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in the aids Geoarchaeological investigation of early Shang on the civilization floodplain lower Yellow

of

the

River,

China

Zhichun JING,George (Rip) Rapp, Jr, and Tianlin GAO

Abstract and geomorphiccontexts of prehistoricand early historic This study deals with the stratigraphic settlementsin the Shangqiuarea,an archaeologically the origins important regionfor investigating of Shangcivilization. hasprovidedsignificant Geoarchaeological investigation insightsinto the early cultural the impactof landscapeevolutionon the spatialand temhistoryof the areaby elucidating sites.Variousgeoarchaeological canbe employedto evalustrategies poralpatternof archaeological ate, interpret and predict prehistoricand early historic sites in the Shangqiuarea. This study the potentialof geoarchaeological demonstrates study to be dynamically integratedinto archaeoand landscapecontexts as fundamental dimenlogical investigations by focusingon stratigraphic sions of the archaeological record.

Keywords YellowRiver;landscapeevolution;site formation; Shangqiu; paleosol;alluvium.

Introduction The Shangqiu area, part of the alluvial floodplain of the lower Yellow River (Fig. 1), has attained considerable prominence in the study of Shang civilization because it is traditionally considered to be the center of the predynastic and dynastic Shang cultures (2000-1100 BC)(Chang 1976,1983: 507-11,1986:336-9; Dong 1953). The alluviation of the Yellow River has had a pronounced effect on the distribution, preservation, visibility and discovery of past human settlements in the area, causing much difficulty for our understanding of the spatial and temporal pattern of prehistoric and early historic settlements. Archaeological survey of Shang cultures in the Shangqiu area began in the 1930s (Li 1947) soon after the discovery and excavation of the Shang sites at Anyang, the last royal capital of the Shang Dynasty (Li 1977). Although surveys and small-scale excavations were WorldArchaeology Vol. 29(1): 36-50 Riverine Archaeology ? Routledge 1997 0043-8243

Investigating early Shang civilization on the lower Yellow Riverfloodplain

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km I

-I

Figure 1 Location of the Shangqiu area on the floodplain of the lower Yellow River. This area was inundated frequently by the Yellow River from the early twelfth to mid-nineteenth century. Open circles indicate modern cities. Archaeological sites investigated in this study include: Laonanguan; Shantaisi (1); Mengzhuang (2); Panmiao (3); Gaoxin (4); Mazhuang (5); and Dujie (6).

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Zhichun JING, George (Rip) Rapp, Jr, and Tianlin GAO

carried out by the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences during the 1970s and 1980s (Kaogu 1978, 1981, 1983; Kaoguxuebao 1982), no systematic effort was attempted until 1990 when Harvard University and the Institute of Archaeology initiated an interdisciplinary project to investigate the predynastic and early Shang cultures in the Shangqiu area (Chang 1990). As an important component of the interdisciplinary project, geoarchaeological studies by the University of Minnesota - Duluth were conducted to examine prehistoric and early historic sites, including early Shang sites, in an evolving landscape, and to predict and detect the potential settlements situated on the deeply buried earlier floodplain.

Archaeological background Archaeological investigation of Shang and other early cultures in the Shangqiu area has been limited to mound sites which were always thought to represent the primary pattern of human settlements during the prehistoric and early historic periods. Although both Neolithic Longshan and middle and late Shang remains have been clearly identified, the archaeological record of the predynastic and early Shang periods remains elusive. The archaeological record in the area appears to be temporally discontinuous and topographically segregated. Thus, the influence of the Shang culture in the Shangqiu area before the middle Shang period has been questioned. Furthermore, the lack of early Shang finds in this archaeologically important region has challenged the traditional view that Shang civilization originated there. The question is whether the current pattern of archaeological sites can be taken as the record of early human occupation without considering the potential biases introduced by changes in both cultural and natural landscapes. In terms of both the regional archaeological picture and geomorphic changes, the current distribution pattern of archaeological sites apparently yields a skewed picture of the prehistoric and historic settlement patterns. The lack of a dynamic approach to the classification of cultural assemblages found in the area may be responsible for the cultural gap in the archaeological record. The identification of cultural sequences of Shang culture is often made by comparing them with the cultural sequences and characteristic traits defined in central Henan where the Erlitou (Xia), and middle and late Shang sequences have been well characterized. The potential connection between coastal Neolithic cultures (Dawenkou, Shandong Longshan and Liangzhu) and the later mature Shang culture of the Zhengzhou and Anyang phases is rarely taken into consideration in the analysis and identification of cultural remains (Chang 1976,1983). Our knowledge of Shang culture in the Shangqiu area is also limited by the impact of dynamic geological processes on the archaeological record. The area received a great quantity of alluvial sediments in association with frequent inundation when the Yellow River flowed south and south-east from AD 1128 (the end of the Northern Song Dynasty) to AD 1855 (late Qing Dynasty). After his enthusiastic search for Shang sites in the Shangqiu area during the 1930s, Li (1947: 84) stated with frustration: The Shangqiu area has been repeatedly flooded. ... No wonder that in journeying over the Shangqiu area one sees sandy fields without end! In general the ground surface is

