1 NSW DET 2009

Introduction

2 NSW DET 2007

User guide
Modern chemistry was born about 200 years ago. Advances in experimentation helped Lavoisier, Gay-Lussac and Avogadro contribute to an understanding of the types of particles that made up matter and how they combined in chemical reactions. This underpinned the later development of the mole concept, one of the big ideas of chemistry.

Are you ready to start?

Before you start, you may want to refresh your understanding of terms: atom, molecule, ion element atomic number and atomic weight ionic, covalent and metallic chemical bonds molecular and empirical formulae, what they mean and examples of common compounds, both ionic and covalent
Can you

understand and use the Periodic Table explain how chemical reactions occur identify types of chemical reactions (this animation demonstrates a precipitation reaction) balance chemical equations change the subject of a formula?

You may like to browse through the glossary. The mole concept is introduced and developed across various modules of the NSW Preliminary and HSC Chemistry course. Syllabus reference - assumed knowledge

Warning: some videos may not be available on school networks.

3 NSW DET 2009

Why use this resource? When to use this resource How to use this resource Who can use this resource?

4 NSW DET 2007

Engage

Video on the purpose of the mole <iframe width="374" height="230" src="http://www.schooltube.com/embed/02425201dc6c4c0fa116" frameborder="0"></iframe> Embed Code End

Video of early copper smelting <iframe width="374" height="230" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/_OrBw4L490Y" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> Embed Code End

Why moles?
We use the mole concept to: calculate the correct quantities for both small and large scale reactions estimate how many particles are present in a quantity of substance
Equipment like this was used by Lavoisier to discover the role of oxygen in combustion

give another way to describe the concentrations of solutions and

wikicommons

5 NSW DET 2009

the solubility of various substances help describe the energy changes when substances are dissolved in water help compare the heat released when various fuels are burnt calculate the volumes of gases at given temperature and pressure

Check your understanding

Section End

Why metals?
The discovery of the use of metals changed the nature of human society. Production and use of metals has improved because of advancements in chemistry, such as the understanding of the mole.
Section End

Why moles and gases?

The work of Lavoisier and Gay-Lussac in understanding the properties of gases and their reactions led to an understanding of matter and the development of the mole concept. Gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are vital to life and the environment. Production of gases such as ammonia and mustard gas has had an impact on human history. Gases are important for the production of acids, explosives and fertilizer. The industrial production of gaseous wastes, including acidic oxides, has major implications for the environment. 6 NSW DET 2007

Section End

Why moles, water, solutions and heat?

Water is vital for life as we know it. Water is a useful solvent and many important chemical reactions happen in solution. We often need to know how much solute we have in a solution, so moles are used to express the concentration of solutions. The ability of water to serve as a heat bank is of key importance.This property quantified by its high specific heat capacity. The mole is used to help quantify the energy absorbed or emitted in many reactions e.g. the molar heat of solution and combustion.
Section End

7 NSW DET 2009

Explore

The mole
Video about Avogadros Number and the Mole <iframe width="374" height="230" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/Hj83oRHdezc" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> Embed Code End

Obtaining copper
Video of modern copper processing <iframe width="374" height="230" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/V1kP674X3dI" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> Embed Code End Complete this interactive on copper processing. Look at an equation for smelting copper and some images. Syllabus reference Do an experiment to calculate mass ratio.

View this mind map that provides definitions and descriptions of how to calculate a mole of a substance. View this summary of the mole and then complete these notes on the mole. Read this article that gives a full background of the mole concept. Syllabus reference 8 NSW DET 2007

Water, solutions and heat

The specific heat capacity of water used in calculations. Prepare and dilute solutions to specified concentrations. Do an experiment to calculate the molar heat of solution of two common salts. Do an experiment to compare

the heat of combustion of two fuels.

Gases
This timeline outlines some of the major steps in the work of Gay-Lussac and Avogadro. Syllabus reference

Check your understanding

9 NSW DET 2009

Explain

Calculations
Use this interactive Periodic Table or the one from the Board of Studies Chemistry syllabus section to follow these examples of calculations of molar masses.

Calculating the volume of gas

Volume of gases in metal reactions Volume of gas released when decarbonating a soft drink

Calculating concentration and heat of solution

Concentration of solutions Syllabus reference Making dilutions Complete this cloze activity to make notes on using the specific heat of water to determine the molar heat of solution. Heat of solution. Syllabus reference.

Calculating heat of combustion

How much mass in a mole of copper atoms?

Heat of combustion

10 NSW DET 2007

Calculating the molar mass of elements and compounds

Molar mass How many moles?

Syllabus reference

Check your understanding

Avogadros Number calculating how many atoms

How many atoms?

11 NSW DET 2009

Elaborate

Now its your turn to solve problems

Moles, metals and metal reactions
Problem 1- metal and acid reaction
2g of magnesium is placed in a large quantity of sulfuric acid at 25oC and 100 kPa pressure. a) What is the volume of hydrogen gas produced? b) How many atoms of magnesium are used? c) How many atoms of hydrogen are released?

Moles and solutions

Worked answer
a) Given: m=2g, M=24.31 n=m/M

Titration problem

12 NSW DET 2007

n=0.08 mol of copper Equation: Mg(S) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) Thus for every mole of magnesium, a mole of hydrogen gas is produced. As 0.08 mol of magnesium was used, 0.08 mol of hydrogen is produced. One mole of hydrogen at 100 kPa and 25oC occupies 24.74L 0.80 mole occupies 24.79 x 0.08 = 1.98L 1.98L of hydrogen gas is produced b) n=0.08 mol of magnesium 1mol of magnesium is 6.022 x 1023 atoms Therefore 0.08 mol of magnesium is .08 x 6.022 x 1023= 4.82 x 1022 atoms 4.82 x 1022 atoms of magnesium are used c) One atom of magnesium reacts to produce one molecule or two atoms of hydrogen. Therefore 2 x 4.82 x 1022= 9.64 x 1022 atoms of hydrogen are released.

