(&t homer-s reconstr&ction often yie ds to the Overview In EARLY

THREE THOUSAND YEARS

rea ities of ei$hth6 and se"enth6cent&ry (')' $reece' The fe&da after they were socia str&ct&re apparent in the !ac%$ro&nd of the odyssey seems more a%in to homer-s $reece than to odysse&s-s, and homer s&!stit&tes the pantheon of deities of his own day for the re ated !&t different $ods whom mycenaean $ree%s worshipped' ,any other minor !&t o!"io&s anachronisms7s&ch as references to iron too s and to tri!es that had not yet mi$rated to $reece !y the !ron3e a$e7!etray the poem-s ater, iron a$e ori$ins' 8or cent&ries, many scho ars !e ie"ed that the tro.an war and its participants were entire y the creation of the $ree% ima$ination' (&t in the ate nineteenth cent&ry, an archaeo o$ist named heinrich sch iemann dec ared that he had disco"ered the remnants of troy' The r&ins that he &nco"ered sit a few do3en mi es off of the ae$ean coast in northwestern t&r%ey, a site that indeed fits the $eo$raphica descriptions of homer-s troy' One ayer of the site, ro&$h y correspondin$ to the point in history when the fa of troy wo& d ha"e ta%en p ace, shows e"idence of fire and destr&ction consistent with a sac%' A tho&$h most scho ars accept sch iemann-s disco"ered city as the site of the ancient city of troy, many remain s%eptica as to whether homer-s tro.an war e"er rea y too% p ace' E"idence from near eastern iterat&re s&$$ests that episodes simi ar to those descri!ed in the i iad may ha"e circ& ated e"en !efore sch iemann-s troy was destroyed' Nonethe ess, many scho ars now admit the possi!i ity that some tr&th may ie at the center of the i iad, hidden !eneath many ayers of poetic em!e ishment' Li%e the odyssey, the i iad was composed primari y in the ionic dia ect of ancient $ree%, which was spo%en on the ae$ean is ands and in the coasta sett ements of asia minor, now modern t&r%ey' Some scho ars th&s conc &de that the poet hai ed from somewhere in the eastern $ree% wor d' ,ore i%e y, howe"er, the poet chose the ionic dia ect !eca&se he fe t it to !e more appropriate for the hi$h sty e and $rand scope of his wor%' S i$ht y ater $ree% iterat&re s&$$ests that poets "aried the dia ects of their poems accordin$ to the themes that they were treatin$ and mi$ht write in dia ects that they didn-t act&a y spea%' Homer-s epics are panhe enic 9encompassin$ a of $reece: in spirit and &se forms from epics were composed

composed, the i iad andthe odyssey remain two of the most ce e!rated and wide y read stories e"er to d, yet ne#t to nothin$ is %nown a!o&t their composer' He was certain y an accomp ished $ree% !ard, and he pro!a! y i"ed in the ate ei$hth and ear y se"enth cent&ries (')' a&thorship is traditiona y ascri!ed to a ! ind poet named homer, and it is &nder this name that the wor%s are sti p&! ished' *ree%s of the third and second cent&ries (')', howe"er, a ready +&estioned whether homer e#isted and whether the two epics were e"en written !y a sin$ e indi"id&a ' ,ost modern scho ars !e ie"e that e"en if a sin$ e person wrote the epics, his wor% owed a tremendo&s de!t to a on$ tradition of &nwritten, ora poetry' Stories of a $ orio&s e#pedition to the east and of its eaders- fatef& .o&rneys home had !een circ& atin$ in $reece for h&ndreds of years !efore the i iad and the odyssey were composed' )as&a storyte ers and semiprofessiona minstre s passed these stories down thro&$h $enerations, with each artist de"e opin$ and po ishin$ the story as he to d it' Accordin$ to this theory, one poet, m& tip e poets wor%in$ in co a!oration, or perhaps e"en a series of poets handin$ down their wor% in s&ccession fina y t&rned these stories into written wor%s, a$ain with each addin$ his own to&ch and e#pandin$ or contractin$ certain episodes in the o"era narrati"e to fit his taste' A tho&$h historica , archaeo o$ica , and in$&istic e"idence s&$$ests that the !etween /01 and 201 (')' they are set in mycenaean $reece in a!o&t the twe fth cent&ry (')', d&rin$ the !ron3e a$e' This ear ier period, the $ree%s !e ie"ed, was a more $ orio&s and s&! ime a$e, when $ods sti fre+&ented the earth and heroic, $od i%e morta s with s&perh&man attri!&tes pop& ated $reece' (eca&se the two epics stri"e to e"o%e this pristine a$e, they are written in a hi$h sty e and $enera y depict ife as it was !e ie"ed to ha"e !een ed in the $reat %in$doms of the !ron3e a$e' The $ree%s are often referred to as 4achaeans,5 the name of a ar$e tri!e occ&pyin$ $reece d&rin$ the !ron3e a$e'

se"era other dia ects' This s&$$ests that homer s&ited his poems to the dia ect that wo& d !est comp ement his ideas' The aftermath of the iliad The tro.an war has not yet ended at the c ose of the i iad' Homer-s a&dience wo& d ha"e !een fami iar with the str&$$ e-s conc &sion, and the potency of m&ch of homer-s irony and fore!odin$ depends on this fami iarity' ;hat fo ows is a synopsis of some of the most important e"ents that happen after the i iad ends' The death of achilles In the fina !oo%s of the i iad, achi es refers