Investigating early Shang civilization on the lower Yellow Riverfloodplain

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covered with 2.5 meters of silt, below which are yellow sands.... It is no wonder that not even Han sherds are visible, let alone prehistoric sites! By focusing on the latter concern, we demonstrate the potential of geoarchaeological techniques in the study of the settlement history of prehistoric and early historic cultures in the Shangqiu area by elucidating the impact of geomorphic processes on the spatial and temporal pattern of the archaeological record.

Geoarchaeological coring program The present physiography of the Shangqiu area is characterized by a broad and flat floodplain with very gentle relief. The flat floodplain has very few stratigraphic exposures and no exposure shows more than the late historic overbank sediments. Therefore, intensive geoarchaeological coring was carried out to reveal subsurface stratigraphy and to study Holocene geomorphic changes. Three different types of coring technique have been employed over the past six years (1991-6), comprising Dutch auger, Luoyang spade (a traditional tool used to detect buried cultural sediments in China) and truck-mounted percussion rig. Both the Dutch auger and Luoyang spade are manually operated, relatively inexpensive and fast. Depending on the lithology of sediments, the Luoyang spade could generally reach a depth of about 6-8m, whereas the Dutch auger could drill as deep as 13m. Despite yielding only a narrow column of subsurface strata, these cores provide a quick scan of both the geology and the archaeology at depth. Over 700 cores were drilled by both Dutch auger and Luoyang spade in seven seasons from 1991 through 1996. In addition to manual corers, a truck-mounted percussion rig was utilized to drill thirteen 10cm-diameter cores in order to recover more cultural debris. Although our drilling program covered seven sites in the Shangqiu area, we concentrated on a site called Laonanguan, a 6 x 6km2 area south and south-west of the present town of Shangqiu Xian (Fig. 1), where drilling in 1991 revealed a deeply buried cultural deposit.

History of alluviation and pedogenesis The physical appearance of the Shangqiu area has been shaped largely by the alluviation of the lower Yellow River. The lower Yellow River flows north-east - far from Shangqiu and empties into the Gulf of Bohai. The fluvial processes of the river currently have little influence on the changes in the modern landscape of the Shangqiu area. However, historically the Yellow River was the most critical element in the landscape evolution of the area. Because of the highly aggrading nature of the river channel and the high erodibility of the river banks, the lower Yellow River easily floods, breaches and shifts course (Chien 1961; Qian and Zhou 1965). It has relocated its main river course many times in the historic period through the process of avulsion following catastrophic floods (Milliman et al. 1987; Shen 1979;Ye 1989). After an artificiallevee breach in AD 1128, the lower Yellow River began to flow south-east through the Shangqiu area and to discharge into the Yellow Sea in northern Jiangsu; this lasted until AD 1855 (Xu 1982; Zhang and Xie 1990; Zou 1982). From AD

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Zhichun JING,George (Rip) Rapp, Jr, and Tianlin GAO