This problem will challenge you to apply your knowledge to a different situation. HSC online has some useful information on standard solutions and titrations.From page 20 of the OTEN Distance Education resource also treats titrations thoroughly. You are to determine the concentration of acetic acid in vinegar using a standardised solution of sodium hydroxide. a) Explain how you would dilute the vinegar to get a 10%v/v solution. b) Explain how you would standardise your solution of sodium hydroxide using insoluble aspirin tablet containing 300 mg of molecular monoprotic acetylsalicyclic acid ( C9H8O4) as a standard.
Section End

Section End

13 NSW DET 2009

Section End

Problem 2 using mass ratio to calculate an empirical formula

If 1.35 g of aluminium reacted completely with oxygen to form 2.55 g of an aluminium oxide product, what is the empirical formula for the product?

Answer
The mass of oxygen that reacted with the aluminium is 2.55-1.35 = 1.20g Mass ratio of aluminium to oxygen in the compound is 1.35:1.20 Particle ratio of the elements in the compound is 1.35/27: 1.2/16 = 0.05:0.075 Dividing both sides of the ratio by 0.05 gives a ratio of 1:1.5 Multiply both sides by 2 to convert to whole number ratio of 2:3 The empirical formula for aluminium oxide from these results is Al2O3
Section End

Section End

14 NSW DET 2007

Moles and the heat of combustion

Evaluate

The historical development of the mole concept

1. Can I calculate Avogadros number and explain its significance?
A mass spectrometer has measured the mass of one atom of carbon 12 to 15 NSW DET 2009

Moles and gases

Can I calculate the volume of carbon dioxide released in fermentation?
Glucose is fermented to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide according to the equation: C6H12O6(aq) C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

be 1.99265 x 10-23g a) Given that one mole of carbon 12 has a mass of 12 g, do a calculation to determine the number of atoms in one mole . b) What is the historical significance of this figure?

a) What number should replace the to balance the equation? b) If 5.95g of ethanol was produced, what is the volume of carbon dioxide released at 25oC and 100 kPa?

Answer
a) To balance the equation you have to have equal numbers of atoms on both sides of the equation. As there are six carbon atoms in glucose, there must be a total of six in the products. Two are in the two carbon dioxide molecues, so four must be in ethanol.Each ethanol has two atoms of carbon, so there must be two molecules of ethanol. =2 b) Use the equation n=m/M to calculate the number of moles of ethanol. m=5.95g M = 2 x 12.01 + 6 x 1.008 + 16.00 = 36.07 n= 5.95/36.07 = 0.165mol From the equation, the same number om moles of ethanol as carbon dioxide are produced. Therefore 0.165mol of carbon dioxide are released. One mole of gas at 25oC and 100 kPa occupies a volume of 24.79L 0.165mol of gas at the same conditions will occupy 0.165 x 24.79 = 2.47L 2.47L of carbon dioxide will be released when 5.95g of ethanol has been produced by fermentation.

1. Answer
a) Divide the mass of one mole by the mass of one atom to determine the number of atoms in one mole. 12/1.99265 x 10-23= 602 214 000 000 000 000 000 000 or 6.022 x 1023. Hint: if these type of questions worry you, it is sometimes useful to think of an analogy e.g. if a unit oranges has a mass of 3.0 kg, and one orange has a mass of 0.25 kg, how many oranges in a unit would be a calculation of 3.0/0.25= 12 oranges in a unit. b) This figure is called Avogadros Number (NA). Avogadro, himself did not make the calculation, but it is named after him. His Law was fundamental in developing the mole concept as it explained the relationships between atoms and molecules. Note: Avogadros Law was not accepted until 50 years after he announced it. It took another 50 years for estimates of the number of particles in a mole to approximate the currently accepted figure.
Section End

Section End

16 NSW DET 2007

2. Can I outline the historical development of the mole concept?

2. Outline the two key steps in understanding that underpinned the development of the mole concept.

Section End

Can I calculate the mass of zinc reacting when I know the volume of hydrogen produced?
a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction of zinc metal with nitric acid to produce hydrogen gas. b) If 5L of hydrogen gas have been released at 0oC and 100 kPa, how many grams of zinc reacted?

2. Answer
2. The two key steps were: the understanding proposed by Gay-Lussac that gases always react together to form gaseous products in simple volume ratios, if pressure and temperature are controlled Avogadros Law states that equal volumes of different gases must contain equal numbers of particles.

Answer
a) Zn(s) +2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) You need to know the common formula for nitric acid and the valency of zinc. (Zinc is located in the Periodic Table beside the transition metals. It is a d-block element, but not a true transisiton metal as it only forms compounds in one oxidation state.) The data sheet gives the standard potential for zinc ions reacting with two electrons, so this might be useful to trigger your memory, if you forget that zinc foms a Zn2+ ion and therefore forms zinc nitrate with the formula Zn(NO3)2 Note the above equation has exactly the same number and types of atoms in reactants and products b) At 0oC and 100 kPa, 22.71 L of gas contain one mole. Therefore 5L of gas contain 5/22.71 mol or 0.22mol of hydrogen. From the equation it can be seen that for every mole of hydrogen gas released, a mole of zinc is used. 0.22 mol of zinc can be converted to grams using n=m/M and changing it to m=M x n

Avogadro challenged the understanding that atoms and molecules were the same. Two volumes of nitrogen dioxide reacting with one volume of oxygen produced two volumes of nitrogen dioxide. The explanation Avogadro provided was that oxygen was a diatomic molecule i.e one volume of oxygen had half the number of molecules as two volumes of nitrogen oxide, but because oxygen molecules have two oxygen atoms, they can react with nitrogen oxide to produce the same number of nitrogen dioxide molecules. Equation: 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g) The failure to recognise the possiblity of diatomic molecules delayed the 17 NSW DET 2009

acceptance of Avogadros Law for nearly 50 years. Once it was accepted, the concept of the mole was developed to describe equivalent amounts of matter. Note: this question addresses the P1 outcome. You must be prepared for questions that address an outcome without giving you clues to the syllabus points. You will need to show an understanding of these two syllabus points : describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept
Section End

n=0.22, M = 65.38 m= 0.22 x 65.38= 14.38g 14.38g of Zn react with nitric acid to form 5L of hydrogen gas
Section End

