Human Evolution and Physics Bipedalism, Quadrupedalism: Who Is ?

LUCY
Human evolution and Physics Bipedalism, Quadrupedalism

Concepts:
Center of Mass Torque Force Equilibrium
Chapters: 4, 5 Pages: 95-101, 122-141
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Who is Lucy?
Lucy
Figure 04.12c
A partial hominid skeleton, discovered at Hadar, Ethiopia, Africa in 1974. An early hominid genus. A female adult, 3.5 feet tall. Characterized by bipedal locomotion Earliest known bipedal prior to humans (~3.2 million years)
Lucy
A 40% complete skeleton of Lucy indicates that she was bipedal.
Lucy Why do we think Lucy was bipedal (walking upright)? What requirement is needed for effective and efficient bipedal posture and locomotion? Lets compare between Chimpanzee (quadruped, knuckle walking), and Human (biped, upright walking)
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Was She?
Lucys entire skeleton was reconstructed from the remains that were discovered.
Quadrupedalism vs. Bipedalism

Knuckle Walking

In this comparison, the following questions are considered: Does walking upright need considerable change to the shape of the pelvis bones? Does this change in pelvis shape creates a change in the position of the center of mass. Does walking upright need change to the function of gluteal (abductor) muscles?
Human bipedal

To answer these questions, we need to know the physics of: What is Center of Mass?
What is weight line?
Center of Mass
Representing a system of particles by an equivalent single particle: Center of Mass
Rigid object like cars, balls and so forth are systems of particles
The distance between any two points on a rigid body remains constant in time.
What is Force?
What does force do?
Already we studied them (previous chapter)
The mass of an object can be distributed uniformly or non-uniformly How can we quantify the mass distribution? The center of mass (CM) of a system is the point at which all the mass of the system may be considered to be concentrated.
What is Torque?
What does torque do?
What is mechanical equilibrium?

Center of Mass
The system may be either:
a group of objects (particles) or an extended object like our body.
Center of Mass
The system may be an extended object like our body.
The translational motion of the center of mass of the system is the same as if the mass of the system is concentrated at that point.
Center of Mass
For an extended object, like our body, different parts move with different speed. So the motion of a body can be described in terms of the position and motion of the center of mass of the body (point particle Model).
Center of Mass
The center of mass of a ball thrown in the air follows a parabolic path We can see this easily because the ball is a simple, pointlike object
Center of Mass
Center of Mass
The center of mass of a hammer (black dot) also follows a parabolic path when the hammer is thrown in the air, but this is harder to observe The other points on the hammer follow a more complex path
The center of mass of this wrench is following a straight-line path, as though it were a particle, but the wrench is rotating around its center of mass
Center of Mass
May be inside or outside of the object.
Center of Mass
http://hippie.nu/~unicorn/tut/xhtml/
http://hippie.nu/~unicorn/tut/xhtml/
Center of Mass: Math

The x coordinate of the center of mass of a system of two particles of unequal masses is:
Example 1: Center of mass

Two masses, 3.0 kg and 6.0 kg are placed at positions 6.0 m and 4.0 m respectively from the origin as shown below. Where is the center of mass of these two masses?
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
xCM =
m1 x1 + m2 x2 m1 + m2
xCM
m x + m2 x 2 = 1 1 m1 + m2
The center of mass is a mass-average position of the system.

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
Center of Mass: Math

If the system consists of two particles of equal masses, the x coordinate of the center of mass is:
Center of Mass
m2 xi
y1
y2
m1
xCM =
m x1 + m x2 x + x2 = 1 2 m + m
xCM = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + ... + mn xn m1 + m2 + m3 + ... + mn
m1 y1 + m1 y 2 + m 3 y 3 + ... + m n y n m1 + m 2 + m 3 + ... + m n
x2
x1 mi yi
So, the position of the center of mass in this case is merely the average position of the system.
YCM =
Example 1: Center of mass

Three masses, 4.0 kg, 6.0 kg and 3.0 kg are placed at positions 6.0 m, 2.0 m and 4.0 m respectively from the origin as shown below. Where is the center of mass of these masses?
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
Center of Mass
The center of mass of a rigid body is a position in space described mathematically as:
xCM = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + ... m1 + m2 + m3 + ... =
m x m
i
i i
i i
m1
m2
( x1 , y1 )
( x2 , y 2 )
CM
xCM =
m1 x1 + m2 x 2 + m3 x3 m1 + m2 + m3
yCM
m y + m2 y2 + m3 y3 + ... = 1 1 m1 + m2 + m3 + ...
m y m
m3
( x3 , y 3 )
A body (an extended object) is divided into many small particles, having specific mass and specific coordinates.
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Center of Mass
For symmetric objects whose mass is distributed uniformly (i.e. constant density), the center of mass is at the geometric center of the object
Center of Mass
For objects with non-uniform mass distribution , having irregular shape, the center of mass may be evaluated by suspending as shown below:
The center of mass of a body of any shape can be located by suspending it from at least two points.
Example 1: Center of mass of the Arm