temp e in troy, and perform "ario&s other cha en$es' Lar$e y owin$ to the s%i and co&ra$e of odysse&s and diomedes, the achaeans accomp ish the tas%s, and the achaean archer phi octetes ater &ses the arrows of herac es to %i achaeans' The fall of troy The achaean commanders are near y ready to $i"e &p< nothin$ can penetrate the massi"e wa s of troy' (&t !efore they ose heart, odysse&s concocts a p an that wi a ow them to !ypass the wa s of the city comp ete y' The achaeans !&i d a massi"e, ho ow, wooden horse, ar$e eno&$h to ho d a contin$ent of warriors inside' Odysse&s and a $ro&p of so diers hide in the horse, whi e the rest of the achaeans !&rn their camps and sai away from troy, waitin$ in their ships !ehind a near!y is and' The ne#t mornin$, the tro.ans peer down from the ramparts of their wa and disco"er the $i$antic, mysterio&s horse' They a so disco"er a one achaean so dier named sinon, whom they ta%e prisoner' As instr&cted !y odysse&s, sinon te s the tro.ans that the achaeans ha"e inc&rred the wrath of athena for the theft of the pa adi&m' They ha"e eft sinon as a sacrifice to the $oddess and constr&cted the horse as a $ift to soothe her temper' Sinon e#p ains that the achaeans eft the horse !efore the tro.an $ates in the hopes that the tro.ans wo& d destroy it and there!y earn the wrath of athena' (e ie"in$ sinon-s story, the tro.ans whee the massi"e horse into the city as a tri!&te to athena' That ni$ht, odysse&s and his men s ip o&t of the horse, %i the tro.an $&ards, and f in$ open the $ates of troy to the achaean army, which has meanwhi e approached the city a$ain' Ha"in$ at ast penetrated the wa , the achaeans massacre the citi3ens of troy, paris' Despite this set!ac%, troy contin&es to ho d a$ainst the

fre+&ent y to his imminent death, a!o&t which his mother, thetis, has warned him' After the end of the poem, at hector-s f&nera feast, achi es si$hts the !ea&tif& po y#ena, the da&$hter of priam and hence a princess of troy' Ta%en with her !ea&ty, achi es fa s in o"e with her' Hopin$ to marry her, he a$rees to &se his inf &ence with the achaean army to !rin$ a!o&t an end to the war' (&t when he tra"e s to the temp e of apo o to ne$otiate the peace, paris shoots him in the hee 7the on y "& nera! e part of his !ody7with a poisoned arrow' In other "ersions of the story, the wo&nd occ&rs in the midst of !att e' Achilles armor and the death of ajax After achi es- death, a.a# and odysse&s $o and reco"er his !ody' Thetis instr&cts the achaeans to !e+&eath achi es- ma$nificent armor, for$ed !y the $od hephaest&s, to the most worthy hero' (oth a.a# and odysse&s co"et the armor< when it is awarded to odysse&s, a.a# commits s&icide o&t of h&mi iation' The palladium and the arrows of heracles (y the time of achi es- and a.a#-s deaths, troy-s defenses ha"e !een !o stered !y the arri"a of a new coa ition of a ies, inc &din$ the ethiopians and the ama3ons' Achi es %i ed penthesi ea, the +&een of the ama3ons, !efore his death, !&t the tro.ans contin&e to repe the achaean assa& t' The $ods re ay to the achaeans that they m&st perform a n&m!er of tas%s in order to win the war= they m&st reco"er the arrows of herac es, stea a stat&e of athena ca ed the pa adi&m from the

p &nder the city-s riches, and !&rn the !&i din$s to the $ro&nd' A of the tro.an men are %i ed e#cept for a sma $ro&p ed !y aeneas, who escapes' He en, whose oya ties ha"e shifted !ac% to the achaeans since paris-s death, ret&rns to mene a&s, and the achaeans at ast set sai for home'

After the war The fates of many of the i iad-s heroes after the war occ&py an important space in $ree% mytho o$y' Odysse&s, as foreto d, spends ten years tryin$ to ret&rn to ithaca, and his ad"ent&res form the s&!.ect of homer-s other $reat epic, the odyssey' He en and mene a&s ha"e a on$ and dan$ero&s "oya$e !ac% to their home in sparta, with a on$ stay in e$ypt' In the odyssey, te emach&s tra"e s to sparta in search of his father, odysse&s, and finds he en and mene a&s ce e!ratin$ the marria$e of their da&$hter, hermione' A$amemnon, who has ta%en priam-s da&$hter cassandra as a s a"e, ret&rns home to his wife, c ytemnestra, and his %in$dom, mycenae' E"er since a$amemnon-s sacrifice of iphi$eneia at the a tar of athena, howe"er, c ytemnestra has n&rt&red a "ast resentment toward her h&s!and' She has ta%en a man named ae$isth&s as her o"er, and &pon a$amemnon-s ret&rn, the o"ers m&rder a$amemnon in his !ath and %i cassandra as we ' This story is the s&!.ect of aeschy &s-s p aya$amemnon' ,eanwhi e, aeneas, the on y $reat tro.an warrior to s&r"i"e the fa of troy, wanders for many years, searchin$ for a new home for his s&r"i"in$ fe ow citi3ens' His ad"ent&res are reco&nted in "ir$i -s epicaeneid' Plot N INE
;AR, YEARS A8TER THE START O8 THE TRO>AN

nymph thetis, to en ist the ser"ices of 3e&s, %in$ of the $ods, toward this end' The tro.an and achaean sides ha"e dec ared a cease6fire with each other, !&t now the tro.ans !reach the treaty and 3e&s comes to their aid' ;ith 3e&s s&pportin$ the tro.ans and achi es ref&sin$ to fi$ht, the achaeans s&ffer $reat osses' Se"era days of fierce conf ict ens&e, inc &din$ d&e s !etween paris and mene a&s and !etween hector and a.a#' The achaeans ma%e no pro$ress< e"en the heroism of the $reat achaean warrior diomedes pro"es fr&it ess' The tro.ans p&sh the achaeans !ac%, forcin$ them to ta%e ref&$e !ehind the ramparts that protect their ships' The achaeans !e$in to n&rt&re some hope for the f&t&re when a ni$httime reconnaissance mission !y diomedes and odysse&s yie ds information a!o&t the tro.ans- p ans, !&t the ne#t day !rin$s disaster' Se"era achaean commanders !ecome wo&nded, and the tro.ans !rea% thro&$h the achaean ramparts' They ad"ance a the way &p to the !o&ndary of the achaean camp and set fire to one of the ships' Defeat seems imminent, !eca&se witho&t the ships, the army wi !e stranded at troy and a most certain y destroyed' )oncerned for his comrades !&t sti too pro&d to