Section End

Section End

Section End

Using appropriate terminology relating to the mole concept

Can I accurately and concisely communicate my investigation comparing the molar heat of combustion of two fuels.
The following is an extract from the method and discussion of a student investigation report comparing the molar heat of combustion of two fuels.The student has received the feedback that although the calculations were correct, the presentation of the report has failed to incorporate the conventions of chemisty and appropriately or accurately use technical language. There is a need to provide much more precise information in the

18 NSW DET 2007

analysis and conclusion. Re-write the sections of the report below to show you know how to communicate chemical information accurately and precisely. Investigation report: Method: We compared ethanol with methanol by putting them in a glass jar with a bit of rope coming out the top, burning them under a beaker containing 100 mL of water and measuring the temperature of the water. Both reactions can be summarised as fuel (methanol or ethanol) and oxygen goes to carbon dioxide and water. We found the temperature difference and multiplied by the mass and specific heat. Discussion:

Problem-solving based on the mole

Moles of metals Moles and solutions
Use the data provided on this link to complete the activity on molar heat of solution of sodium acetate and ammonium nitrate. Print the completed worksheet and submit to your teacher.

The results were not the same as the data in the data book because of experimental errors, such as measuring the temperature accurately.

Points to include:
1. Method written as numbered points. Sentences starting with an active verb. 2. Label a diagram similar to the following diagram (without gauze)

How strong is the solution of hydrogen peroxide?

Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2(aq) can be purchased from the chemist. It can be used for bleaching and sterilising but in extreme concentrations can even be used as rocket propellant. At room temperature, hydrogen peroxide has a density of 1.45 gcm-3 (g/mL) 19 NSW DET 2009

a) If you have a 500 mL bottle full of 35%v/v hydrogen peroxide, how many mL of pure hydrogen peroxide liquid would you have? b) How many g of hydrogen peroxide would there be? c) If the hydrogen peroxide completely broke down to form water and oxygen, how many litres of oxygen would be released?

Answer
a) For every 100 mL of solution, there is 35mL of hydrogen peroxide. In total there is 5 x 35 = 165mL of H2O2 There is 165mL of pure hydrogen peroxide in the bottle b) Density = mass/volume 1.45=m/165 165mL of pure hydrogen peroxide would have a mass of 1.45 x 165 =237.25g The bottle contains 237.25g of hydrogen peroxide c) 2H2O2 (l) 2 H2O(l) + O2(g) For every 2 moles of hydrogen peroxide reacting, one mole of oxygen is produced. Number of moles of H2O2 n=m/M= 237.25/(2 x 1.008 + 2 x 16)= 6.97 mol Therefore 6.97/2 moles of oxygen are produced =3.485mol One mole of gas has a volume of 24.79L at 100kPa and 25oC 3.485 mole of oxygen would have a volume of approximately 86.4L 86.4 L of oxygen would be released. Note: you need to be able to report using the appropriate terminology and style. It is important to demonstrate your ability to produce balanced equations as a precise and concise means of 20 NSW DET 2007

Equipment used to determine the heat of combustion

3. Include balanced equations. 4. Show the formula used.

communicating chemical information.

Section End

Section End

5. Precisely identify sources of error such as heat losses by convection. 6. Convey a knowledge of how variables were considered and controlled. For example the same height of spirit burner from the beaker,thye same type of spirit burner and wick.
Section End

Section End

Explaining applications of the mole concept

This could include HSC-style problems where students may need to do both a calculation and explain answer, reasoning All problems should show working. Balanced equations should be included and the accurate use of the terminology and conventions of communication in chemistry demonstrated.

Extra Info
21 NSW DET 2009

Sections
Engage outlines the mole concept and its importance throughout the NSW Stage 6 Chemistry course. Explore provides links for a range of experiments that occur throughout the preliminary and HSC modules Explain models problem-solving in a range of contexts where the mole concept is developed and applied. Elaborate allows you can attempt to solve a range of problems and check your answers using worked solutions. Evaluate presents some activities to help you evaluate your understanding and application of the mole concept and syllabus outcomes.

Curriculum links
This resource is designed for use with the following syllabus:

Chemistry
NSW Chemistry Syllabus outcomes: Preliminary course P1. outlines the historical development of major principles, concepts and ideas in chemistry P4. describes applications of chemistry which affect society or the environment P6 explains trends and relationships between elements in terms of atomic structure, the periodic table and bonding P10. applies simple stoichiometric relationships P13. identifies appropriate terminology and reporting styles to communicate information and understanding HSC course H4. assesses the impacts of applications of chemistry on society and the environment

The purpose of this learning package

Whats the big idea in chemistry?
This learning package, Whats the big idea in chemistry? addresses one of the major concepts that students need to understand to successfully 22 NSW DET 2007

complete the stage 6 NSW Chemistry course. The mole concept is developed and applied through various sections of the syllabus. This learning package supports the understanding of the concept as well as various contexts in which it occurs.
Section End

H10. analyses stoichiometric relationships H13. uses terminology and reporting styles appropriately and successfully to communicate information and understanding Syllabus references are included throughout the resource so you can map your progress against the syllabus.
Section End

Quality teaching
This learning package supports the following elements of Quality Teaching: Intellectual Quality Deep knowledge, Deep Understanding, Higher Order Thinking, Metalanguage Quality Learning Environment Engagement, High Expectations, Student Direction Significance Background Knowledge, Knowledge Integration

Section End

Other resources
Other interactives you may find useful include: Reactants, Products and Leftovers Build a molecule

23 NSW DET 2009

Isotopes and Atomic Mass Combustion and non-combustion chemical reactions. View these animations. Background to Gay-Lussacs work understanding of the gas laws. You tube videos that teachers may access include:

Chemistry: A Volatile History on You Tube Episode 1 gives an historical account of the discovery of the elements and the evolution of alchemy into the scientific investigations of the chemists. Part 3 of this series explains the first discovery of a gaseous element and discusses the discovery of oxygen. Part 4 explains the logic of Lavoisier in revolutionising chemistry. Episode 2 in this series provides a detailed elaboration of the history of the development of the Periodic Table. Episode 3 gives historical background to the discovery of radioactivity and the radioactive elements

Section End

Feedback
24 NSW DET 2007

Feedback link: allows for teachers and students to provide feedback to the publisher on the effectiveness of this resource.