1128 to 1546 the river flowed through multiple channels characterized by frequent shifting, flooding and breaching. Multiple channels developed because the sediment load exceeded normal capacity and erodible banks permitted rapid channel migration and frequent avulsion. From AD 1546 through 1855, the lower Yellow River flowed along a single course situated slightly to the north of the Shangqiu area. During this period, artificial levees were continuously built to keep river flow in the single channel (Fig. 1). These drastic changes in regional hydrological conditions greatly impacted on the landscape and its associated cultural remains in the Shangqiu area. Figure 2 is a generalized subsurface stratigraphy in the Shangqiu area, showing two units: pre-Neolithic paleosol and historic alluvium. The pre-Neolithic paleosol is a welldeveloped soil representing the land surface from very late Pleistocene to the Han period (c. 2000 BP). It is deeply buried and covered by historic alluvium deposited primarily during the period when the Yellow River flowed southward through the Shangqiu area from the early twelfth to the nineteenth centuries. The historic alluvium can be further subdivided into three or more identifiable lithostratigraphic and pedostratigraphic units (Jing 1994; Jing et al. 1995). No subdivision is made here because this paper has as its primary concern potential Shang and other early sites closely associated with the preNeolithic paleosol. Associated with the pre-Neolithic paleosol and historic alluvium are three anthropogenic units - A-1, A2 and A3, from oldest to youngest. A-1 includes those anthropogenic sediments dating from the Neolithic to Han periods (c. 2000 BP). Stratigraphically it is directly associated with the pre-Neolithic paleosol. A-2 dates from the Han to Tang-Song Dynasties (about the seventh to twelfth centuries). It formed concurrently with the lowest part of the historic alluvium. A-3 consists of all the anthropogenic deposits later than the twelfth century when the Yellow River began to flow south through the Shangqiu area. It is often restricted stratigraphically to those weakly developed paleosols in the historic alluvium. The floodplain in the Shangqiu area witnessed a prolonged stable landscape from very late Pleistocene or early Holocene to 2000 BPduring which little or no deposition occurred and pedogenic processes prevailed. Because of the long span of landscape stability,a strong soil profile developed. This well-developed soil constitutes the stratigraphic base for all Neolithic and other early habitation sites in the area;thus it is called the pre-Neolithic paleosol in this study. The pre-Neolithic paleosol is composed of olive yellow and yellow silt loam, sand loam, and clay loam. It is characterized by a thin darkened A horizon and a thick (>lm) well-developed Bkbhorizon, displaying stages I to II calcium carbonate accumulation (terminology of Gile et al. 1966: 348). The accumulation of calcium carbonate in the soil profile occurred in a relatively dry and cold climate during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene (An et al. 1991,1993; Xiao et al. 1995). After the early Holocene, the soil profile continued to develop until the Han period (c. 2000 BP), under warmer and wetter climatic conditions (Feng et al. 1993; Shi et al. 1993; Sun and Chen 1991). Landscape stability was gradually interrupted after 2000 BP when alluviation resumed in the Shangqiu area. Possibly these changes were introduced regionally by both extrinsic (climate) and intrinsic (vegetation and land use) factors affecting the supply of water and sediments to the watershed. During the following millennium the average rate of sedimentation on the floodplain was about 2mm per year. The accumulation of sediment was generally slow enough to allow simultaneous pedogenic alteration of the sediment.

Investigating early Shang civilization on the lower Yellow River floodplain

41
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Figure 2 Generalized Holocene stratigraphy showing pre-Neolithic paleosol and historic alluvium. The pre-Neolithic paleosol provided a stable land surface from very late Pleistocene to the Han period (c. 2000 BP). The historic alluvium formed primarily from the early twelfth to the mid-nine-

from the Han period teenth century, but its lowest part (indicatedby a dashedline) accumulated units(c.2000BP) to the Tang-Song Dynasties(seventhto twelfthcenturies).Threeanthropogenic to show theirstratigraphic contexts.Thisdiagram is not horA-1, A-2 and A-3 - are also illustrated izontallyscaled. Alluvial deposition increased dramatically after the early twelfth century when the Yellow River began to flow southward through the Shangqiu area. Because of frequent breaching and shifting of the lower Yellow River channel courses, the area suffered frequent large floods and occasional catastrophic floods and the sedimentation rate increased tremendously. It was 11-15mm per year at Laonanguan, the major site investigated in this study. As a consequence, the old floodplain surface has been covered by as much as 10m of alluvium, leaving almost nothing of the former landscape visible on the modern surface. The historic alluvium usually consists of three or more identifiable sedimentary-pedologic sequences. Each sequence is bipartite and comprised of a basal sandy silt and silty sand facies showing no or little pedogenic modification, overlain by fine-grained clay and silty clay facies in which one or more weakly-developed soil profiles can be observed (Fig. 3). Each sequence is capped by another silty sand or sandy silt unit which also comprises the base of successive cycles (Jing et al. 1995). The landscape instability with a high rate of sedimentation continued in the Shangqiu area until AD 1855 when the Yellow River shifted its trunk course back to the north. Since then the area has experienced much less alluviation and the floodplain again became stabilized. Unlike the early period of landscape stability, the modern agricultural landscape consists of relatively infertile silty and sandy alluvium.

