s stem of regional e+change of ne%s and information through bilateral and multilateral agreements so that ne%s from various -sian countries could be seen ever da on local net%or#sK

Media Culture .elf"1egulation " When the he "Censorship ;oard" %as abolished, each station had to set up its o%n monitoring board I thus, self"regulation. " Censorship %as limited to national securit concerns, and to rules li#e limiting the number of minutes a station could provide for commercials per hour (5G minutes per hour). -nd thatNs it. There are also five levels of penalt , %hich are generall lenient. " .tate 'onopol %as lifted graduall starting in 5>>?, %hich %as follo%ed b greater private participation (Dation 3roup LiTA 5>>:, the first ne%s channelM 'anager 3roup, among man others) " 'edia %as no longer an one's mouthpiece I at least not of those in political po%er. " 5>>B Constitution 1eforms (up to present) T pes of .ervice .tate 2 Public Civic 4re,uenc -llocation /o%nsized -udience 0rientation 3eneral Public 2 Don"Profit (;t?GG per set per ear) - ne% 7GC Communit 2 9ocalit Don"profit (donation) 1evised from under 3eneral Public 2 concession of state ;usiness (profit" agencies to under oriented) D;C care .ource of 1evenue D;C 4und 9icense 4ee D;C 4und 9icense 4ee -dvertising .ponsors

Commercial

" The Dational ;roadcasting Commission (D;C) " The (ine+istent) industr regulator of 'edia. " !deall , 5B members %ill comprise the D;C( " : from the government " 8 from the academe " 8 from professional organizations Lfurther divided into t%o( corporate o%ners and Fournalists " 8 from civic and nongovernmental organizations " $o%ever, the establishing of D;C did not push through. !n 7GG5, the -dministrative Court ruled a lac# of transparenc on the selection process of D;C. The corporate o%ners %ound up dominating the selection committee. " There are advocacies at present that are led b ;roadcast .tations, Corporate 0%ners of )ntertainment Companies, Program .uppliers (production houses, etc.), *ournalists, and D30s. " There are a number of codes that are being submitted to the legislative bod of Thailand pertaining to media self" and co"regulation. These include s stems of complaining and enforcement, %hich are characterized mainl b voluntar and private actions, %ith approval b the D;C. Media and Politics in "ietnam Introduction " The Communist Part has used 'edia to uphold revolutionar traditions and propagate Part Polic . " .trong censorship is imposed on )ditorial content. )ven though OTabloid"st leN publications are o#a , the fact of the matter is, political content is still highl controlled. OTabloid"st leN is the ne%s of the %eird. .tories include updates on Princess /iana conspirac theories, police blotters, and other dail life and death narratives. " Constitutionall , 4reedom of Press is enshrined. !n realit , ho%ever, the stor is different. There are probabl more suppressed stories than there are printed ones. 'ild criticisms are also allo%ed Fust to prove that the part embraces genuine discussion. Criticism on top part personnel, ho%ever, is still forbidden.

" )ditors"in"chief and leaders of publications are appointed b the communist part to ensure control. These leaders are accountable and ans%erable to the part . 'oreover, JLpMhotographs and cartoonsP are subFected to more intense scrutin .K Media Competition " 'edia Competition seems to have been government"induced in the case of Aietnam. -fter efforts to liberalize AietnamNs econom b the government (/oi 'oi in 5>6@), 'edia follo%ed suit. " 5>67"6?( 'edia organizations %ere encouraged to e+pand to other business such as farming or handicraft I Jtheir first e+perience of ho% to operate in a mar#et econom K " 'edia 0rganizations stuc# to media"related businesses for profit. " 4rom print advertising, to entertainment events and trade fairs, to establishing business departments to handle mar#eting more professionall , it is obvious ho% Aietnamese 'edia businessmen %ere able to learn the %a s around a more liberalized econom . " 5>6@( /oi 'oi %as introduced %hich propelled the mar#et econom . This sought more %iden the scope of issues discussed, diversif the range of information, and boost circulation figures, among others. " Three reasons %h 'edia %as successful as a profit"generating venture( a. The potential of the mar#et still %asnNt been met prior to the liberalization. b. Aietnam has a high literac rate (66C). c. Aietnam had a %ide media readership( Jthe maFor consumers of media are urbanized, literate and oung.K " The liberalization efforts %ere immediatel follo%ed b the arrival of foreign consumer companies Oarmed %ith advertising budgets and aggressive mar#eting strategiesN. " $anoi and $o Chin 'inh %ere dubbed as Ovirgin consumer mar#etLsMN. " Commercialization due to the removal of state subsidies also propelled( " 4ierce competition for advertisers " Circulation %ars " 9ivelier coverage of ne%s (i.e. top"level corruption scandals) b media and editors to attract readers and strengthen mar#etabilit It should -e noted that no e:ui'alent #easures with respect to press !reedo# were put in place alongside ,ietna#=s li-eralization e!!orts into the #ar0et econo# . Media Culture " Commercialization, ho%ever, also has its side effects " ;riber of companies for favourable coverage " ;riber of Fournalists during press conferences (Jmeal or transport allo%ancesK) " ;lurred distinction bet%een editorial and commercial operations of ne%spapers and other media " TA stations (informall H under the tableH in envelopes) charge companies for the coverage " 0n -dvertising 9a%s " 4ront pages( to get around them, media corporations ma#e stories about the companies see#ing advertisement " 0verall, there %as %ea# self"regulation and lac# of self"discipline among 'edia corporations.

#eferences Media in South East Asia o 'edia and politics in -sia ( trends, problems, and prospects 2 edited b Carolina 3. $ernandez, Werner Pfennig. "'edia and Politics( .ome 1eflections on a .trained 1elationship" pp. 55"76 o The -.)-D media director 2 edited b -bb Tan Q Thomas ;ernd .tehling. pp. 57"5? o 'edia fortunes, changing times ( -.)-D states in transition 2 edited b 1ussel $.<. $eng. Chapter 5 !hailand o o o o o 'edia fortunes, changing times ( -.)-D states in transition 2 edited b 1ussel $.<. $eng., Chapter > The -.)-D media director 2 edited b -bb Tan Q Thomas ;ernd .tehling., pp. 55B"5?G ;et%een the tiger and the crocodile ( broadcast media self"regulation in .outheast -sia 2 Ledited b Cecille C. ;algosM. "TA's )lusive /ream", pp. :7":@ 'edia and politics in -sia ( trends, problems, and prospects 2 edited b Carolina 3. $ernandez, Werner Pfennig. ";roadcast 'edia and the Politics of Thailand", pp. BB">G ;et%een the tiger and the crocodile ( broadcast media self"regulation in .outheast -sia 2 Ledited b Cecille C. ;algosM. "1eforms and .elf"1egulation in Thailand", pp. 5GG"555

Singapore o o o The -.)-D media director 2 edited b -bb Tan Q Thomas ;ernd .tehling. pp. >> " 55: 'edia and politics in -sia ( trends, problems, and prospects 2 edited b Carolina 3. $ernandez, Werner Pfennig. "'edia and Politics in .ingapore", pp. 5G?"55G 'edia fortunes, changing times ( -.)-D states in transition 2 edited b 1ussel $.<. $eng. Chapter 6

"ietnam o The 'ass 'edia in Aietnam b /avid 'arr o 'edia fortunes, changing times ( -.)-D states in transition 2 edited b 1ussel $.<. $eng. Chapter 5G o The -.)-D media director 2 edited b -bb Tan Q Thomas ;ernd .tehling., pp. 5??"5:5