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Mechanical Properties of Cast Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

For the purpose of this article, carbon steels are considered to be those steels in which carbon is the principal alloying element. Other elements that are present and that, in general, are re uired to be reported are manganese, silicon, phosphorous and sulfur. !n a sense, all of these elements are residuals from the raw materials used in the manufacture of the steel, although the addition of manganese is often made during the steelma"ing process to counter the deleterious effect of sulfur and silicon is added to aid in deo#idation. $he ma%or source of sulfur is the co"e used in the blast furnace or cupola. $he ma%or sources of phosphorous, manganese and silicon are the iron ore, the limestone used as a flu#, and the additions used to deo#idi&e the steel. A minimum amount of silicon is needed to pro'ide the necessary fluidity for the casting operation. Other elements, particularly those not easily o#idi&ed, e.g., copper and nic"el, will be reco'ered from the scrap charge. $he amounts of these two elements and others, such as chromium, molybdenum and 'anadium, may or may not ha'e to be reported by the manufacturer depending upon the specification. Alloy steels are considered to be those steels to which elements, other than carbon, are added deliberately so as to impro'e mechanical properties, physical properties and(or corrosion resistance. )Mechanical properties are measured by plastically deforming or brea"ing the material. Physical properties are those, the measurement of which does not re uire that the metal be plastically deformed*. $he American !ron and Steel !nstitute has defined alloy steels as containing one, or more, of the following elements in uantities as follows+

and cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nic"el, titanium, tungsten, 'anadium, &irconium, and any other element added to obtain a desired alloying effect. $he effecti'eness of any alloying element is greatest when it is completely soluble in the steel. !f a particular element forms, or tends to form, a compound with iron or another element present in the steel, the effecti'eness of both elements is decreased. For e#ample, if chromium is added to a carbon steel to increase hardenability, the austeniti&ing heat treatment must be at a temperature high enough to dissol'e the chromium carbides, otherwise the presence of chromium carbides diminishes the effect of both chromium and carbon on increasing hardenability. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES For all alloy systems, the mechanical properties are controlled by the chemical composition and the microstructure of the alloy. ,ith respect to the carbon and alloy steels, the influence of microstructure is so great as to o'ershadow that of chemical composition and, for cast steels, the only practical method for changing the microstructure is by heat treatment. ,ith few e#ceptions, the mechanical properties of the cast carbon and low alloy steels are controlled by heat treatment. Among the e#ceptions are the effect of carbon on increasing hardness, the effect of nic"el on increasing toughness, and the effect of combinations of chromium, molybdenum, 'anadium, and tungsten on increasing ele'ated temperature strength. Hardenability -$he ma%or reason for using alloying elements in steels, wrought as well as cast, is to ma"e the role of heat treatment on increasing strength effecti'e o'er a wide range of metal thic"nesses. $his effecti'eness is termed hardenability, i.e., a steel with low hardenability can only be strengthened by heat treatment in thin sections whereas a steel with high hardenability can be strengthened in thic" sections. .ardenability is the retarding of the austenite formation during cooling and is increased by all of the alloying elements, e#cept cobalt. .ardenability, or austenite retention, should not be confused with austenite formation, which is the e#pansion of the austenite field at high temperature. Only a few elements increase the austenite field/ these are carbon, cobalt, copper, manganese, nic"el and nitrogen. A large number of elements, particularly those that ha'e a tendency to form carbides, delay the softening of steel that occurs during the tempering operation. $he carbide forming tendency need not be strong. For e#ample, silicon, not a particularly strong carbide former, will delay the softening during tempering, but its effect is not as strong as that of chromium/ li"ewise, the effect of chromium is not as strong as that of 'anadium, etc. !n addition to retarding softening, some carbide forming

elements will, during tempering, cause an increase in hardness due to the precipitation of the alloy carbides )precipitation hardening*. $he role of the alloying elements on increasing hardenability and retarding softening during tempering was the sub%ect of an e#tensi'e, international research effort during the first half of the 01th Century. Another result is the ability to estimate the hardenability of a gi'en steel from calculations based upon the chemical composition of the steel. Multiplying factors for each element as published by the American !ron and Steel !nstitute are shown in Fig. 2. Although these 'alues were de'eloped for wrought steels, they probably can be used for cast steels with some minor corrections. $his figure does not illustrate the effect of carbon, which is uite large, nor the effect of boron, which is high for low carbon steels and is negati'e for high carbon steels )about 1.34 C* because it forms carbides. !n addition to alloying elements, the grain si&e of the austenite before uenching affects hardenability. A steel ha'ing a fine austenitic grain si&e has lower hardenability than a steel ha'ing a coarse austenitic grain si&e. Although a steel ha'ing a coarse austenitic grain si&e has higher hardenability, a fine grain steel has better toughness, less distortion on heat treatment, lower tendency to de'elop uench crac"s, and, probably, lower internal stresses. Of these characteristics, the impro'ed toughness is the most important and, for structural applications, the steel should be of the fineaustenitic-grain type. A word of caution+ $he term aluminum-"illed fine-grain steel often is misinterpreted. $he term describes the grain si&e of the austenite at the heat treating temperature before uenching, not the grain si&e of the ferrite, tempered martensite, or martensite at room temperature. Methods for determining and measuring the austenitic grain si&e are described in AS$M Specification 5220.