he p them himse f, achi es a$rees to a p an proposed !y nestor that wi a ow his !e o"ed friend patroc &s to ta%e his p ace in !att e, wearin$ his armor' ?atroc &s is a fine warrior, and his presence on the !att efie d he ps the achaeans p&sh the tro.ans away from the ships and !ac% to the city wa s' (&t the co&nterattac% soon fa ters' Apo o %noc%s patroc &s-s armor to the $ro&nd, and hector s ays him' 8i$htin$ then !rea%s o&t as !oth sides try to ay c aim to the !ody and armor' Hector ends &p with the armor, !&t the achaeans, than%s to a co&ra$eo&s effort !y mene a&s and others, mana$e to !rin$ the !ody !ac% to their camp' ;hen achi es disco"ers that hector has %i ed patroc &s, he fi s with s&ch $rief and ra$e that he a$rees to reconci e with a$amemnon and re.oin the !att e' Thetis $oes to mo&nt o ymp&s and pers&ades the $od hephaest&s to for$e achi es a new s&it of armor, which she presents to him the ne#t mornin$' Achi es then rides o&t to !att e at the head of the achaean army' ,eanwhi e, hector, not e#pectin$ achi es to re.oin the !att e, has ordered his men to camp o&tside the wa s of troy' (&t when the tro.an army $ impses achi es, it f ees in the $ree% 94achaean5: army sac%s chryse, a town a ied

with troy' D&rin$ the !att e, the achaeans capt&re a pair of !ea&tif& maidens, chryseis and !riseis' A$amemnon, the eader of the achaean forces, ta%es chryseis as his pri3e, and achi es, the achaeans- $reatest warrior, c aims !riseis' )hryseis-s father, chryses, who ser"es as a priest of the $od apo o, offers an enormo&s ransom in ret&rn for his da&$hter, !&t a$amemnon ref&ses to $i"e chryseis !ac%' )hryses then prays to apo o, who sends a p a$&e &pon the achaean camp' After many achaeans die, a$amemnon cons& ts the prophet ca chas to determine the ca&se of the p a$&e' ;hen he earns that chryseis is the ca&se, he re &ctant y $i"es her &p !&t then demands !riseis from achi es as compensation' 8&rio&s at this ins& t, achi es ret&rns to his tent in the army camp and ref&ses to fi$ht in the war any on$er' He "en$ef& y yearns to see the achaeans destroyed and as%s his mother, the sea6

terror !ac% !ehind the city wa s' Achi es c&ts down e"ery tro.an he sees' Stren$thened !y his ra$e, he e"en fi$hts the $od of the ri"er #anth&s, who is an$ered that achi es has ca&sed so many corpses to fa into his streams' 8ina y, achi es confronts hector o&tside the wa s of troy' Ashamed at the poor ad"ice that he $a"e his comrades, hector ref&ses to f ee inside the city with them' Achi es chases him aro&nd the city-s periphery three times, !&t the $oddess athena fina y tric%s hector into t&rnin$ aro&nd and fi$htin$ achi es' In a dramatic d&e , achi es %i s hector' He then ashes the !ody to the !ac% of his chariot and dra$s it across the !att efie d to the achaean camp' Upon achi es- arri"a , the tri&mphant achaeans ce e!rate patroc &s-s f&nera with a on$ series of ath etic $ames in his honor' Each day for the ne#t nine days, achi es dra$s hector-s !ody in circ es aro&nd patroc &s-s f&nera !ier' At ast, the $ods a$ree that hector deser"es a proper !&ria ' @e&s sends the $od hermes to escort %in$ priam, hector-s father and the r& er of troy, into the achaean camp' ?riam tearf& y p eads with achi es to ta%e pity on a father !ereft of his son and ret&rn hector-s !ody' He in"o%es the memory of achi es- own father, pe e&s' Deep y mo"ed, achi es fina y re ents and ret&rns hector-s corpse to the tro.ans' (oth sides a$ree to a temporary tr&ce, and hector recei"es a hero-s f&nera ' Character list The achaeans (also called the argives or danaans ! Achilles 6 the son of the mi itary man pe e&s and the sea6 nymph thetis' The most powerf& warrior in the i iad, achi es commands the myrmidons, so diers from his home and of phthia in $reece' ?ro&d and headstron$, he ta%es offense easi y and reacts with ! isterin$ indi$nation when he percei"es that his honor has !een s i$hted' Achi es- wrath at a$amemnon for ta%in$ his war pri3e, the maiden !riseis, forms the main s&!.ect of the i iad' Read an in6depth ana ysis of achi es' agamemnon (also called atrides ! 6 %in$ of mycenae and eader of the achaean army< !rother of %in$ mene a&s of sparta' Arro$ant and often se fish, a$amemnon pro"ides the achaeans with stron$ !&t sometimes rec% ess and se f6ser"in$ eadership' Li%e achi es, he ac%s consideration and foretho&$ht' ,ost sa ient y, his tact ess appropriation of achi es- war pri3e, the maiden !riseis, creates a crisis for the achaeans, when achi es, ins& ted, withdraws from the war' Patroclus 6 achi es- !e o"ed friend, companion, and ad"isor, patroc &s $rew &p a on$side the $reat warrior in phthia, &nder

the $&ardianship of pe e&s' De"oted to !oth achi es and the achaean ca&se, patroc &s stands !y the enra$ed achi es !&t a so dons achi es- terrifyin$ armor in an attempt to ho d the tro.ans !ac%' Odysseus 6 a fine warrior and the c e"erest of the achaean commanders' A on$ with nestor, odysse&s is one of the achaeans- two !est p&! ic spea%ers' He he ps mediate !etween a$amemnon and achi es d&rin$ their +&arre and often pre"ents them from ma%in$ rash decisions' "iomedes (also called tydides ! 6 the yo&n$est of the achaean commanders, diomedes is !o d and sometimes pro"es impet&o&s' After achi es withdraws from com!at, athena inspires diomedes with s&ch co&ra$e that he act&a y wo&nds two $ods, aphrodite and ares' #reat ajax 6 an achaean commander, $reat a.a# 9sometimes ca ed 4te amonian a.a#5 or simp y 4a.a#5: is the second mi$htiest achaean warrior after achi es' His e#traordinary si3e and stren$th he p him to wo&nd hector twice !y hittin$ him with !o& ders' He often fi$hts a on$side itt e a.a#, and the pair is fre+&ent y referred to as the 4aeantes'5 $ittle ajax 6 an achaean commander, itt e a.a# is the son of oi e&s 9to !e distin$&ished from $reat a.a#, the son of te amon:' He often fi$hts a on$side $reat a.a#, whose stat&re and stren$th comp ement itt e a.a#-s sma si3e and swift speed' The two to$ether are sometimes ca ed the 4aeantes'5 %estor 6 %in$ of py os and the o dest achaean commander' A tho&$h a$e has ta%en m&ch of nestor-s physica stren$th, it has eft him with $reat wisdom' He often acts as an ad"isor to the mi itary commanders, especia y a$amemnon' Nestor and odysse&s are the achaeans- most deft and pers&asi"e orators, a tho&$h nestor-s speeches are sometimes on$6winded' &enelaus 6 %in$ of sparta< the yo&n$er !rother of a$amemnon' ;hi e it is the a!d&ction of his wife, he en, !y the tro.an prince paris that spar%s the tro.an war, mene a&s pro"es +&ieter, ess imposin$, and ess arro$ant than a$amemnon' Tho&$h he has a sto&t heart, mene a&s is not amon$ the mi$htiest achaean warriors' 'domeneus 6 %in$ of crete and a respected commander' Idomene&s eads a char$e a$ainst the tro.ans in !oo% AB' &achaon 6 a hea er' ,achaon is wo&nded !y paris in !oo% AA' Calchas 6 an important soothsayer' )a chas-s identification of the ca&se of the p a$&e ra"a$in$ the achaean army in !oo% A eads inad"ertent y to the rift !etween a$amemnon and achi es that occ&pies the first nineteen !oo%s of the i iad' Peleus 6 achi es- father and the $randson of 3e&s' A tho&$h his name often appears in the epic, pe e&s ne"er appears in person' ?riam powerf& y in"o%es the memory of pe e&s when he con"inces achi es to ret&rn hector-s corpse to the tro.ans in !oo% CD'