Section End

Why
This resource has been developed to support you to: understand and apply one of the big ideas in senior chemistry, the mole concept including its historical context learn about the discovery, processing and use of copper learn about solubility and how the mole concept can be used to describe concentration, compare solubility and measure heats of solution learn about the use of water and the mole concept to compare the heat of combustion of various fuels learn how the mole is used to calculate the volumes of gases, such as the acidic oxides, that are released in some reactions, e.g. combustion

Section End

When
This learning package supports the study of the NSW Stage 6 Chemistry Syllabus. You can use it when: you have successfully completed Module 8.2 The Chemical Earth. The section Am I ready to start? and the glossary will help if you have knowledge gaps. 25 NSW DET 2009

studying Module 8.3. Metals. It has sections that deal with the history of metals, including copper, the mole concept and the production or use of gases in metal reactions. studying Module 8.4 Water and learning about describing the concentration of solutions, the molar heat of solution and endothermic and exothermic reactions. studying Module 9.2 Production of Materials and you are determining the molar heat of combustion of fuels. studying Module 9.3 Acidic Environment when, given the mass changes, you are calculating the volumes of gases released. revising or reflecting on your understanding.

Section End

How
Work through the tabbed sections in sequence but not necessarily all at once or in full. At the end of each section attempt the relevant Check your understanding revision activities. You may revisit this resource in both the NSW Chemistry Preliminary and HSC courses. Use the syllabus reference links to map your progress through the NSW Chemistry course. Attempt questions and problems in both the Elaborate and Evaluate sections to focus your efforts and learning.

Section End

Check your understanding Engage

26 NSW DET 2007

Assumed knowledge and skills: Matching common names to formulae (Smart notebook) Matching common names to formulae interactive. Activity on equations Can you balance these reactions? Types of bonds Check your ability to change the subject of a formula. Justification for learning about moles, metals, solutions and heat of combustion.
Section End

Syllabus reference assumed knowledge

27 NSW DET 2009

Years 7-10 Science syllabus

5.7.1a) describe features of and the location of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom 5.7.1b) distinguish between elements, using information about the number of protons, neutrons and electrons 5.7.1c) describe an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure 5.7.2a) identify the atom as the smallest unit of an element and distinguish between atoms and molecules 5.7.2b) describe some relationships between elements using the Periodic Table 5.7.3a) identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather than by creating matter 5.7.3b) classify compounds into groups based on common chemical characteristics 5.7.3c) construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of chemical reactions 5.7.3d) identify a range of common compounds using their common names and chemical formulae 5.7.3e) qualitatively describe reactants and products in the following chemical reactions: i) combustion 28 NSW DET 2007

ii) corrosion iii) precipitation iv) acids on metals and acids on carbonates v) neutralisation vi) decomposition 5.11.2a) relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances

Section End

8.2 The Chemical Earth 1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures
Students learn to: construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory

Section End

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
Students learn to:

29 NSW DET 2009

 - ions

describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons construct formulae for compounds formed from:

- atoms sharing electrons Students: analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals, ionic compounds and covalent compounds

Section End

5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure
Students learn to: 30 NSW DET 2007 distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons

describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three dimensional lattices of ions explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

Section End Section End Section End

Syllabus reference engage

8.2 The Chemical Earth 1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures
Students learn to: construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory

Section End

31 NSW DET 2009

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
Students learn to: - ions - atoms sharing electrons Students: analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals, ionic compounds and covalent compounds describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons construct formulae for compounds formed from:

Section End

5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure
32 NSW DET 2007

Students learn to: distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three dimensional lattices of ions explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

Section End

Section End Section End

Syllabus reference explore

8.3 Metals
33 NSW DET 2009

1.

Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years

Students learn to: outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys

Students: 4. analyse information to relate the chronology of the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the modern era and possible future developments For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of each reactant

Students learn to: define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 (Avogadros number) compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae

Students: process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical equations in terms of mole ratios

perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal to non-metal(s) in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula

34 NSW DET 2007

 solve problems and analyse information from secondary sources to perform calculations involving Avogadros number and the equatio n for calculating the number of moles of a substance: n= m/M process information from secondary sources to investigate the relationship between the volumes of gases involved in reactions involving a metal and relate this to an understanding of the mole 5. The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and breadth of use in the community

Students: describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ores

Section End

Section End

Syllabus reference explain

35 NSW DET 2009

8.3 Metals
4. For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of each reactant Students learn to: define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 (Avogadros number) compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae

Students: process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical equations in terms of mole ratios

perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal to non-metal(s) in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula

36 NSW DET 2007

 solve problems and analyse information from secondary sources to perform calculations involving Avogadros number and the equation for calculating the number of moles of a substance: n= m/M process information from secondary sources to investigate the relationship between the volumes of gases involved in reactions involving a metal and relate this to an understanding of the mole 8.4 Water 4. The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their solubility, and precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution using:c=n/V

Students: carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration of given solutions, given masses of solute and volumes of solution

perform a first-hand investigation to make solutions to specified volume to-volume and mass-to-volume specifications and dilute them to specified concentrations (cV = constant) 5. Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids Students : choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the change in temperature when substances dissolve in water and calculate the molar heat of solution 9.2 Production of Materials

37 NSW DET 2009

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants Students learn to: define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data

9.3 Acidic Environment 2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution Students learn to: calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving gases at 0C and 100kPa or 25C and 100kPa Students: identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to decarbonate soft drink and gather data to measure the mass changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25C and 100kPa

Section End

Section End

Syllabus reference elaborate

8.3 Metals 38 NSW DET 2007

4.