,hen heat treating aluminum-"illed )aluminum deo#idi&ed* steels, caution must be ta"en to a'oid the use of austeniti&ing temperatures abo'e about 2611F )360C*, otherwise the aluminum nitrides will dissol'e and a 'ery coarse austenite grain si&e will result.
Hardness and Strength -All elements dissol'ed in steel increase its hardness and strength/ howe'er, as compared with the increase obtained by heat treatment, this effect is small. An e#ception is carbon, the effect of which is large, although not as large as the effect of heat treatment. 7eferring to the AS$M specification, A890(A890M, the effect of carbon on increasing the strength of annealed carbon steels is+

$he carbon effect on the strength of uenched and tempered martensite in low alloy steel is more dramatic+

,ith respect to elements other than carbon, !C :291 has about 2.04 total alloying elements/ !C :991 has about 9.14 total alloying elements/ and !C 6;91 has about 2.9 4 total alloying elements, yet all ha'e the same minimum tensile strength. $his negligible effect of alloying elements on strength further emphasi&es the pre'ious statement that the most important role of the alloying elements in steel is their effect on hardenability. <ecause of the close relationship between hardness and tensile strength of alloy steels, there could be a tendency to use carbon, an ine#pensi'e element, to achie'e a high strength steel. $his tendency has some 'alidity but entails some penalties. For e#ample, at a gi'en strength le'el, the toughness )resistance to brittle fracture* of a steel decreases with increasing carbon. Conse uently, a preferred plan is to select a steel ha'ing a combination of the lowest possible carbon content and the re uired amount of alloying elements to achie'e, in a tempered martensite microstructure, the desired strength. Of course, the alloy content selected must be that re uired to achie'e the hardenability needed for the section si&e )thic"ness* being considered. Toughness -$oughness, the ability of a steel to resist brittle, rapid fracture, is an essential property for structural components sub%ect to high loading rates. All of the test methods used to measure toughness in'ol'e the use of a sample containing a sharp notch or a crac". $he reason for employing such samples is that for e'ery ser'ice failure caused by brittle fracture, the source of the fracture has been found to be a discontinuity in the metal, and e'ery engineering structure will contain some sort of one or more discontinuities )notches*. Conse uently, the test procedures used for toughness e'aluations are aimed at determining the resistance of the metal to the rapid propagation of a discontinuity. For structural carbon and low alloy cast steels, the following specifications either contain a toughness re uirement or pro'ide for a toughness test in the supplementary re uirement+ A2:6(A2:6M A9=0(A9=0M A:68(A:68M A819(A819M A8=8(A8=8M A862(A862M For those specifications not mentioned, namely A02;, A028, A963, and A:68, the toughness )impact test* re uirement of A819 may be used based upon agreement between the producer and the user. Fatigue Strength (Enduran e Li!it" -For cast steels, the fatigue strength, or endurance limit, as determined by tests on smooth bars is generally in the range of :1-=14 of the tensile strength. !n non percentage terms, this relationship is e#pressed as 1.:1 to 1.=1 and is termed the endurance ratio. As illustrated by $able 2 the endurance ratio is largely independent of the tensile strength, chemical composition and heat treatment of the steel. >nder conditions of rough surfaces, i.e., as cast, machined )not polished*, notches, and crac"s, both the endurance limit and the endurance ratio decreases. Fatigue strength 'alues are affected by the mass effect in a manner similar to tensile strength. )See Alloy and .eat $reatment !nfluence on Section Si&e 5ffects.* Se tion Si#e$ Mass E%%e ts -Mass effects are common to steels, whether rolled, forged or cast, because the cooling rate during the heat treating operation 'aries with section si&e, and because the microstructure components, grain si&e, and nonmetallic inclusions increase in si&e from surface to center. $he section si&e, or mass effect, is of particular importance to steel castings because the mechanical properties are typically assessed from test bars machined from standardi&ed coupons which ha'e fi#ed dimensions and are cast separately from or

attached to the castings. $o remo'e test bars from the casting is impractical because remo'al of material for testing would destroy the usefulness of the component or re uire costly weld repairs to replace the material for testing purposes. !t cannot be routinely e#pected that test specimens remo'ed from a casting will e#hibit the same properties as test specimens machined from the standard test coupon designs for which minimum properties are established in specifications. $he mass effect discussed abo'e, i.e., the differences in cooling rate between that of test coupons and of the part being produced, is the fundamental reason for this situation. Se'eral specifications pro'ide for the mass effect by permitting the testing of coupons which are larger than the basic "eel bloc". Te!&er E!brittle!ent -,hen many alloy steels are heated in or slowly cooled through the range 611- 2211F ):08- =39C*, a significant loss in ductility and toughness occurs. $his loss in toughness is belie'ed to be caused by a grain boundary precipitation of iron compounds rich in phosphorous, arsenic, antimony, and tin/ manganese and silicon enhance the action of these elements, and molybdenum retards the effect. Ob'iously, the use of melting practices to achie'e low phosphorous )the practice to lower phosphorous also will lower arsenic, antimony and tin* is desirable, and such practices ha'e been de'eloped 'ia ladle treatments. .owe'er, such practices are e#pensi'e, and for most applications the use of molybdenum and(or a'oiding heating-in or slow cooling through the critical range 611- 2211F ):8=- =39C* is sufficient. ,hen these practices are impractical, the use of the special melting-refining should be considered. Hydrogen E%%e ts -.ydrogen is an undesirable element in steel/ none of the effects of hydrogen are good. Amongst the sources of hydrogen in steel, the most important are the raw materials used in the melting and refining process and traces of moisture in the molds used for casting. Care should be ta"en to dry all steelma"ing and refining additions as well as molds. ,hen present in amounts as low as 9 parts per million, hydrogen in steel significantly reduces toughness and ductility. $he hydrogen can be remo'ed by heating the steel at about :11F )01:C*. .owe'er, the remo'al from hea'y sections, e.g. , abo'e 6in. )019.0mm*, re uires a 'ery long heating time at :11F )01:C*, and because resistance to crac" propagation decreases as the section si&e increases, hydrogen remo'al from hea'y castings intended for se'ere structural applications is essential. Fortunately, the attainment of the low amounts )less than 9 ppm* of hydrogen in steel can be achie'ed by the use of ladle 'acuum treatments. Of course, the benefit of achie'ing a low hydrogen content must be sufficient to %ustify the high cost of the 'acuum treatment. Also, hydrogen can enter solid steel as a result of a corrosion reaction at the surface of the steel. ,hen this occurs in steels ha'ing a hardness abo'e 09 .7C, crac"ing may occur and the susceptibility of a steel to crac"ing increases rapidly as the hardness increases abo'e 09 .7C. For this reason, the petroleum industry has imposed a ma#imum hardness restriction of 7c 09 on steels intended for ser'ice where corrosion will generate hydrogen absorption in the steel. One e#ample is in sour crude wells. Another form of hydrogen crac"ing of steel occurs when the steel is e#posed to hydrogen at high pressure and high temperature. $he steel does not need to ha'e high 'alues of hardness or strength. $he physical mechanism at wor", is that hydrogen, at the high pressure and temperature, diffuses into the steel and reacts with the carbides to form methane gases, the pressure of which becomes high enough to rupture the steel. $he solution to the problem is to add alloying elements that form stable carbides which will not react with the hydrogen. $he elements most commonly used are chromium, molybdenum, and, occasionally, 'anadium. Corrosion Resistan e -$he cast carbon and low alloy steels are not considered to be corrosion resistant materials. As is true for the wrought steels, minor additions of nic"el, chromium, phosphorous, copper and silicon will increase resistance of cast steels to atmospheric corrosion to the e#tent that for some applications no protection such as paint is re uired. At ele'ated temperatures increasing amounts of chromium increase resistance to o#idation and, as already stated, low alloy steels for ele'ated temperature ser'ice contain chromium. Additions of aluminum and(or silicon are at least as effecti'e as those of chromium/ howe'er, the amount of either of these elements re uired to impart the necessary o#idation resistance may cause a serious loss in ductility and toughness. $he role of the alloying elements in cast steel may be summari&ed as follows+ All elements, e#cept cobalt, increase hardenability. All carbide forming elements retard softening during tempering. ?ic"el impro'es toughness. Chromium impro'es o#idation resistance. Molybdenum retards temper embrittlement and increases ele'ated temperature strength. @anadium and tungsten impro'e ele'ated temperature strength. Manganese plus sulfur impro'e machinability. Sulfur causes hot crac"s. Carbon increases strength but decreases toughness. Phosphorous, arsenic, antimony, and tin accelerate temper embrittlement. Su!!ary Structural carbon and low alloy cast steels en%oy a wide application for load bearing applications. $he optimum utili&ation of these steels can be obtained best from a thorough understanding of the specifications co'ering these steels, and the metallurgical characteristics of the steel.

<oth the manufacturer and the user ha'e an obligation to cooperate in the preparation of specifications that reflect and combine both the needs of the users and the capabilities of the manufacturers. $his obligation re uires a sound understanding of the metallurgical characteristics of the steel, and a continuous communication between the two groups on the pertinent problems encountered in manufacture, fabrication and ser'ice performance. * This article was excerpted with permission from Chapter 18 of the 6th Edition of the Steel Castings Handbook, p blished b! the Steel "o nders# Societ! of $merica, and $S% &nternational'

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