Find the center of mass of the arm shown below. The masses of the upper arm, the lower arm and the hand are 2.5 kg, 1.6 kg and 0.64 kg respectively. Their center of mass are at 0.18 m above the elbow, and 0.12 m and 0.40 m to the right of elbow respectively, as illustrated below.
xCM = y CM =
Center of mass of the Arm

Consider origin at elbow:
xCM =
m x m
i
i i
, yCM =
m y m
i i
m x m m y m
i i i
i i
0.18 m elbow
0.12 m
0.40 m
Center of Mass (review)

The center of mass (CM) of a system is the point at which all the mass of the system may be considered to be concentrated. The translational motion of the center of mass of the system is the same as if the mass of the system is concentrated at that point. In general this will NOT be the objects center, nor will it divide an object into equal mass points.
Physics: Torque
Questions:
What is Torque? What does Torque do?
Pop-Quiz : Torque
Physics: Torque
Q: Where on a door do
you push to open it?

A B C D E
If You want to close this door most easily (i.e. with the smallest possible force), along which line should you push?
A:
Far from the hinge.
Physics: Torque
Torque is the tendency of a force to produce rotation about an axis. Torque may be considered as the rotational equivalent of force.
Torque produces rotational acceleration, like Force that produces translational acceleration
Physics: Torque Torque, (Greek tau), due to a force F applied at a distance r from the axis of rotation (pivot, hinge, fulcrum), at an angle to the radial line is:
= r F sin
F sin r
F = F sin
Axis
F sin
Unit: Newtonmeter (Nm)

Physics: Torque
Torque = (distance between axis of rotation and point of application of force) x (component of force perpendicular to this line) = (r) x (Fsin)
F F sin
Axis
Physics: Torque
Torque , sign convection for direction:
> 0, if rotation is counter clockwise. < 0, if rotation is clockwise.
r
Physics: Torque (Review) We quantify the effectiveness of a force in creating rotation using the quantity called torque. Torque plays the same role in rotational motion that force plays in translational motion.
Physics: Torque
The ability of a force to cause a rotation or a twisting motion depends on:
The magnitude, F, of the force. The distance, r, from the pivot to the point at which the force is applied. The angle, , at which the force is applied
= r F sin
Axis
F
Axis
= r F sin
r Larger Torque
r Smaller Torque
Physics: Calculating Torque

= r F
F = F sin F = F cos
Axis
Physics: Calculating Torque

F
= F r sin
r = r sin
Axis
F r
= F r
F is the perpendicular component of the force F which contributes to the torque. F is the parallel component of the force F which passes through the axis and does not contribute to the torque.
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
The distance r is called Lever arm (moment arm). The Lever arm is the perpendicular distance to the line of action of the force.
Fo of rce ac lin tio e n
Le r ver = r s arm in ,
Example 4: Torque
A person is lying on an exercise mat and lifts one leg at an angle of 30.0o from the horizontal with an 89 N weight attached to the ankle. The distance between the ankle weight and the hip joint is 84 cm. What is the torque due to the ankle weight on the leg.
Torque: Conceptual Question

A pendulum bob swings at the end of a light string, which makes angle with the vertical. Which of the following are true? The gravitational torque on the pendulum about the pivot point:
a. depends on the length of R b. Is zero at the max displacement R of the swing c. Is constant since g is constant d. Is smaller when the angle is smaller Try to work through it at home. A way of testing!
pivot
Fg
Physics: Mechanical equilibrium An object is said to be in mechanical equilibrium if it has neither translational acceleration nor rotational acceleration it can still be translating and/or rotating at constant speeds (dynamic mechanical equilibrium) An object is in static mechanical equilibrium if it is neither rotating nor translating
Physics: Mechanical equilibrium

For an extended object to be in static or dynamic mechanical equilibrium, the following two conditions must be satisfied:
The net external force must be zero:
r F =0
The net external torque must be zero:
=0
Physics: Mechanical equilibrium

If the object is modeled as a particle, r then the first condition, F = 0 , is the only condition that must be satisfied. If the object cannot be modeled as a r particle, the second condition, = 0 , is needed. These two conditions describe the rigid object in equilibrium (static or dynamic).
Physics: Mechanical equilibrium Translational Equilibrium:
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 Rotational Equilibrium:
F = 0
=0
counterclockwise
clockwise
=0
Static equilibrium and Stability