Geomorphic evolution and early archaeological sites The study of landscape changes has significant implications for the interpretation of archaeological site distribution, preservation, visibility, and the prediction of site location

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Zhichun JING, George (Rip) Rapp, Jr, and Tianlin GAO

and age (Ferring 1986,1992; Gladfelter 1985;Holliday 1990,1992; Waters 1992;Waters and Kuehn 1996). The subsurface stratigraphic sequence suggests that both deposition and pedogenesis (geomorphic stability) are dominant processes over erosion in the history of geomorphic development in the Shangqiu area. The competition between deposition and pedogenesis has been the driving force of landscape changes. It is always critical to differentiate soils from sediments in order to understand better the stratigraphic and geomorphic contexts of archaeological sites (Waters 1992: 15-60). Sediments are accumulations of inorganic and organic material representing former periods of deposition, while soils are weathering profiles developed on sediments exposed at the surface during periods of landscape stability, with non-deposition or relatively little and slow episodic addition of new sediments. The identification of buried soils is important because they represent an essential part of most landscape elements, record the gain and loss from geomorphic surfaces, and reflect the passage of time for a stable surface (Birkeland 1984). Archaeologically, a long period of landscape stability results in compression of multiple periods of cultural remains on a single surface, with the development of palimpsests which are mixed and compressed archaeological records onto a surface or within a very thin stratum from different periods of human occupation. When rapid deposition dominates over pedogenesis, archaeological records may be horizontally and vertically segregated within the stratigraphic column. The settlement history of Shang and other early cultures in the Shangqiu area has been largely based on limited data from small mound sites which are considered to represent the primary pattern of human settlement during the prehistoric and early historic periods. One of the underlying assumptions is that the same landscape existed from the Neolithic through the historic period when the flooding risk was one of the most important factors in the selection of human settlement location. This presumes that people of the prehistoric and early historic periods tended to settle on the highlands or human-built mounds in order to minimize flooding risk because the area was subject to the same high frequency of large magnitude floods as in later periods, particularly from the early twelfth to the midnineteenth century. However, this static perception is not tenable in terms of landscape changes in the past. Our geoarchaeological study suggests that the Shangqiu area had a long span of landscape stability before the Han period (c. 2000 BP), indicated by a well-developed buried soil (pre-Neolithic paleosol). This stabilized landscape provided the potential for human occupation during the prehistoric and early historic periods with a favorable physical environment because flooding did not constitute an important fact in the selection of settlement sites. During this period, small mounds or other upland settings might not necessarily be optimum locations for human settlement, and the broad, flat lowland might well have been the most favorable location for large settlements. It has to be noted that most regional prehistoric and early historic mound sites are not situated on natural upland settings. Instead, they were built artificially on the old flat floodplain represented by the pre-Neolithic paleosol. The building of a mound for habitation could be affected by both natural and cultural factors, such as the hydrologic system, social organization, religion and technology. Under conditions of landscape stability, it is more likely that cultural factors were primarily responsible for the building of the mound sites. Settlement patterns may have changed from time to time, and different settlement