For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of each reactant

Students: process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical equations in terms of mole ratios

perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal to non-metal(s) in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula solve problems and analyse information from secondary sources to perform calculations involving Avogadros number and the equation for calculating the number of moles of a substance: n= m/M process information from secondary sources to investigate the relationship between the volumes of gases involved in reactions involving a metal and relate this to an understanding of the mole

8.4 Water 4. The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their solubility, and precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution using:c=n/V

Students: carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration of given solutions, given masses of solute and volumes of solution

39 NSW DET 2009

 perform a first-hand investigation to make solutions to specified volume to-volume and mass-to-volume specifications and dilute them to specified concentrations (cV = constant) 5. Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids Students : choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the change in temperature when substances dissolve in water and calculate the molar heat of solution 9.2 Production of Materials 3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants Students learn to: define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data

9.3 Acidic Environment 2. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution Students learn to: calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in reactions, and calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving gases at 0C and 100kPa or 25C and 100kPa Students:

40 NSW DET 2007

identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to decarbonate soft drink and gather data to measure the mass changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25C and 100kPa 4. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been used and studied for hundreds of years. Over time, the definitions of acid and base have been refined perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using titrations and including the preparation of standard solutions, and use available evidence to quantitatively and qualitatively describe the reaction between selected acids and bases
Section End

Check your understanding explore

Crossword on terms of processing metals. Check your knowledge of the sequence of steps in processing copper. Check your understanding of chemical and physical changes using copper processing. Calculate the answers to these problems on specific heat and check your answers.

41 NSW DET 2009

Check your deep understanding and ability to do calculations on these challenging specific heat capacity problems. (DO ANSWERS)
Section End

Check your understanding explain

Use this link to check whether you can calculate molar mass.(Click Calculations in the left menu and then basic mole colculations in the central menu.) Another link to check your ability to calculate molar masses of common compounds. Calculate the molar heat of solution of these examples.
Section End

Molar mass

42 NSW DET 2007

Molar mass of elements Molar mass of copper

Copper (Cu) is a metal that exists in a metallic lattice. Its molar mass is simply its atomic weight. Atomic weight of copper from Periodic Table=63.55 Molar mass of copper=63.55g
Section End

Molar mass of oxygen

Oxygen (O2) is a diatomic molecule. Its molar mass is twice its atomic weight. Atomic weight of oxygen from the Periodic Table=16.00 Molar mass of oxygen= 2X16.00=32.00g Molar mass of oxygen molecules is 32g
Section End

Molar mass of carbon(diamond)

43 NSW DET 2009

Carbon atoms exist in a covalent lattice in their allotropic form of diamond. The molar mass of carbon (diamond) is simply its atomic weight taken from the Periodic Table. Molar mass of carbon =12.01g

Section End

Section End

Molar mass of compounds Molar mass of water

Water (H2O) is a covalent compound consisting of molecules of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Molecular weight= atomic weight of each atom component From the Periodic Table Molecular weight= 2X 1.01 + 16.00= 18.02 Molar mass of water=18.02g
Section End

Molar mass of sodium chloride

Molar mass of sodium chloride 44 NSW DET 2007

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an ionic compound consisting of a lattice of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-) on a one-to-one ratio. We therefor use the empirical formula for sodium chloride to calculate its molar mass. Empirical formula = NaCl Molar mass= sum of atomic weights of each ion component From the Periodic Table Molar mass = 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44g Molar mass of NaCl is 58.44g
Section End

Molar mass of silicon dioxide

Silicon dioxide(SiO2) exists as a covalent lattice network compound. As such it does not have a molecular formula so its empirical formula or formual weight is used for calculating its molar mass. Molar mass= 28.09 + 2 x 16.00=60.09g Molar mass of silicon dioxide is 60.09g
Section End

Molar mass of copper sulfate

Many salts exist as crystals in which some water still remains.If you heat blue copper sulphate crystals they turn white, indicating the water has been removed. The blue form is copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate or CuSO4.5H2O. The calculate the molar mass of copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate you would add the atomic weights of all the component atoms including the water. 45 NSW DET 2009

M= 63.55 +32.07 + (4 x 16.00) + 5 x ( 2 X 1.008 + 16.00) = 249.70g Molar mass of copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate is 249.70g
Section End

Section End

Section End

How many moles?

Often we are given the mass of a substance and need to calculate the number of moles it contains.

The formula n=m/M

In the formula n=m/M n is the number of moles 46 NSW DET 2007

m is the number of grams of the substance M is the molar mass of the substance
Section End

Example 1
I have 22.45 g of copper. How many moles of copper do I have? m= 22.45g M= 63.55g n=? n= 22.45/63.55 =0.35 mol I have 0.35 mol of copper
Section End

Example 2
I have 12.3 moles of copper. How many grams do I have? n= 12.3 mol m= ? M=63.55 47 NSW DET 2009

12.3=m/63.55 Multiply both sides of the equation by 63.55 12.3 x 63.55 = m = 781.67 g I have 781.67 g of copper
Section End

Example 3
I have 4.2 mol of a metal with a mass of 266.91 g. What is its molar mass, and what is the substance? n = 4.2 mol m = 266.91 g M =? 4.2 = 266.91/M Multiply both sides by M 4.2M = 266.91 Divide both sides by 4.2 M = 266.91/4.2 = 63.55 The molar mass of the substance is 63.55 Scanning the Periodic Table shows the substance with a. atomic weight of 63.55 is copper. 48 NSW DET 2007

(Note we can assume the molar mass is the atomic mass because we are told that the substance is a metal.)
Section End Section End

How many atoms?