An object that is not moving, either translational or rotational, is in static equilibrium, if the two conditions are satisfied:
Torque: Example 5
Calculate the torque due to the three forces shown about the left end of the bar (the blue X). The length of the bar is 4 m and F2 acts in the middle of the bar.
F2=30 N
30
F = 0
=0
45
F3=20 N
If a body returns to a static equilibrium after being displaced from it by a force, it is in stable static equilibrium.
10
F1=25 N
Example 5 continued:
Lever arm r2 for F2 F2=30 N
= r F
30
Example 5: Torque
Another Way:
= r F
F3=20 N
10
F2=30 N
30
F2y F3=20 N F3y
45
F1x
45
F2x
X
F1y
10
F3x
F1=25 N Lever arm r3 for F3
F1=25 N
Example 5: Torque
Another Way:
= r F
F1x
45
Example 5: Torque
F2=30 N
30
F2=30 N F2y F3=20 N F2x F3y
Another Way:
30 F2y
= r F
F1x
45
F2x
F3y
F3=20 N
10
X
F1y
10
F3x
F3x
F1y
1 = 0
F3 x = 20 cos10 = 19.69 N = 19.7 N F3 = F3 y = 20 sin 10 = 3.47 N
F1=25 N
F1=25 N
F1x = 25 cos 45 = 17.67 F1 = F1 y = 25 sin 45 = 17.67 F2 x = 30 sin 30 = 15 N F2 = F2 y = + 30 cos 30 = 25.98 N = 26 N
2 = ( F2 y ) (r2 ) = + (25.98 N ) (2 m) = + 51.96 Nm
3 = ( F3 y ) ( r3 ) = + (3.47 N ) ( 4 m) = + 13.88 Nm
net =
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 0 + 51.9 Nm + 13.9 Nm = + 65.8 Nm
Torque
Fb
Example 6: Equilibrium in the Human Body
Find the force exerted by the biceps muscle in holding a one liter milk carton with the forearm parallel to the floor.
Load
Equilibrium in the Human Body The physical presentation of the arm
Example 7:
Two children, of mass mA and mB, sitting on a teeter-totter. The teeter-totter itself is hinged to the pivot about which it rotates. Take the distances of the children to the pivot dA and dB, respectively. Write the conditions that the teeter-totter stays in equilibrium.
The rigid body system is the beam and the two children. Neglect the mass of the beam.
Practice:
Two children, of mass mA and mB, are sitting on a teeter-totter. The teeter-totter itself is hinged to the pivot about which it rotates. Take the distances of the children to the pivot dA and dB, respectively. Write the conditions that the teeter-totter stays in equilibrium. if : mA = 100 kg mB = 40 kg dA = 1 m Find dB= ?
Translational equilibrium:
Rotational equilibrium:
F =0
+ R FA FB = 0
R m A g mB g = 0
= 0
FA d A FB d B + R(0) = 0
FA d A = FB d B
Two practice Problems

1. A 100 kg man stands on a 4.0 m long scaffold that is held by two ropes. The scaffold weighs 750 N. What are the tensions in the two ropes, and what is the angle of the first rope?
60o 1.0 m

Questions to be answered: Does walking upright need considerable change to the shape of the pelvis bones?
Does The change in pelvis shape creates a change in the position of the center of mass.
2. A 10 m long pole, of mass 400 N, is held stationary by a rope as shown. The rope is connected 6.0 m from the ground. At the end of the pole hangs a 1000 N weight. What is the tension in the rope?
10 m
Does walking upright need change to the function of gluteal (abductor) muscles?
30o
53.1o
87
Bipedalism
Does walking upright need considerable change to the shape of the pelvis bones?
The Human & Ape Pelvis
Human
Chimpanzee
The human pelvis is shaped more in the form of a basin (bowl) to support internal organs; moreover, it is shorter and broader, thus stabilizing weight transmission.
Bipedalism, Center of mass

Why does the shape of pelvis change?
How the masses of bipeds and quadrupeds are distributed?
Mass Distribution
Much of the mass of a chimp is not aligned with the pelvis Most of the mass of the human lies along a vertical line passing through the pelvis
Does walking upright create a change in the position of the center of mass (center of gravity)? Does it create a change in position of weight line?
Bipedalism, Center of Mass

Change in the position of center of mass (center of gravity, weight) Change in the position of weight line
Weight Line What is it?