Investigating early Shang civilization on the lower Yellow River floodplain

43

patterns may have occurred at the same period. In the Shangqiu area, mound sites may represent only part of human settlement during the prehistoric and early historic periods. After 2000 BP,alluviation resumed in the Shangqiu area, and the old floodplain accumulated about 2m of alluvium during the following millennium. As a result, the former floodplain was buried gradually. A dramatic change of hydrological regime was inaugurated during the early twelfth century when the lower Yellow River was artificiallybreached. The lower Yellow River consequently flowed south-east through the Shangqiu area from the early twelfth to the mid-nineteenth century.Rapid sedimentation resulted in the deep burial of the former landscape. The great geomorphic changes introduced by frequent floodplain inundation changed the pattern of human occupation in the Shangqiu area. Settlements on the floodplain lowland were flooded, destroyed and abandoned, while some relatively small mound sites, isolated from flooding, survived. Those mound sites were continuously elevated artificiallyby human occupation, in part to survive the frequent large floods. Historic alluviation had a great impact on Shang and other early sites. Most of the previously exposed prehistoric and early historic sites are buried and invisible in the modern landscape. Some archaeological sites may have been partially eroded or destroyed during the large and catastrophic floods.

Characterization of anthropogenic sediments Anthropogenic sediments are defined here as deposits produced or modified significantly by intentional or unintentional human activity (Butzer 1982: 77-9; Stein and Rapp 1985; Stein 1987). The characterization of anthropogenic sediments is crucial to understanding the formation processes of archaeological sites. As discussed above, three anthropogenic units - A1, A2 and A3 - are defined and correlated with the pre-Neolithic and historic alluvium in this study (Fig. 2). The identification of different periods of anthropogenic sediments relies on their stratigraphic position, included artifacts and radiocarbon dates. However, certain physical and chemical properties of sediments and soils also may help characterize anthropogenic sediments and differentiate them from each other. Grain-size distribution serves as a basis for describing and characterizing textural properties of sediments and soils. For natural clastic sediments, grain size is usually a measure of the energy of the sedimentary medium and the energy of the depositional environment. In general, coarser sediments indicate a highenergy environment, and finer sediments a low-energy environment. This is illustrated by the cyclic changes of grain size in the historic alluvium (Fig. 3). For anthropogenic sediments, the grain-size distribution may be influenced greatly by cultural transformation processes. The three anthropogenic units all exhibit bimodal distribution in grain size, significantly different from the historic alluvium (U-3, U-5, P-3, P-5) which is characterized by unimodal distribution (Fig. 3). The cultural mixing of different grain sizes in sediments and soils may be responsible for the bimodal grain-size distribution in anthropogenic sediments. The pre-Neolithic paleosol has a grain-size distribution similar to those anthropogenic sediments. In addition to the possible mixing caused by pedogenic processes, human agencies cannot be excluded because the pre-Neolithic paleosol was exposed for a long period to human habitation and agricultural activities.

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Zhichun JING, George (Rip) Rapp, Jr, and Tianlin GAO


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distribution of differentsedimentsandsoils.The left columnincludesfoursam3 Grain-size Figure from which exhibitscyclic changesin grainsize from the basal coarsethe historic alluvium ples facies (P-3,P-5). The rightcolumncontainsthree grainedfacies (U-3, U-5) to the top fine-grained unitsand one fromthe pre-Neolithic samplesfromanthropogenic paleosol,showingbimodaldistributionin grainsize. Environmental magnetic techniques have proven to be a powerful tool in the study of site formation processes (e.g. Dalan and Banerjee 1996). Two environmental magnetic properties - anhysteretic remanent magnetization (ARM) and low-field magnetic susceptibility (X) - are employed to characterize different anthropogenic units and to infer their sediment sources. Both ARM and X are directly proportional to the concentration of magnetic minerals. ARM is particularly sensitive to the presence of fine-grained magnetic minerals whereas X is relatively more sensitive to the presence of the coarser grained magnetic minerals. ARM vs. X plots are a useful means of characterizing the concentrations and grain size of the magnetic minerals in sediments and soils (Banerjee et al. 1981; Dalan and Banerjee 1996). Figure 4 plots three anthropogenic units over the fields defined by the pre-Neolithic paleosol and historic alluvium. The ARM vs. X plot shows a strong

Investigating early Shang civilization on the lower Yellow River floodplain


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cent probability level definedby pre-Neolithic The hispaleosol and historicalluvium, respectively. - withoutrecognizablepedogenicproperties; and toric alluviumconsistsof two AHA subgroups: HA2 - with recognizable Both ARM and Xare expressedin the squareroots pedogenicproperties. of originalmeasurements whichare in A-m2/kg and m3/kgfor ARM and X,respectively.

linkage to sediment sources for both A-i and A-3. A-1 fits within the field defined by the pre-Neolithic paleosol, characterized by a relatively low concentration of magnetic minerals. Stratigraphically,A-1 has a close affiliation with the pre-Neolithic paleosol. The preNeolithic paleosol and its parent sediments must be the primary building material for archaeological features, such as house foundations and city walls, represented by A-i. A3 falls mostly within the field defined by historic paleosols developed in the historic alluvium. Unlike A-1 and A-3, anthropogenic unit A-2 shows a more scattered distribution in the ARM vs. X plot. It plots in a wide area overlapping with all three fields defined by the pre-Neolithic paleosol and historic alluvium, suggesting the potential mixing of two types of materials - pre-Neolithic paleosol and historic alluvium in the formation of A-2. Thus, prehistoric and historic sites can be discriminated from those of later periods in terms of the magnetic properties ARM and X of their sedimentary matrices (Jing and Rapp 1997).

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Zhichun JING, George (Rip) Rapp, Jr, and Tianlin GAO

Prediction and detection of early archaeological sites One of the major objectives of our geoarchaeological study was to predict and detect buried sites, particularly large settlements, on the basis of the study of the floodplain stratigraphic sequence and of geomorphic changes. The buried sites are indispensable for reconstructing fully the cultural history of the prehistoric and early historic periods in the Shangqiu area. The identification of the pre-Neolithic paleosol in drill cores is a key to understanding the landscape setting of the prehistoric and early historic sites, including those of the early Shang Dynasty. The pre-Neolithic paleosol represented a long period of landscape stability from the Neolithic to the Han periods when human occupation of discrete periods took place on the same surface. As stated above, prehistoric and early historic sites are closely associated with the pre-Neolithic paleosol. Stratigraphically these sites are situated on the pre-Neolithic paleosol. The primary building material for those early archaeological features came from the pre-Neolithic paleosol and its parent sediments. A thick historic alluvium has buried the pre-Neolithic paleosol and most of its associated human remains as deep as 10-12m, removing them from view. Therefore, the establishment of the presence of the pre-Neolithic paleosol and its burial depth is essential to the prediction and detection of prehistoric and early historic sites. The deep burial of the pre-Neolithic paleosol has limited our ability to predict and detect buried sites; thus it impedes the recognition of the settlement pattern of prehistoric and early historic periods in the Shangqiu area. Laonanguan is a large buried site detected during our geoarchaeological survey. Literally, Laonanguan means 'old southern town gate'. It is located south and south-west of Shangqiu Xian (Fig. 1). At this site, an average 2.5m thick anthropogenic deposit buried at 8-10.5m was first found on the pre-Neolithic paleosol in 1991, when we inferred that there was a relatively stable pre-Neolithic surface at a depth of 8-12m at Laonanguan, based on stratigraphic data from core drilling. Since then the Laonanguan site has been the focus of our geoarchaeological work because of its high potential for yielding large early settlements. Several lines of evidence underscore the significance of Laonanguan in terms of the search for large prehistoric and early historic settlements in the Shangqiu area: (1) the deeply buried anthropogenic unit on the pre-Neolithic paleosol found ubiquitously over a relatively large area, approximately 5 x 3km2;(2) multiple periods of cultural remains as early as the Neolithic; and (3) the favorable geomorphologic conditions for early human occupation, including the well-developed floodplain soil suited for habitation and cultivation, and the concurrent river channels buried to the south of this site. Intensive coring in the spring of 1996 finally led to the discovery of a major city of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC) of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty in the west part of the Laonanguan site. Three of four city walls made of rammed earth have been detected by coring, the whole west wall and the west portion of both the north and south walls being well preserved. The west wall has a length of 3000m. The base of the city wall is about 11-12m deep, but in places its top lies only 2-3m beneath the present ground surface; it has an average width of 13-15m. Figure 5 shows the coring profile of a possible gate in the west wall, identified from the examination of the stratigraphic relations of different anthropogenic and natural deposits. The V-shaped cut in the buried rammed earth wall is