Phoenix 6 a %ind y o d warrior, phoeni# he ped raise achi es whi e he himse f was sti a yo&n$ man' Achi es deep y o"es and tr&sts phoeni#, and phoeni# mediates !etween him and a$amemnon d&rin$ their +&arre ' The myrmidons 6 the so diers &nder achi es- command, hai in$ from achi es- home and, phthia' The trojans (ector 6 a son of %in$ priam and +&een hec&!a, hector is the mi$htiest warrior in the tro.an army' He mirrors achi es in some of his f aws, !&t his ! ood &st is not so $reat as that of achi es' He is de"oted to his wife, andromache, and son, astyana#, !&t resents his !rother paris for !rin$in$ war &pon their fami y and city' Read an in6depth ana ysis of hector' Priam 6 %in$ of troy and h&s!and of hec&!a, priam is the father of fifty tro.an warriors, inc &din$ hector and paris' Tho&$h too o d to fi$ht, he has earned the respect of !oth the tro.ans and the achaeans !y "irt&e of his e"e 6headed, wise, and !ene"o ent r& e' He treats he en %ind y, tho&$h he aments the war that her !ea&ty has spar%ed' (ecu)a 6 +&een of troy, wife of priam, and mother of hector and paris' Paris (also *nown as alexander ! 6 a son of priam and hec&!a and !rother of hector' ?aris-s a!d&ction of the !ea&tif& he en, wife of mene a&s, spar%ed the tro.an war' ?aris is se f6centered and often &nman y' He fi$hts effecti"e y with a !ow and arrow 9ne"er with the more man y sword or spear: !&t often ac%s the spirit for !att e and prefers to sit in his room ma%in$ o"e to he en whi e others fi$ht for him, th&s earnin$ !oth hector-s and he en-s scorn' (elen 6 rep&ted to !e the most !ea&tif& woman in the ancient wor d, he en eft her h&s!and, mene a&s, to r&n away with paris' She oathes herse f now for the misery that she has ca&sed so many tro.an and achaean men' A tho&$h her contempt e#tends to paris as we , she contin&es to stay with him' Aeneas 6 a tro.an no! eman, the son of aphrodite, and a mi$hty warrior' The romans !e ie"ed that aeneas ater fo&nded their city 9he is the prota$onist of "ir$i -s masterpiece the aeneid:' Andromache 6 hector-s o"in$ wife, andromache !e$s hector to withdraw from the war and sa"e himse f !efore the achaeans %i him' Astyanax 6 hector and andromache-s infant son' Polydamas 6 a yo&n$ tro.an commander, po ydamas sometimes fi$&res as a foi for hector, pro"in$ coo 6headed and pr&dent when hector char$es ahead' ?o ydamas $i"es the tro.ans so&nd ad"ice, !&t hector se dom acts on it' #laucus 6 a powerf& tro.an warrior, $ a&c&s near y fi$hts a d&e with diomedes' The men-s e#chan$e of armor after they

rea i3e that their fami ies are friends i &strates the "a &e that ancients p aced on %inship and camaraderie' Agenor 6 a tro.an warrior who attempts to fi$ht achi es in !oo% CA' A$enor de ays achi es on$ eno&$h for the tro.an army to f ee inside troy-s wa s' "olon 6 a tro.an sent to spy on the achaean camp in !oo% A1' Pandarus 6 a tro.an archer' ?andar&s-s shot at mene a&s in !oo% D!rea%s the temporary tr&ce !etween the two sides' Antenor 6 a tro.an no! eman, ad"isor to %in$ priam, and father of many tro.an warriors' Antenor ar$&es that he en sho& d !e ret&rned to mene a&s in order to end the war, !&t paris ref&ses to $i"e her &p' +arpedon 6 one of 3e&s-s sons' Sarpedon-s fate seems intertwined with the $ods- +&i!! es, ca in$ attention to the &nc ear nat&re of the $ods- re ationship to fate' Chryseis 6 chryses- da&$hter, a priest of apo o in a tro.an6 a ied town' ,riseis 6 a war pri3e of achi es' ;hen a$amemnon is forced to ret&rn chryseis to her father, he appropriates !riseis as compensation, spar%in$ achi es- $reat ra$e' Chryses 6 a priest of apo o in a tro.an6a ied town< the father of chryseis, whom a$amemnon ta%es as a war pri3e' The gods and immortals -eus 6 %in$ of the $ods and h&s!and of hera, 3e&s c aims ne&tra ity in the morta s- conf ict and often tries to %eep the other $ods from participatin$ in it' Howe"er, he throws his wei$ht !ehind the tro.an side for m&ch of the !att e after the s& %in$ achi es has his mother, thetis, as% the $od to do so' (era 6 +&een of the $ods and 3e&s-s wife, hera is a conni"in$, headstron$ woman' She often $oes !ehind 3e&s-s !ac% in matters on which they disa$ree, wor%in$ with athena to cr&sh the tro.ans, whom she passionate y hates' Athena 6 the $oddess of wisdom, p&rposef& !att e, and the woman y arts< 3e&s-s da&$hter' Li%e hera, athena passionate y hates the tro.ans and often $i"es the achaeans "a &a! e aid' Thetis 6 a sea6nymph and the de"oted mother of achi es, thetis $ets 3e&s to he p the tro.ans and p&nish the achaeans at the re+&est of her an$ry son' ;hen achi es fina y re.oins the !att e, she commissions hephaest&s to desi$n him a new s&it of armor' Apollo 6 a son of 3e&s and twin !rother of the $oddess artemis, apo o is $od of the arts and archery' He s&pports the tro.ans and often inter"enes in the war on their !eha f' Aphrodite 6 $oddess of o"e and da&$hter of 3e&s, aphrodite is married to hephaest&s !&t maintains a romantic re ationship with ares' She s&pports paris and the tro.ans thro&$ho&t the war, tho&$h she pro"es somewhat ineffect&a in !att e'