A line drawn straight down through an objects center of mass; a plumb line The line over which a significant weight load is carried.
Quadrupedalism
Having long upper body shifts apes center of mass far ahead of pelvis, which is the result of the shape of the pelvis bones, weight line does not pass through pelvis.
Bipedalism
Having long hind limbs and basin shape pelvis shifts humans center of mass close to the pelvis, so weight line does pass through the pelvis.
Bipedalism
Does walking upright need change to the function of gluteal (abductor) muscles?
There are Large (maximus), medium (medimus), and small (minimus) gluteal
Function of gluteal (abductor) muscles?
Quadrupedalism
The gluteal muscles stretch the ape at the hip joint, causing a large mostly horizontal force, accelerating its body forward. Pushing (applying force) into the ground (at a small angle with the ground) accelerates apes body.
Human Bipedalism
Contracting the abductor (medium and small gluteal) muscles (applying force) accelerate human body upward and not forward. The gluteal muscles (large, medium, small) are critical for maintaining the lateral stability (balance) during walking. The gluteal muscle keeps human upper body from falling forward while walking.
Human Bipedalism, Balance

Contracting the supporting abductors on the side prevents collapsing the hip joint to the opposite side.

During walking, our weight line moves back and forth across the pelvis. To keep us balanced when our weight shifts to the right, the left abductor must pull us back to the right
So the function of these muscles are balance rather than rapid acceleration.
Human Bipedalism

How we keep our balance during walking? What quantities are involved? The force of gravity (body weight) The force of gluteal muscles The distance of these two forces to the pivot point (hip joint)

During walking, body weight times the distance from its line of action to the center of the hip joint must be balanced by the abductor muscle force times its distance from the center of hip joint. {Torque = Force X distance} The torque of body weight is balanced by the torque of abductor (gluteal) muscles
Bipedalism, Balance, Torque
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/LifeScience/PhysicalAnthropology/HumansEvolved/HumanLineage/EarliestHominids/mechbiped.gif
Stability and Balance

Stability depends on:
the position of the center of mass with respect to the base of support the position of the weight line with respect to the base of support
Stability, Equilibrium Having center of mass directly over the bodys base, the normal force at the base of support cancels the force of gravity (weight) and the torque produced by it.
A body is in stable equilibrium under its weight if its center of mass (gravity) is directly over its base of support.
The wider the base on which the body rests, the more stable it is; (more difficult to topple it).
Stability, Equilibrium Here, the weight and the normal force cancel, so:
Stability, Equilibrium
r F =0
=0
r w
r N
Balance
Stability, Equilibrium
Here, we have:
r F =0
But
r N
0
r w
This person will fall if he doesn't change position quickly.

11 4
Stability and Balance

Another aspect of balance control in bipeds (hominids) is that the bodys center of gravity is closer to the hip joints than it is in quadrupeds.
Bipedalism Summary:
Figure 14.04
walking upright required: considerable change to the shape of the pelvis bones. change in the role of gluteal muscles, from propulsion to producing balance. walking upright needs: change in center of mass position.
Why?
Lucy Question Was Lucy bipedal (walking upright)?
Lucy, walking upright

Human, Chimpanzee and Lucy pelvis:
Examining the pelvis and lower limbs of Ape, Australopithecus (Lucy), and Human
Lucy-Chimp Skeleton
Lucy-Human Skeleton
Next Class, we Start:

Hearing
Sound, Human Ear
Concepts: Sound loudness and Human ear sensitivity Waves, sound waves Standing waves, sound waves in tubes Resonance Human Ear, Ear structure Functions of different parts of human ear
Chapter 15 Pages: 372, 375-398

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LUCY

Human evolution and Physics Bipedalism, Quadrupedalism

Quadrupedalism vs. Bipedalism

Quadrupedalism vs. Bipedalism

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Quadrupedalism vs. Bipedalism

What is mechanical equilibrium?

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Center of Mass: Math

Example 1: Center of mass

The center of mass is a mass-average position of the system.

Center of Mass: Math

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Example 1: Center of mass

Example 1: Center of mass of the Arm

Center of mass of the Arm

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Center of Mass (review)

What is Torque? What does Torque do?

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

you push to open it?

Far from the hinge.

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Unit: Newtonmeter (Nm)

> 0, if rotation is counter clockwise. < 0, if rotation is clockwise.

Physics: Calculating Torque

Physics: Calculating Torque

Fo of rce ac lin tio e n

Torque: Conceptual Question

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Physics: Mechanical equilibrium

The net external torque must be zero:

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Physics: Mechanical equilibrium

Physics: Mechanical equilibrium Translational Equilibrium:

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Static equilibrium and Stability

F2y F3=20 N F3y

F1=25 N Lever arm r3 for F3

F2=30 N F2y F3=20 N F2x F3y

2 = ( F2 y ) (r2 ) = + (25.98 N ) (2 m) = + 51.96 Nm

= 1 + 2 + 3 = 0 + 51.9 Nm + 13.9 Nm = + 65.8 Nm

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Example 6: Equilibrium in the Human Body

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Equilibrium in the Human Body The physical presentation of the arm

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

Two practice Problems

Quadrupedalism vs. Bipedalism

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat

The Human & Ape Pelvis

Bipedalism, Center of mass

Bipedalism, Center of Mass

Weight Line What is it?

PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat