Unit Iv

Wireless NETWORKS
by
Ananth Ravindran
Assistant Professor
Sensor networks- Classification, MAC and Routing protocols
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On Demand routing protocols, Hybrid protocols, Wireless
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Characteristics of MANETs, Table-driven and Source-initiated
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ADHOC AND SENSOR NETWORKS

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UNIT IV
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Model
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Adhoc And Sensor Networks
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No central router required. Each node will act as a router
Data takes multiple hops before reaching destination. each node communicates with other nodes directly or indirectly through intermediate nodes.
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itself.
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It does not have a definite Topology.
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Infrastructure-less dynamic multihop network
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Mobile Adhoc network (MANET) or Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
MANETs are basically peer-to-peer
wireless networks in
intermediate nodes
The network topology keeps changing when devices join or
Useful during disasters and for military operations.
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Useful for places with limited or no infrastructure.
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leave the network.
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forward manner from a source to an arbitrary destination, via
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which information packets are transmitted in a store-and-
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DIFFICULTIES:
node itself but also its ability to forward packets.
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Efficient routing of data packets

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environments.
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May not be able to replace batteries in hostile
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Power failure of a mobile node not only affect the
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Limited battery life of MANETs.
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Characteristics of MANETs
Nodes are free to move arbitrarily; thus, the network topology
noise, interference conditions, etc.. But MANETs are expected to provide a reasonable amount of data rate
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Throughput depends on effects of multiple access, fading,
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networks
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These have significantly lower capacity than infrastructured
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2. Bandwidth-constrained and variable capacity links
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may change randomly and unpredictably.
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1. Dynamic topologies:
3. Energy-constrained operation:
means for their energy.
The is a possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, and denial of service (DoS) attacks

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threats than wired networks.
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MANETs are generally more prone to physical security
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4. Limited physical security:
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optimization criteria may be energy Conservation
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For these nodes, the most important system design
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Most of nodes may rely on batteries or other exhaustible
Applications
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MANETs can be formed among soldiers on the ground or
entire communication infrastructure is in disarray.
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Restoring communications quickly is essential

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These arise as a result of natural disasters in which the
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2. Crisis-management applications:
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to monitor activities in the area of interest
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fighter planes in the air, while sensors can be deployed
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1. Defense applications:
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3. Telemedicine:
MANETS may be useful for many medical applications from data gathering to surgical methods
4. Tele- geoprocessing applications:

(GIS), GPS, and high-capacity wireless mobile systems geoprocessing
Useful for environmental monitoring

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enables a new type of application referred to as tele-
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The combination of geographical information systems
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5. Vehicular area network:

in providing emergency services and other information
Blocks of this database are transmitted in rapid sequence to a visualize the needed environment ahead of time
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vehicle, where a rendering program permits the occupants to
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streets, buildings, etc of places.
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A remote database contains the graphical representation of
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6. Virtual navigation:
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This is a growing and very useful application of ad hoc network
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Routing
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Routing
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packets from the source to the destination node
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destination is called routing protocol.
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The process involved in delivering the data to the
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itself.
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neighbor to forward an incoming packet not destined for
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Such an intermediate node has to decide to which
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In a multihop network, intermediate nodes have to route
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Routing in a MANET depends on many factors, including of a route request, and specific underlying characteristics that could serve as heuristics in finding the path efficiently.
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of
most appropriate neighbor for any given packet
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Routing is facilitated by routing tables, which has the list
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modeling of the topology, selection of routers, initiation
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Requirement of routing protocol

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alternative routes if a node connectivity fails. by minimizing the actual length between the source and intermediate nodes.
3. Give the nodes the best possible response time and sessions between user applications.
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throughput. This is especially important for interactive
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destination through use of the lowest number of
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2. Route network traffic through the path with least cost
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1. Provide the maximum possible reliability by selecting
Types
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1. Proactive or table-driven routing protocols 2. Reactive or on-demand routing protocols.
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Table-driven routing protocols

information from each node to every other node in the
changes in network topology It is proactive in the sense that when a packet needs to be immediately used.
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forwarded, a route will be already available and can be
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These tables were updated regularly with respect to the
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The routing information is kept in different routing tables.
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network.
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Table-driven routing protocols maintain up-to-date routing
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The route is discovered by sending route-request will forward the request to their neighbors,and so on
node, it responds by a route-reply packet back to the
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Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR).