Poseidon 6 the !rother of 3e&s and $od of the sea' ?oseidon ho ds a on$6standin$ $r&d$e a$ainst the tro.ans !eca&se they ne"er paid him for he pin$ them to !&i d their city' He therefore s&pports the achaeans in the war' (ephaestus 6 $od of fire and h&s!and of aphrodite, hephaest&s is the $ods- meta smith and is %nown as the ame or cripp ed $od' A tho&$h the te#t doesn-t ma%e c ear his sympathies in the morta s- str&$$ e, he he ps the achaeans !y for$in$ a new set of armor for achi es and !y resc&in$ achi es d&rin$ his fi$ht with a ri"er $od' Artemis 6 $oddess of the h&nt, da&$hter of 3e&s, and twin sister of apo o' Artemis s&pports the tro.ans in the war' Ares 6 $od of war and o"er of aphrodite, ares $enera y s&pports the tro.ans in the war' (ermes 6 the messen$er of the $ods' Hermes escorts priam to achi es- tent in !oo% CD' 'ris 6 3e&s-s messen$er' Analysis of major characters Achilles A tho&$h achi es possesses s&perh&man stren$th and has a c ose re ationship with the $ods, he may stri%e modern readers as ess than heroic' He has a the mar%s of a $reat warrior, and indeed pro"es the mi$htiest man in the achaean army, !&t his deep6seated character f aws constant y impede his a!i ity to act with no!i ity and inte$rity' He cannot contro his pride or the ra$e that s&r$es &p when that pride is in.&red' This attri!&te so poisons him that he a!andons his comrades and e"en prays that the tro.ans wi s a&$hter them, a !eca&se he has !een s i$hted at the hands of his commander, a$amemnon' Achi es is dri"en primari y !y a thirst for $ ory' ?art of him yearns to i"e a on$, easy ife, !&t he %nows that his persona fate forces him to choose !etween the two' U timate y, he is wi in$ to sacrifice e"erythin$ e se so that his name wi !e remem!ered' Li%e most homeric characters, achi es does not de"e op si$nificant y o"er the co&rse of the epic' A tho&$h the death of patroc &s prompts him to see% reconci iation with a$amemnon, it does not a e"iate his ra$e, !&t instead redirects it toward hector' The e"ent does not ma%e achi es a more de i!erati"e or se f6ref ecti"e character' ( ood &st, wrath, and pride contin&e to cons&me him' He merci ess y ma& s his opponents, !ra3en y ta%es on the ri"er #anth&s, i$no! y desecrates the !ody of hector, and sa"a$e y sacrifices twe "e tro.an men at the f&nera of patroc &s' He does not re ent in this !r&ta ity &nti the fina !oo% of the epic, when %in$ priam, !e$$in$ for the ret&rn of hector-s desecrated corpse, appea s to achi es- memory of his father, pe e&s' Yet it remains &nc ear whether a father-s heart!ro%en p eas rea y ha"e transformed achi es, or whether this scene mere y testifies to achi escapacity for $rief and ac+&aintance with an$&ish, which were a ready pro"en in his intense mo&rnin$ of patroc &s'

Agamemnon A$amemnon, %in$ of mycenae and commander6in6 chief of the achaean army, resem! es achi es in some respects' Tho&$h not near y as stron$, he has a simi ar y hot temper and pridef& strea%' ;hen a$amemnon-s ins& tin$ demand that achi es re in+&ish his war pri3e, !riseis, ca&ses achi es to withdraw an$ri y from !att e, the s&fferin$ that res& ts for the $ree% army owes as m&ch to a$amemnon-s st&!!ornness as to that of achi es' (&t a$amemnon-s pride ma%es him more arro$ant than achi es' ;hi e achi es- pride f ares &p after it is in.&red, a$amemnon &ses e"ery opport&nity to ma%e others fee the effects of his' He a ways e#pects the ar$est portions of the p &nder, e"en tho&$h he ta%es the fewest ris%s in !att e' Additiona y, he insists &pon eadin$ the army, e"en tho&$h his yo&n$er !rother mene a&s, whose wife, he en, was sto en !y paris, possesses the rea $rie"ance a$ainst the tro.ans' He ne"er a ows the achaeans to for$et his %in$ y stat&s' A$amemnon a so differs from achi es in his appreciation of s&!t ety' Achi es remains fierce y de"oted to those who o"e him !&t de"oted y "icio&s to those who do him harm< he sees no shades of $ray' A$amemnon, howe"er, remains f&ndamenta y concerned with himse f, and he has the c&nnin$ to manip& ate peop e and sit&ations for his own !enefit' He does not tr&st his troops ! ind y, !&t tests their oya ty, as in !oo% C' A tho&$h he reconci es with achi es in !oo% AE, he shir%s persona responsi!i ity with a for%ed6 ton$&ed indictment of fate, r&in, and the $ods' ;hereas achi es is who y cons&med !y his emotions, a$amemnon demonstrates a deft a!i ity to %eep himse f7and others7 &nder contro ' ;hen he commits wron$s, he does so not o&t of ! ind ra$e and fr&stration i%e achi es, !&t o&t of amora , se f6 ser"in$ c&nnin$' 8or this reason, homer-s portrait of a$amemnon & timate y pro"es &n%ind, and the reader ne"er fee s the same sympathy for him as for achi es' (ector Hector is the mi$htiest warrior in the tro.an army' A tho&$h he meets his match in achi es, he wrea%s ha"oc on the achaean army d&rin$ achi es- period of a!sence' He eads the assa& t that fina y penetrates the achaean ramparts, he is the first and on y tro.an to set fire to an achaean ship, and he %i s patroc &s' Yet his eadership contains discerni! e f aws, especia y toward the end of the epic, when the participation of first patroc &s and then achi es rein"i$orates the achaean army' He demonstrates a certain cowardice when, twice in !oo% A/, he f ees $reat a.a#' Indeed, he reco"ers his co&ra$e on y after recei"in$ the ins& ts of his comrades7first $ a&c&s and then aeneas' He can often !ecome emotiona y carried away as we , treatin$ patroc &s and his other "ictims with rash cr&e ty' Later, swept &p !y a !&rst of confidence, he foo ish y orders the tro.ans to camp o&tside troy-s wa s the ni$ht !efore achi es ret&rns to !att e, th&s ca&sin$ a cr&cia downfa the ne#t day' (&t a tho&$h hector may pro"e o"er y imp& si"e and ins&fficient y pr&dent, he does not come across as arro$ant or o"er!earin$, as a$amemnon does' ,oreo"er, the fact that

hector fi$hts in his home and, &n i%e any of the achaean commanders, a ows homer to de"e op him as a tender, fami y6oriented man' Hector shows deep, sincere o"e for his wife and chi dren' Indeed, he e"en treats his !rother paris with for$i"eness and ind& $ence, despite the man-s ac% of spirit and preference for o"ema%in$ o"er mi itary d&ty' Hector ne"er t&rns "io ent with him, mere y aimin$ fr&strated words at his coward y !rother' ,oreo"er, a tho&$h hector o"es his fami y, he ne"er oses si$ht of his responsi!i ity to troy' Admitted y, he r&ns from achi es at first and !rief y entertains the de &siona hope of ne$otiatin$ his way o&t of a d&e ' Howe"er, in the end he stands &p to the mi$hty warrior, e"en when he rea i3es that the $ods ha"e a!andoned him' His ref&sa to f ee e"en in the face of "ast y s&perior forces ma%es him the most tra$ic fi$&re in the poem' Themes Themes are the f&ndamenta e#p ored in a iterary wor%' The #lory of .ar One can ma%e a stron$ ar$&ment that The I iad seems to ce e!rate war' )haracters emer$e as worthy or despica! e !ased on their de$ree of competence and !ra"ery in !att e' ?aris, for e#amp e, doesn-t i%e to fi$ht, and correspondin$ y recei"es the scorn of !oth his fami y and his o"er' Achi es, on the other hand, wins eterna $ ory !y e#p icit y re.ectin$ the option of a on$, comforta! e, &ne"entf& ife at home' The te#t itse f seems to s&pport this means of .&d$in$ character and e#tends it e"en to the $ods' The epic ho ds &p war i%e deities s&ch as Athena for the reader-s admiration whi e it ma%es f&n of $ods who r&n from a$$ression, &sin$ the timidity of Aphrodite and Artemis to create a scene of comic re ief' To fi$ht is to pro"e one-s honor and inte$rity, whi e to a"oid warfare is to demonstrate a3iness, i$no! e fear, or misa i$ned priorities' To !e s&re, The I iad doesn-t i$nore the rea ities of war' ,en die $r&esome deaths< women !ecome s a"es and conc&!ines, estran$ed from their tearf& fathers and mothers< a p a$&e !rea%s o&t in the Achaean camp and decimates the army' In the face of these horrors, e"en the mi$htiest warriors occasiona y e#perience fear, and the poet te s &s that !oth armies re$ret that the war e"er !e$an' Tho&$h Achi es points o&t that a men, whether !ra"e or coward y, meet the same death in the end, the poem ne"er as%s the reader to +&estion the e$itimacy of the on$oin$ str&$$ e' Homer ne"er imp ies that the fi$ht constit&tes a waste of time or h&man ife' Rather, he portrays each side as ha"in$ a .&stifia! e reason to fi$ht and depicts warfare as a respecta! e and e"en $ orio&s manner of sett in$ the disp&te' &ilitary #lory over /amily $ife A theme in The I iad c ose y re ated to the $ ory of war is the predominance of mi itary $ ory o"er fami y' The te#t c ear y admires the reciproca !onds of deference and o! i$ation that !ind Homeric fami ies to$ether, !&t it respects m&ch more hi$h y the p&rs&it of % eos, the 4$ ory5 or 4renown5 that one wins in the eyes of others !y performin$ and often &ni"ersa ideas