We know n=m/M and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units in a mole is Avogadros number NA We can then say that n=N/NA where N is the number of atoms, molecules or formula units

Example 1
I have 0.5 mol of copper. How many atoms of copper do I have? 1 mol of copper has 6.022 x 1023 atoms 0.5 mol of copper has 6.022 x 1023 X 0.5 atoms I have 3.011 x 1023 atoms of copper Or n=N/NA 0.5=N/6.022X1023 49 NSW DET 2009

N= 0.5 x 6.022 x 1023 = 3.011 x 1023 atoms of copper

Section End

Example 2
I have 29.2 g of copper. How many copper atoms do I have? I first have to calculate how many moles of copper I have and then multiply by Avogadros number. m = 29.2 M = 63.55 n=? n = m/M = 29.2/63.55 = 0.46 mol of copper 1 mol of copper has 6.022 x 1023atoms 0.46 mol of copper has 6.022 x 1023 x 0.46 atoms 2.77 x 1023 atoms are in 29.2 g of copper
Section End

Section End

50 NSW DET 2007

Summary of the mole

One of the Systeme International (SI) basic units. It defines the amount of matter in terms of number of basic particles. The number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12. Avogadros number ( 6.022 x 10 23 ) of particles is present in one mole of a substance. Probably derived from the Latin word, moles, meaning a heap or pile Abbreviated to mol

NSW Stage 6 Chemistry Syllabus glossary states: The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol is mol. Note: When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles or specified groups of such particles. In this definition, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in their ground state are referred to. (IUPAC 1967, 1969; CIPM 1971, 1980) Remember the mole using this catchy You tube video A Mole is a Unit. 51 NSW DET 2009

Section End

History of the mole Gay-Lussac and Avogadro

Gay Lussac, a French chemist, made important discoveries about gases. He was a careful and accurate experimenter. His Law of Combining Volumes, about the simple relationship between volumes of gases reacting to produce a gaseous product when held at constant temperature and pressure, underpinned the work of Avogadro and the development of Avogadros Law. Dalton and Gay-Lussac used the terms atom and molecule without distinction. The concept of a diatomic molecule was strongly resisted because it was believed that two similar atoms would repel, in the same manner that two like charges repel each other and therefore could not chemically combine .

Gay-Lussacs Law using the example of making ammonia

This balanced equation shows current understanding, that one molecule of nitrogen gas combines with three molecules of hydrogen gas to form two molecules of ammonia gas. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

52 NSW DET 2007

Berthollet, a co-worker of Gay-Lussac, discovered that at constant temperature and pressure, one litre of nitrogen gas would combine with three litres of hydrogen gas to produce two litres of ammonia gas. Gay-Lussac discovered that for many other reactions of gaseous reactants and products the volume ratios were also simple whole numbers.
Section End

Avogadros Law stated that all gases have the same number of particles at the same temperature and pressure. It does not matter if the gas is made up of small single atoms, such as helium, or larger compound molecules, such as carbon dioxide, or diatomic elements such as chlorine. They will all have the same number of particles at the same pressure and temperature. Essentially Avogadro began the process of clarifying the particles that made up matter.Previously the terms atom and molecule had been used synonomously. Avogadro described three types of molecules and called atoms elementary molecules. It was not until 1860, almost 50 years after he announced it, that Avogadros Law was accepted as correct. Check your understanding of the sequence of events that underpinned the development of the mole concept in this activity. You can print the correct version to add to your notes.
Section End

Metals and gases

53 NSW DET 2009

Example 1 metal and acid reaction

Zinc reacts with acids to produce a zinc salt and hydrogen gas. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 10 g of zinc is placed into a large quantity of hydrochloric acid. a) At 100 kPa and 25oC, what volume of hydrogen gas is produced? b) If this gas is ignited to produce water, what is the mass of water produced? Answer: a) From the equation we can see that one mole of zinc produces one mole of hydrogen. n=m/M For the zinc: m=10g (given) M=65.38 (taken from Periodic Table) N=10/65.38= 0.15 mol 0.15 mol of hydrogen gas at 100kPa and 25oC occupies a volume of 24.79 x 0.15 = 3.7L 3.7L of hydrogen gas is produced from the reaction of 10 g of zinc in surplus hydrochloric acid b) From the equation 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) It can be seen that 0.15 mol of hydrogen will produce 0.15 mol of water. The mass in 0.15 mole of water= 0.15 x molar mass of water Molar mass of water= 2 X 1.008 + 16= 18.016g Mass of water produced= 0.15 x 18.016 =2.7 g of water 2.7 g of water is produced

54 NSW DET 2007

Section End

Example 2 the rusting of iron

A 1.5 tonne iron car is left to deteriorate in the weather over a long time until all the iron has reacted to form iron (III) oxide. a) What approximate volume of oxygen at 100kPa and 25o C was used over the years? b) What is the mass of the residual iron(III) oxide? Answer a) Firstly you need to be able to summarise the reaction using a balanced equation: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(S) This shows that four atoms of iron react with six atoms of oxygen to form two molecules of iron(III) oxide. Assuming the 1.5 tonnes are all iron, this means there is 1500 kg of iron. n=m/M can be used to determine the number of moles of iron used, where M=55.85 n=1 500 000/55.85=268 38.4mol For every four moles of iron atoms, three moles of oxygen molecules are used. Therefore the number of moles of oxygen used is 268.38.4 X 0.75=20 128.8mol One mole of ideal gas has a volume of 24.79L at 25oC and 100 kPa so 20 128.8 moles has a volume of 24.79 x 20 128.8=498 994L Thus approximately 500 000L of oxygen was used over the years that the car rusted. b) Using the Law of Conservation of Mass, the mass of the residual iron(III) oxide is mass of iron + mass of oxygen Using the equation n=m/M to find the mass of oxygen reacting, m = n x M = 20 128.8 x 16 x 2 = 644kg Mass of iron (III) oxide is = 15 000 + 644= 2144 kg or 2.14 tonne The mass of the residual iron(III)oxide is 2.14 tonne

Section End

55 NSW DET 2009

Section End

Copper example
This equation shows that for every two molecules of chalcopyrite, three molecules of oxygen are required. The products are two molecules of iron(II) oxide, two of copper(II) sulfide and two of sulfur dioxide. Practically, what we need to know is how many tonnes of chalcopyrite and how many litres of oxygen are needed to produce a certain mass of copper (II) sulphide. We also need to know many tonnes of iron (II)oxide waste and how many litres of the potentially dangerous gas, sulfur dioxide we have to dispose of. Acidic oxides from industrial activites such as smelting have had disasterous impacts on the environment.