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E.g Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV),
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source node via the same route
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Once the route-request reaches the destination
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packets from a source to its neighbor nodes, which
Dis Advantages
route requests.
This will cause an enormous amount of traffic in the network
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network and will increase with the size of the
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The route is found by flooding the network with
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On-demand routing protocols.

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This maintains information only for active routes Only when a node requires a route to a
Once a route has been established the searching process will be halted
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destination, a route discovery process is initiated
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Dynamic Source Routing(DSR)

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e.g. ADHOC On Demand Vector(AODV),
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2. Hop-by-hop routing
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1. Source routing and
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On-Demand routing protocols can be classified into two categories:
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In Source routed on-demand protocols each data destination. Therefore, each intermediate node forwards of each packet
packet has to carry more details about the network.

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each route will be more and the header of each data
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in large networks the number of intermediate nodes in
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The major drawback with source routing protocols is that
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these packets according to the information in the header
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packets carry the complete path from source to
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Hop-by-hop routing
the destination address and the next hop address. So each intermediate node uses its routing table to
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adaptable to the dynamically changing environment.

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The advantage of this strategy is that routes are
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forward each data packet towards the destination.
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In hop-by-hop routing each data packet only carries
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PROTOCOLS
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Types
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Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing
2. Reactive or on-demand routing protocols.

Dynamic Source Routing Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm Associativity-Based Routing
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Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
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Cluster Head Gateway Switch Routing
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1. Proactive or table-driven routing protocols
Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing

every possible destination in the network and the number of Each such entry in the table is marked with a sequence The sequence numbers allow the mobile node to distinguish stale routes from new ones, and help avoid formation of routing loops
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number assigned by the destination node.
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hops to the destination
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Each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route to
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The sequence number of the information received about the destination and a new sequence number unique to the broadcast
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destination
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The number of hops required to reach the
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The destination address.
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A new route broadcast contains:
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If multiple routes are available for the same destination the Any updates in the routing tables are periodically broadcast in The amount of traffic generated by these updates can be huge types of packets (a) Full Dump (b) Incremental dump A full dump packet carries all the available routing units (NPDUs). information and can require multiple network protocol data
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To alleviate this problem, the updates are made through two
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the network to maintain table consistency
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route with the smaller hops is used.
When there is only occasional movement, smaller information since the last full dump.
The incremental packets fit into a standard NPDU and hence decrease the amount of traffic generated.
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routing information packets
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maintain all the information sent in the incremental
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The nodes maintain a separate table in which they
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incremental packets are used to relay only the change in
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Cluster Head Gateway Switch Routing

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Instead of a flat network, Cluster Head Gateway Switch
access, routing, and bandwidth allocation. Identification of appropriate clusters and selection of CHs is
distributed algorithm within the cluster to elect a node as the CH
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Once clusters have been defined, it is desirable to use a
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quite complex
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Cluster Heads control a group of ad hoc nodes and channel
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Routing uses Cluster Heads
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When two CHs come into contact, or When a node moves out of contact with all other CHs.
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In this a new selection process is initiated only
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algorithm is used
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Least Cluster Change (LCC) clustering
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To avoid frequent Cluster Head selection a the
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another CH, and so on until the packet reaches the CH of the destination
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From there it is routed to the gateway node, then to
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A packet sent by a node is first transmitted to its CH.
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range of two or more CHs.
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Gateway nodes are those within communication
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cluster-head-to-gateway routing approach.
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CGSR uses a modified DSDV to use a hierarchical
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determine the next hop required to reach any
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They also maintains a routing table to
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for each node in the network.
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table (CMT), which stores the destination CH
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Each node in this maintain a cluster member
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Wireless Routing Protocol

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Routing table
Message retransmission list (MRL) table
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Link-cost table
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Distance table
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Each node in this maintain four tables
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Maintains the cost factor associated with the routes

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Link-cost table
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Maintains the various paths available
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Routing table
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required to reach other nodes
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Maintains the details about the number of hops
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Distance table
Message retransmission list (MRL) table
sequence number of the update message,
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and a list of updates sent in the update message