$reat deeds' Homer constant y forces his characters to choose !etween their o"ed ones and the +&est for % eos, and the most heroic characters in"aria! y choose the atter' Andromache p eads with Hector not to ris% orphanin$ his son, !&t Hector %nows that fi$htin$ amon$ the front ran%s represents the on y means of 4winnin$ my father $reat $ ory'5 ?aris, on the other hand, chooses to spend time with He en rather than fi$ht in the war< accordin$ y, !oth the te#t and the other characters treat him with derision' Achi es de!ates ret&rnin$ home to i"e in ease with his a$in$ father, !&t he remains at Troy to win $ ory !y %i in$ Hector and a"en$in$ ?atroc &s' The $ra"ity of the decisions that Hector and Achi es ma%e is emphasi3ed !y the fact that each %nows his fate ahead of time' The characters pri3e so hi$h y the martia "a &es of honor, no! e !ra"ery, and $ ory that they wi in$ y sacrifice the chance to i"e a on$ ife with those they o"e' The 'mpermanence of (uman $ife and 'ts Creations A tho&$h The I iad chronic es a "ery !rief period in a "ery on$ war, it remains ac&te y conscio&s of the specific ends awaitin$ each of the peop e in"o "ed' Troy is destined to fa , as Hector e#p ains to his wife in (oo% 2' The te#t anno&nces that ?riam and a of his chi dren wi die7Hector dies e"en !efore the c ose of the poem' Achi es wi meet an ear y end as we , a tho&$h not within the pa$es of The I iad' Homer constant y a &des to this e"ent, especia y toward the end of the epic, ma%in$ c ear that e"en the $reatest of men cannot escape death' Indeed, he s&$$ests that the "ery $reatest 7the no! est and !ra"est7may yie d to death sooner than others' Simi ar y, The I iad reco$ni3es, and repeated y reminds its readers, that the creations of morta s ha"e a morta ity of their own' The $ ory of men does not i"e on in their constr&ctions, instit&tions, or cities' The prophecy of )a chas, as we as Hector-s tender words with Andromache and the de!ates of the $ods, constant y remind the reader that Troy-s ofty ramparts wi fa ' (&t the *ree% fortifications wi not ast m&ch on$er' Tho&$h the *ree%s erect their !& war%s on y partway into the epic, Apo o and ?oseidon p an their destr&ction as ear y as (oo% AC' The poem th&s emphasi3es the ephemera nat&re of h&man !ein$s and their wor d, s&$$estin$ that morta s sho& d try to i"e their i"es as honora! y as possi! e, so that they wi !e remem!ered we ' 8or if morta s- physica !odies and materia creations cannot s&r"i"e them, perhaps their words and deeds can' )ertain y the e#istence of Homer-s poem wo& d attest to this notion' &otifs ,otifs are rec&rrin$ str&ct&res, contrasts, and iterary de"ices that can he p to de"e op and inform the te#t-s ma.or themes' Armor One wo& d nat&ra y e#pect a martia epic to depict men in arms, !&t armor in The I iad emer$es as somethin$ more than mere y a protecti"e co"er for a so dier-s !ody' In fact, Homer often portrays a hero-s armor as ha"in$ an a&ra of its own, separate from its wearer' In one of the epic-s more tender scenes, Hector remo"es his he met to %eep its horsehair

crest from fri$htenin$ his son Astyana#' ;hen ?atroc &s wears Achi es- armor to scare the Tro.ans and dri"e them from the ships, Apo o and Hector +&ic% y see thro&$h the dis$&ise' Then, when a fi$ht !rea%s o&t o"er ?atroc &s-s fa en !ody, the armor $oes one way and the corpse another' Hector dons the armor, !&t it ends &p !etrayin$ him, as it were, in fa"or of its former owner' Achi es- %now ed$e of its "& nera!i ities ma%es it easier for him to r&n Hector thro&$h with his sword' (y this point in the story, Achi es has a new set of armor, fashioned !y the $od Hephaest&s, which a so seems to ha"e a ife of its own' ;hi e Achi es- morta !ody can !e wo&nded7and indeed, the poem reminds &s of Achi es- impendin$ death on many occasions7Homer descri!es the di"ine armor as "irt&a y imper"io&s to assa& t' ,urial ;hi e martia epics nat&ra y to&ch &pon the s&!.ect of !&ria , The I iad in$ers o"er it' The !&ria of Hector is $i"en partic& ar attention, as it mar%s the me tin$ of Achi es- cr&cia ra$e' The mi$hty Tro.an recei"es a spectac& ar f&nera that comes on y after an e+&a y spectac& ar fi$ht o"er his corpse' ?atroc &s-s !&ria a so recei"es m&ch attention in the te#t, as Homer de"otes an entire !oo% to the f&nera and $ames in the warrior-s honor' The poem a so descri!es !&ria s &nconnected to partic& ar characters, s&ch as in (oo% /, when !oth armies &nderta%e a ar$e6sca e !&ria of their ar$e y &nnamed dead' The I iad-s interest in !&ria part y ref ects the interests of ancient *ree% c& t&re as a who e, which stressed proper !&ria as a re+&irement for the so& -s peacef& rest' Howe"er, it a so ref ects the $rim o&t oo% of The I iad, its interest in the re ent essness of fate and the impermanence of h&man ife' /ire 8ire emer$es as a rec&rrent ima$e in The I iad, often associated with interna passions s&ch as f&ry or ra$e, !&t a so with their e#terna manifestations' Homer descri!es Achi es as 4! a3in$5 in (oo% A and compares the spar% e of his fresh y donned armor to the s&n' ,oreo"er, the poem often compares a hero-s char$e or an ons a&$ht of troops to a conf a$ration sweepin$ thro&$h a fie d' (&t fire doesn-t appear .&st a e$orica y or metaphorica y< it appears materia y as we ' The Tro.ans i$ht fires in (oo% F to watch the Achaean army and to pre"ent it from s ippin$ away !y ni$ht' They constant y threaten the Achaean ships with fire and indeed s&cceed in torchin$ one of them' Th&s, whether present itera y or metaphorica y, the fre+&ency with which fire appears in The I iadindicates the poem-s o"er6archin$ concern with instances of profo&nd power and destr&ction' +ym)ols Sym!o s are o!.ects, characters, fi$&res, and co ors &sed to represent a!stract ideas or concepts' The Achaean +hips The Achaean ships sym!o i3e the f&t&re of the *ree% race' They constit&te the army-s on y means of con"eyin$ itse f home, whether in tri&mph or defeat' E"en if the Achaean