CC NASA image

Images of Flin Flon, a Canadian town of about 6 000 people, that is based on mining. The NASA satellite image on the left shows the pollution plume contrasting with the clear air in the surroundings.

56 NSW DET 2007

CC NASA image

NASA image from the International Space Station of the large Chinese city, Shenyang. The black area in the centre is the main urban development and the surrounding grey and white areas represent rural countryside. The yellow plumes are the result of pollution from smelting and the petrochemical industry.

Section End

Metal reactions and the volume of gases

Moles and gases

Because of the work of Gay-Lussac and Avogadro, if we know the mass of a gas, we can calculate its volume at a specified temperature and pressure and conversely, if we know the volume at a specified temperature and pressure we can calculate its mass. 57 NSW DET 2009

Video of magnesium burning <embed src="http://www.teachertube.com/embed/player.swf" width="374" height="230" bgcolor="undefined" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" flashvars="file=http://www.teachertube.com/embedFLV.php?pg=video_18493&menu=false&frontcolor=ffffff&lightcolor=FF0000&logo=http://www.teache rtube.com/www3/images/greylogo.swf&skin=http://www.teachertube.com/embed/overlay.swf&volume=80&controlbar=over&displayclick=link&viral.link= http://www.teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=18493&stretching=exactfit&plugins=viral-2&viral.callout=none&viral.onpause=false" /> Embed Code End

Burning magnesium
The finding that when metals burnt in air, they actually gained weight led workers to start to question the existence of phlogiston- a colourless, odourless, tasteless, weightless substance that was supposedly contained in flammable substances and released on burning. Let us now apply current understanding to examine a result that 2.4 g of magnesium was burnt in air to produced 4.0 g of magnesium oxide.

Equation
2Mg(s) +O2(g)2MgO(s)
Section End

The equation shows for every two atoms of magnesium one molecule of oxygen is required. This means that for every two moles of magnesium, one mole of oxygen is required. Weight of magnesium= m=2.4 g Formula n=m/M 58 NSW DET 2007

M=24.31 Number of moles of magnesium = 2.4/24.31= 0.1mol Therefore 0.05 moles of oxygen was required. (Alternatively, from the Law of Conservation of Mass, we know that 1.6 g of oxygen was used. Using the equation n=m/M, n=1.6/32= 0.05mol) At 25oC and 100 kPa, we can calculate the volume of oxygen used. One mole of gas at 100kPa and 25oC occupies 24.79L Therefore 0.05 mole occupies 24.79 x 0.05 = 1.2L
Section End

Section End

Solubility and the heat of solution

When a substance dissolves, bonds are firstly broken and then other bonds form. When ionic substances such as sodium chloride, dissolve, the ionic bonds are broken and, if water is the solvent, hydrogen bonding occurs between the ions and water. When molecular substances, such as glucose dissolve, the intermolecular bonds are broken and, if the solvent is water, hydrogen bonding occurs between the molecule and water. The processes of bond breaking and bond formation require energy or release energy and depending on the solute. When more energy is released than is absorbed, the temperature goes up. This is called an exothermic reaction. The chemical energy contained within the resulting solution is less than the chemical energy stored in the reactants. We say the change in enthalpy (H) is negative When less energy is released than absorbed, the temperature goes down. This is called an endothermic reaction. The chemical energy contained within the resulting solution is more than the chemical energy stored in the reactants. We say the change in enthalpy (H) is positive.

Equation for molar heat of solution

59 NSW DET 2009

?H=- mC?T
Section End

This link explains the changes when ammonium nitrate and sodium hydroxide are dissolved.

Example 1
Section End

Example 2
Section End

Section End

Heat of combustion
When a fuel burns, bonds are broken and new bonds are formed. The result is the release of energy that was stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel, in the form of heat and light. The study of the changes in energy due to chemical reactions is called calorimetry. At its most basic level, water is often used to trap the heat released by the burning fuel. The temperature increase in the water is then used to calculate the molar heat of combustion of the fuel. In practice, heat can be lost through radiation and convection, as well as conduction into the container and air. More sophisticated experiments try to take this into account. If nothing else, experiments used to compare the heats of combustion of various fuels will give a relative indication of the amount of heat released, provided the sources of error are kept the same. Heat is always a product of combustion reactions, (i.e. it is an exothermic reaction). Convention has it that the molar heat of combustion is given as a positive value. 60 NSW DET 2007

Equation for the molar heat of combustion

1. Determine how many moles of the fuel has been burnt using the formula n=m/M 2. Use H=mCT 3. H/number of moles of fuel burnt gives the molar heat of combustion of that fuel.
Section End

Example 1
Section End

Example 2
Section End

Section End

Syllabus reference mole definition

Module 8.3 Metals 4. For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of each reactant

Students learn to: define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 (Avogadros number) 61 NSW DET 2009

Section End

Syllabus reference Gay-Lussac and Avogadro

Metals 8.3 4. For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of each reactant

Students learn to: describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept

Section End

Syllabus reference copper processing

8.3 Metals 5. The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and breadth of use in the community

Students: describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ores

Section End

Syllabus reference concentration of solutions

8.4 Water 62 NSW DET 2007

4. The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their solubility, and precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution using:c=n/V