Investigating early Shang civilization on the lower Yellow River floodplain


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47

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Zhou city at Laonanguan. The detection of the possible gate is based on the stratigraphic relation-

ship of differenttypes of sedimentsand soils.The paleosurfacemarkedby a dashed line is not a in the city wall,but the level of the streetsurfacein the city. layeror boundary filled by historic alluvium, at the center of which is the possible gate location. As seen in core 205A, the historic alluvium is underlain by collapsed rammed earth which is relatively loose compared to intact rammed earth. Moreover, the collapsed rammed earth overlies a layer composed of road earth, which cannot be found inside the city wall itself. A city gate was often only a small gap in the wall, but it could easily have been enlarged by various natural and cultural agents, such as flooding, after abandonment. Several ancient texts mention that the city Song was built by the descendants of the Shang royal house on their homeland. The city Song has long been believed to be located somewhere in the Shangqiu area. The city site is tentatively identified as Song, but its definitive identification must await further excavation and survey during the coming seasons. The discovery of the city site sheds new light on the settlement history of the prehistoric and early historic periods in the Shangqiu area.

Acknowledgements Our geoarchaeological survey in the Shangqiu area was conducted as part of the collaborative project 'Archaeological Investigation of Early Shang Civilization in China' between Harvard University and the Institute of Archaeology in Beijing. Special thanks go to K. C. Chang, American director of the project, for his generous support and encouragement. Many thanks are due to Malcom H. Wiener for his continuous enthusiasm for

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Zhichun JING, George (Rip) Rapp, Jr, and Tianlin GAO

archaeological science and his support of this project. We would like to thank two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments. Zhichun JING George (Rip) Rapp, Jr Archaeometry Laboratory University of Minnesota - Duluth, USA Tianlin GAO Institute of Archaeology Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Beijing, China References An, Z., Kukla, G. J., Porter, S. C. and Xiao, J. 1991. Magnetic susceptibility evidence of monsoon variation on the Loess Plateau of central China during the last 130,000 years. Quaternary Research, 36:29-36. An, Z., Porter, S. C., Zhou,W., Lu,Y., Donahue, D. J., Head, M. J.,Wu, X., Ren, J. and Zheng, H. 1993. Episode of strengthened summer monsoon climate of Younger Dryas age on the Loess Plateau of Central China. Quaternary Research, 39:45-54. Banerjee, S. K., King, J. W. and Marvin, J. A. 1981. A rapid method for magnetic granulometry with application to environmental studies. Geophysical Research Letters, 8: 333-6. Birkeland, P.W. 1984. Soils and Geomorphology. New York: Oxford University Press. Butzer, K. W. 1982. Archaeology as Human Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chang, K. C. 1976. A key issue in the study of the origin of Shang civilization (Yin Shang Wenming Qiyuan Yanjiu Shang De Yege Guanjian Wenti). In Papers Presented to Mr. Shen Kang-po on his Eightieth Birthday. Taipei: Academia Sinica, pp. 151-69 (in Chinese). Chang, K. C. 1983. Sandai archaeology and the formation of states. In The Origins of Chinese Civilization (ed. D. N. Keightley). Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 495-521. Chang, K. C. 1986. The Archaeology of Ancient China. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. Chang, K. C. 1990. Archaeological Investigation of Early Shang Civilization in China. The proposal for the collaborative project between Peabody Museum (Harvard University) and the Institute of Archaeology (Chinese Academy of Social Science). Cambridge: Harvard University. Chien, N. 1961. The braided stream of the lower Yellow River. Scientia Sinica, X: 734-54. Dalan, R. A. and Banerjee, S. K. 1996. Soil magnetism, an approach for examining archaeological landscapes. Geophysical Research Letters, 23: 185-8. Dong, Z. 1953. Bo and Shang on the oracle bone inscription. Talu Zazhi, 6: 8-12 (in Chinese). Feng, Z., Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E. and Yao, T. 1993. Temporal and spatial variations of climate in China during the last 10,000 years. The Holocene, 3: 174-80. Ferring, C. R. 1986. Rates of fluvial sedimentation: implications for archaeological variability. Geoarchaeology, 1: 259-74. Ferring, C. R. 1992. Alluvial pedology and geoarchaeological research. In Soils in Archaeology, Landscape Evolution and Human Occupation (ed. V. T. Holiday). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 1-39.

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