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an acknowledgment-required flag vector
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a retransmission counter,
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MRL has a
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The MRL records the retransmitted messages
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sends the new node a copy of its routing table
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sent by a node convey its existence to the neighbors

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certain time to ensure connectivity. The messages
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Anode must send messages to its neighbors within a
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node, it adds the new node to its routing table and
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When a node receives a hello message from a new
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Nodes discover each other through hello messages.
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Source-Initiated On-Demand Routing

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This maintains information only for active routes discovery process is initiated
As a result, the number of broadcasts required to create the routes is minimized

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table exchanges
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routing information, nor do they participate in the routing
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The nodes that are not on a particular path do not maintain
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Only when a node requires a route to a destination, a route
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Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
When a source needs to send a message to a destination it Source sends a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbors, and so on, until either the destination
number and a broadcast ID, which is incremented each time Sequence numbers are used to ensure that all routes are loop-free
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the node initiates a RREQ
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Each node has a unique sequence
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neighbors, the latter forward the request to all their
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initiates a route discovery process.
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Intermediate nodes reply only if they have a route to the destination.
the first copy of the RREQ
As the RREP travels back on the reverse path, the nodes on
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this path set up their forward route

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(RREP) message back to the neighbor from which it received
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intermediate/destination node sends a unicast route-reply
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node with a fresh enough route to the destination, the
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Once the RREQ reaches the destination or an intermediate
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neighbors, and so on until the source node is reached
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failure notification to their own active upstream
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neighbors notice the movement and propagate a link
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If the nodes along the route move, their upstream
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destination.
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discovery procedure to find new routes to the
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When a source node moves, it can reinitiate the route-
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Dynamic Source Routing

they are aware of in cache
As the new routes are discovered, the cache is updated
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route maintenance
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route discovery and
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The protocol works in two main phases:
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In this the mobile nodes maintain all source routes that
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When a mobile has a message to send, it consults the destination the message
broadcasting a route-request packet The route request contains the destination address, the source address, and a unique identification number
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Else the mobile initiates a route discovery by
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If an active route to destination exists, it is used to send
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route cache to determine whether it has a route to the
Each node that receives the route request checks whether it
packet only if it has not seen the packet before and its own
with a route to the destination, a route reply is generated`

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When the route request reaches the destination or a node
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address was not already in the route record.
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To minimize the number of broadcasts, a node rebroadcasts a
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the packet and then rebroadcasts the packet on its outgoing
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If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of
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has a route to the destination.
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Sensor Node Deployment

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A single sensor may have a limited sensing range, and phenomenon in a given area might require deployment
least one adjacent sensor can receive the data correctly. So node deployment plays a vital role in the lifetime of a network.
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To transfer data from one sensor to another, we need at
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of several sensors so that the area can be completely
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sensing of an event or monitoring of a particular
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Types
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1. Randomly Deployed Sensor Networks 2. Regularly Deployed Sensor Networks
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Random
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Regular
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Classification of Sensor Networks

The nodes in this network periodically switch on their sensors and transmitters, sense the environment, and transmit data of interest. Thus, they provide a snapshot of the relevant parameters at
In this scheme, the nodes react immediately to sudden and drastic changes in the value of a sensed attribute. As such, these are well suited for time-critical applications.
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2. Reactive networks:
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periodic data monitoring.
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regular intervals and are well suited for applications requiring
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1. Proactive networks:
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Medium Access Control Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks

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Fairness not so important
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Latency, throughput, bandwidth
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Adaptability to changes in network topology
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Scalability
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Energy Efficient
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Properties of a Well Defined MAC Protocol
WSNs are typically composed of a large number of low-cost,
geographical area in an ad hoc fashion and without careful
Harnessing the potential benefits of WSNs requires a high-level of self-organization and coordination among the sensors
for WSNs becomes crucial for wireless sensor nodes to carry out successfully the mission for which they are deployed
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The design of efficient communications and network protocols
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planning
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low-power, multifunctional wireless devices deployed over a
Communication among wireless sensor nodes is usually characteristic of this channel that only a single node can Therefore, shared access of the channel requires the The objective of the MAC protocol is to regulate access to the shared wireless medium such that the performance
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establishment of a MAC protocol among the sensor nodes.
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transmit a message at any given time.
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achieved by means of a unique channel. It is the
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Protocol Architecture
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1. Schedule-based protocols
sensors.
A single radio channel is shared by all nodes and
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allocated on demand
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These avoid preallocation of resources to individual
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2. Contention-based MAC-layer protocols
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Channel access is limited to one sensor node at a time
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Access to the channel is based on a schedule.
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Schedule-Based Protocols
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SMACS is a MAC protocol to enable the formation of random synchronization among the network
(Frequency Hopping )method. Each node in the network maintains a TDMA-like frame, neighbors.
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referred to as a superframe, for communication with known
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A key feature of SMACS is its use of a hybrid TDMA/FH
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network topologies without the need to establish global
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1. Self-Organizing Medium Access Control for Sensornets (SMACS)
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The size of each frame is not fixed and may vary in time for a
assigning a time slot to this link. The selection of time slots is such that the node talks only to
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neighbors at each time slot.
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Each node establishes a link to each neighbor discovered by
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nodes.
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neighborhood discovery procedure to detect neighboring
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SMACS requires that each node regularly execute a
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single node and also from node to node.
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LEACH takes a hierarchical approach and organizes nodes into
Only the cluster head transmits data outside the cluster. The cluster head node sets up a TDMA schedule and transmits
This schedule prevents collisions among data messages.

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this schedule to all nodes in its cluster.
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cluster head.
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Within each cluster, nodes take turns to assume the role of a
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clusters
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2. Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH)
Clusters
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Larger Nodes denote Cluster Heads Visit www.agniece.blog.com for further details
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Base Station
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This allows each cluster node to turn off their radio
Each cluster is assigned a unique spreading code, which is
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Nodes are also required to adjust their transmit powers to
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cluster head
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used by all nodes in the cluster to transmit their data to the
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achieved using direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS),
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Communications between a node and its cluster head are
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components until its allocated time slots.
Upon receiving data packets from its cluster nodes, the cluster head aggregates the data before sending them to the base station.
Before transmitting data to the base station, the cluster head must sense the channel to ensure that no other cluster head is currently transmitting data using the base station spreading code If the channel is sensed busy, the cluster head delays the data transmission until the channel becomes idle
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Energy_Adaptive_Clustering_Hierarchy
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achieved using fixed spreading code and CSMA
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The communication between a cluster head and a base station is
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Random Access-Based Protocols
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coordination among the nodes accessing the channel.
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listening, overhearing, and excessive control overhead
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protocols, however, remains low due to collisions, idle
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The energy efficiency of contention-based MAC-layer
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known as contention-based protocols, require no
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Traditional random access MAC-layer protocols, also
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1. Power Aware Multi-access Protocol With Signaling (PAMAS)
reduce energy waste caused by idle listening

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The protocol does not, however, provide mechanisms to
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transceivers.
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transmitting or receiving packets to turn off their radio
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CTS packets to allow nodes currently not actively
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The protocol combines the use of a busy tone with RTS and
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using a separate signaling channel
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PAMAS avoids overhearing among neighboring nodes by
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2. Sparse Topology And Energy Management (STEM)
wake-up radio channel.
The wake-up signal channel acts like a paging signal.
remain awake long enough to receive a session of packets.

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When a node is awakened from its sleeping mode, it may
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When a node has data to transmit, it begins transmitting on the
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another node is desired
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A node turns off its data radio channel until communication with
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up radio channel
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This uses two radio channels: a data radio channel and a wake-
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3. Timeout-MAC (T-MAC)
Used for applications characterized by low message rate To avoid collision and ensure reliable transmission, T-MAC communicate with each other listening by transmitting all messages in bursts of variable length.
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The basic idea of the T-MAC protocol is to reduce idle
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nodes use RTS, CTS, and acknowledgment packets to
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and low sensitivity to latency
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Hybrid Routing Protocols

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CEDAR -- Core Extraction Distributed Ad hoc Routing Protocol ZHLSZone based Hierarchical link state routing protocol
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ZRPZone Routing Protocol
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CEDAR
of service a link could provide.
nodes they dominate.