Students: carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration of given solutions, given masses of solute and volumes of solution

Section End

Syllabus reference molar heat of solution

5. Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids Students : choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the change in temperature when substances dissolve in water and calculate the molar heat of solution
Section End

Calculating concentration of solution

Syllabus reference NSW Stage 6 Chemistry syllabus, Metals 8.3 4. The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their solubility, and precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution using:c=n/V carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration of given solutions, given masses of solute and volumes of solution 63 NSW DET 2009

perform a first-hand investigation to make solutions to specified volume to-volume and mass-to-volume specifications and dilute them to specified concentrations (cV = constant) explain why different measurements of concentration are important

We use the equation c=n/V to calculate the concentration (c) of a solution where n is the number of moles contained in the solution and V is the volume of solution. NOTE: the volume of solution is not equivalent to the volume of solvent. An accurate 1M NaCl solution is not made by adding 58.54g of NaCl to 1 L of water, but rather by dissolving 58.54g in about 500 mL of water and then adding water to a total solution volume of 1 L. WARNING: Lower case c is used for concentration, upper case C is used for specific heat capacity, do not get them confused! Example 1.: If there is 0.5 mol of NaCl dissolved in water to form 500mL of solution, the concentration is 0.5/0.5 or 1 mole per litre. One mole per litre of sodium chloride is written as 1M NaCl. Example 2. If I had 2L of a 7.5M solution of glucose, how many moles of glucose do I have? c=n/V so 7.5 = n/2. That means I have 15 mol of glucose. Example 3. How many litres of 0.15 M magnesium sulphate solution do I need to have 0.5 mole of magnesium sulphate? c=n/V 0.15=0.5/V V= 0.5/0.15 = 3.33L Sometimes other measures are used to describe concentration. If a liquid-liquid solution is being prepared it is often expressed as volume-to-volume percentage or %v/v. A 20%v/v ethanol solution will contain 20mL of ethanol per 100mL total volume of solution. Mass-to-volume describes a solution formed from the addition of a known mass of solute to form a specified volume of solution. It is sometimes called mass-volume or weight-volume percentage abbreviated to % m/v or % w/v. A 20% sugar solution contains 20g of sugar per 100mL of the resultant solution. Because volume can vary slightly with temperature, some descriptions of concentration are expressed as mass fractions or weight-weight percentage. Here is a detailed explanation of many of the other possible ways of describing concentration.
Section End

64 NSW DET 2007

Mass Ratio experiment

Syllabus reference 8.3.4 perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal to non-metal(s) in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula

Pages 16-18 of this link give a detailed description of the method to use. Here is an outline with some data: 1) A clean, dried crucible and lid is weighed. Total mass is 25.17g 2) A piece of cleaned magnesium is added and re-weighed. Total mass is 26.15g 3) Crucible is heated so that magnesium ignited. Lid opened briefly to ensure sufficient oxygen enters and the reaction is complete. Equipment cooled and re-weighed to give a total mass of 26.83g. Calculation: Mass of magnesium =26.15-25.17= 0.98g Mass of magnesium oxide = 26.83-25.17= 1.66g Mass of oxygen that combined with magnesium = 1.66-0.98 = 0.68g Mass ratio of magnesium: oxygen is 0.98:0.68 Divide both magnesium and oxygen by their molar mass to obtain a ratio of number of particles of each. 0.98/24.31=0.041 0.68/16=0.043

Mole ratio is 0.041:0.043 or 1:1 The empirical formula for magnesium oxide is MgO
Section End

65 NSW DET 2009

Who can use this resource?

This resource has been designed specifically for stage 6 students throughout the state of NSW who are studying chemistry and accepting its challenges. It caters for the independent learner but also addresses students who may need extra support and those who may want to achieve a deeper understanding or learn at a faster pace. It is also intended to support teachers who may have additional challenges working in remote locations or catering for a range of student abilities and progression rates. Students in other contexts who are preparing to study chemistry at a tertiary level may choose to use this resourse and disregard the references to the NSW stage 6 syllabus. The mole concept is fundamental to chemistry understanding. By making selections from the range of activities presented, self-directed students can address their individual needs.
Section End

Prepare and dilute solutions

In this activity we will prepare 250 mL of a 1M copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate solution and then make dilutions of it. You are then required to dilute it to form a 0.25M solution. In the Explain section there is an explanation of how to calculate the molar mass of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate to be 249.70g. It also contains a link to an explanation about various ways that the concentrations of solutions can be measured and expressed and the reasons for the different ways.

Equations
n=m/M n is the number of moles m is the mass of substance in grams M is the molar mass of the substance in grams Changing the subject of this equation gives m=n x M or M=m/n 66 NSW DET 2007

c=n/V c is the concentration in moles per litre n is the number of moles V is the volume in litres Changing the subject of this equation gives n= c x V and V= n/c If a dilution of a solution is being made we know that the number of moles will remain constant, i.e. cV=constant or c1V1=c2V2 This very simple spreadsheet can be used to help to do calculations on dilutions.
Section End

If making up 250 mL of a 1M solution, using the equation c=n/V; n=c x V c= 1M, V=0.25L, n = 1 x 0.25= 0.25mol. Using the equation n=m/M, m= n x M The mass of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate required is 0.25 x249.70=62.43g To make 250mL of a 1M copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate solution you would dissolve 62.43 g of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate in about 100 mL of deionised water and stir until it has completely dissolved. You would transfer the solution into a 250 mL volumetric flask and then add deionised water until the total volume of the solution came to 250 mL (Remembering to read from the bottom of the meniscus of the solution. To dilute the solution to 0.25M, use the equation c1V1=c2V2

67 NSW DET 2009

1 x .25=0.25 x V2 V2=1 To dilute 250mL of 1 M solution, place in a 1L volumetric flask and add sufficient deionised water to a total volume of 1L.
Section End

68 NSW DET 2007