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computation for the links with other core nodes on behalf of the
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Core nodes which are dominators of normal nodes do the route
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The selection of routes is done with the consideration of the quality
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links.
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set of nodes called the core tries to maintain stable high-bandwidth
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hierarchical routing approach
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Core Extraction Distributed Ad Hoc Routing Protocol
The communication between core nodes is unicast.
A core node which needs a route tries to reach the furthest away core The furthest away core node also does a similar route computation. The path along the route is recorded in an array and the path from core node to core node are concatenated to form the final path
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node on the shortest-widest path .
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Route computation:
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Links
between
core
nodes
are
called
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There will be a core node at every3 hops
virtual
links
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+ performs both routing and QoS guarantee. - core nodes becomes performance bottleneck.
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Advantages & Disadvantages
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ZRP
Zone Routing Protocol It is either a proactive or reactive protocol
And using a reactive protocol for communication between these neighborhoods (Interzone Routing Protocol(IERP)).
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local neighborhood (Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP)),
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It takes the advantage of pro-active discovery within a node's
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ZRP divides its network in different zones
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Overlapping zones may cause more overhead. Decision on hop radius
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Disadvantages
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an on demand protocol
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less control overhead as in a proactive protocol or
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Advantage
ZHLS
Based On The GPS
On the other hand, the protocol is reactive when the destination Clustering).
But in ZHLS the network is divided in non overlapping zones..

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node isn't within the zone from the source node (Interzone
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zone (Intrazone Clustering).
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The protocol is proactive when the destination node is in the same
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ZHLS is similar to the Zone Routing Protocol.
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Zone-Based Hierarchical Link State Protocol
Unlike other hierarchical protocol, there is no zone head.
Global positioning system.
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The node knows its position and zone ID because of the
ES S
zone connectivity of the whole network.
NE
Each node only knows the connectivity within its zone and the
TW
transmission power and propagation characteristics.
OR
KS
The zone size depend on node mobility, network density,
Ananth.R
EC
20 43
W IR
EL
ES S
NE
TW
OR
Ananth.R
KS

Unit Iv

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Unit Iv

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Wireless NETWORKS

Sensor networks- Classification, MAC and Routing protocols

On Demand routing protocols, Hybrid protocols, Wireless

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Characteristics of MANETs, Table-driven and Source-initiated

ADHOC AND SENSOR NETWORKS

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Adhoc And Sensor Networks

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No central router required. Each node will act as a router

It does not have a definite Topology.

Infrastructure-less dynamic multihop network

Mobile Adhoc network (MANET) or Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

MANETs are basically peer-to-peer

The network topology keeps changing when devices join or

Useful during disasters and for military operations.

Useful for places with limited or no infrastructure.

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leave the network.

forward manner from a source to an arbitrary destination, via

which information packets are transmitted in a store-and-

node itself but also its ability to forward packets.

Efficient routing of data packets

May not be able to replace batteries in hostile

Power failure of a mobile node not only affect the

Limited battery life of MANETs.

Throughput depends on effects of multiple access, fading,

These have significantly lower capacity than infrastructured

2. Bandwidth-constrained and variable capacity links

may change randomly and unpredictably.

The is a possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, and denial of service (DoS) attacks

threats than wired networks.

MANETs are generally more prone to physical security

4. Limited physical security:

optimization criteria may be energy Conservation

For these nodes, the most important system design

Most of nodes may rely on batteries or other exhaustible

entire communication infrastructure is in disarray.

Restoring communications quickly is essential

These arise as a result of natural disasters in which the

to monitor activities in the area of interest

fighter planes in the air, while sensors can be deployed

4. Tele- geoprocessing applications:

Useful for environmental monitoring

enables a new type of application referred to as tele-

The combination of geographical information systems

5. Vehicular area network:

vehicle, where a rendering program permits the occupants to

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streets, buildings, etc of places.

A remote database contains the graphical representation of

This is a growing and very useful application of ad hoc network

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destination is called routing protocol.

The process involved in delivering the data to the

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neighbor to forward an incoming packet not destined for

Such an intermediate node has to decide to which

In a multihop network, intermediate nodes have to route

most appropriate neighbor for any given packet

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Routing is facilitated by routing tables, which has the list

modeling of the topology, selection of routers, initiation