army were to ose the war, the ships co& d !rin$ !ac% s&r"i"ors< the ships- destr&ction, howe"er, wo& d mean the annihi ation7or a&tomatic e#i e7of e"ery ast so dier' Homer imp ies that some men shir%ed the war and stayed in *reece, whi e others, s&ch as ?e e&s, were too o d to fi$ht' Howe"er, to Homer-s ori$ina a&dience, the Achaean warriors at Troy represented more than a mere s&!pop& ation of the *ree% race' Homer-s contemporaries !e ie"ed that the heroes represented here act&a y i"ed historica y, as rea %in$s who r& ed the "ario&s city6states of *reece in their ear iest years' Ancient a&diences re$arded them as p ayin$ definiti"e ro es in the formation and de"e opment of *reece as they %new it' The mass death of these eaders and ro e mode s wo& d ha"e meant the decimation of a ci"i i3ation' The +hield of Achilles The I iad is an e#treme y compressed narrati"e' A tho&$h it treats many of the themes of h&man e#perience, it does so within the scope of a few days o&t of a ten6year war' The shie d constit&tes on y a tiny part in this martia sa$a, a sin$ e piece of armor on a sin$ e man in one of the armies7 yet it pro"ides perspecti"e on the entire war' Depictin$ norma ife in peacetime, it sym!o i3es the wor d !eyond the !att efie d, and imp ies that war constit&tes on y one aspect of e#istence' Life as a who e, the shie d reminds &s, inc &des feasts and dances and mar%etp aces and crops !ein$ har"ested' H&man !ein$s may ser"e not on y as warriors !&t a so as artisans and a!orers in the fie ds' Not on y do they wor%, they a so p ay, as the shie d depicts with its dancin$ chi dren' Interestin$ y, a tho&$h Homer $ orifies war and the ife of the warrior thro&$ho&t most of his epic, his depiction of e"eryday ife as it appears on the shie d comes across as e+&a y no! e, perhaps prefera! e' C0$T012 1eligion The ancient *ree%s were a deep y re i$io&s peop e' They worshipped many $ods whom they !e ie"ed appeared in h&man form and yet were endowed with s&perh&man stren$th and a$e ess !ea&ty' The I iad and the Odyssey, o&r ear iest s&r"i"in$ e#amp es of *ree% iterat&re, record menGs interactions with "ario&s $ods and $oddesses whose characters and appearances &nderwent itt e chan$e in the cent&ries that fo owed' ;hi e many sanct&aries honored more than a sin$ e $od, &s&a y one deity s&ch as @e&s at O ympia or a c ose y in%ed pair of deities i%e Demeter and her da&$hter ?ersephone at E e&sis dominated the c& t p ace' E sewhere in the arts, "ario&s painted scenes on "ases, and stone, terracotta and !ron3e sc& pt&res portray the ma.or $ods and $oddesses' The deities were depicted either !y themse "es or in traditiona mytho o$ica sit&ations in which they interact with h&mans

and a !road ran$e of minor deities, demi6$ods and e$endary characters' /unerary Art The ancient *ree%s did not $enera y ea"e e a!orate $ra"e $oods, e#cept for a coin in the hand to pay )haron, the ferryman to Hades, and pottery< howe"er the epitaphios or f&nera oration 9from which epitaph comes: was re$arded as of $reat importance, and anima sacrifices were made' Those who co& d afford them erected stone mon&ments, which was one of the f&nctions of %o&ros stat&es in the Archaic period !efore a!o&t 011 ()E' These were not intended as portraits, !&t d&rin$ the He enistic period rea istic portrait&re of the deceased were introd&ced and fami y $ro&ps were often depicted in !as6re ief on mon&ments, &s&a y s&rro&nded !y an architect&ra frame' The wa s of tom! cham!ers were often painted in fresco, a tho&$h few e#amp es ha"e s&r"i"ed in as $ood condition as the Tom! of the Di"er from so&thern Ita y' A most the on y s&r"i"in$ painted portraits in the c assica *ree% tradition are fo&nd in E$ypt rather than *reece' The 8ay&m m&mmy portraits, from the "ery end of the c assica period, were portrait faces, in a *raeco6Roman sty e, attached to m&mmies' Ear y *ree% !&ria s were fre+&ent y mar%ed a!o"e $ro&nd !y a ar$e piece of pottery, and remains were a so !&ried in &rns' ?ottery contin&ed to !e &sed e#tensi"e y inside tom!s and $ra"es thro&$ho&t the c assica period' The arna# is a sma coffin or ash6chest, &s&a y of decorated terracotta' The two6hand ed o&trophoros was primari y associated with weddin$s, as it was &sed to carry water for the n&ptia !ath' Howe"er, it was a so p aced in the tom!s of the &nmarried, Hpres&ma! y to ma%e &p in some way for what they had missed in ife'H The one6hand ed e%ythos had many ho&seho d &ses, !&t o&tside the ho&seho d its principa &se was for decoration of tom!s' Scenes of a descent to the &nderwor d of Hades were often painted on these, with the dead depicted !eside Hermes, )haron or !oth 6 tho&$h &s&a y on y with )haron' Sma pottery fi$&rines are often fo&nd, tho&$h it is hard to decide if these were made especia y for p acin$ in tom!s< in the case of the He enistic Tana$ra fi$&rines this seems pro!a! y not the case' (&t si "erware is more often fo&nd aro&nd the frin$es of the *ree% wor d, as in the roya ,acedonian tom!s of Ier$ina, or in the nei$h!o&rin$ c& t&res i%e those of Thrace or the Scythians' &en ,en ran the $o"ernment, and spent a $reat dea of their time away from home' ;hen not in"o "ed in po itics, the men spent time in the fie ds, o"erseein$ or wor%in$ the crops,

sai in$, h&ntin$, in man&fact&rin$ or in trade' 8or f&n, in addition to drin%in$ parties, the men en.oyed wrest in$, horse!ac% ridin$, and the famo&s O ympic *ames' ;hen the men entertained their ma e friends, at the pop& ar drin%in$ parties, their wi"es and da&$hters were not a owed to attend' .omen ;ith the e#ception of ancient Sparta, *ree% women had "ery imited freedom o&tside the home' They co& d attend weddin$s, f&nera s, some re i$io&s festi"a s, and co& d "isit fema e nei$h!ors for !rief periods of time' In their home, *ree% women were in char$e' Their .o! was to r&n the ho&se and to !ear chi dren' ,ost *ree% women did not do ho&sewor% themse "es' ,ost *ree% ho&seho ds had s a"es' 8ema e s a"es coo%ed, c eaned, and wor%ed in the fie ds' ,a e s a"es watched the door, to ma%e s&re no one came in when the man of the ho&se was away, e#cept for fema e nei$h!ors, and acted as t&tors to the yo&n$ ma e chi dren' ;i"es and da&$hters were not a owed to watch the O ympic *ames as the participants in the $ames did not wear c othes' )hariot racin$ was the on y $ame women co& d win, and on y then if they owned the horse' If that horse won, they recei"ed the pri3e' Children The ancient *ree%s considered their chi dren to !e Gyo&thsG &nti they reached the a$e of B1J ;hen a chi d was !orn to ancient *ree% fami y, a na%ed father carried his chi d, in a rit&a dance, aro&nd the ho&seho d' 8riends and re ati"es sent $ifts' The fami y decorated the doorway of their home with a wreath of o i"es 9for a !oy: or a wreath of woo 9for a $ir :' In Athens, as in most *ree% city6states, with the e#ception of Sparta, $ir s stayed at home &nti they were married' Li%e their mother, they co& d attend certain festi"a s, f&nera s, and "isit nei$h!ors for !rief periods of time' Their .o! was to he p their mother, and to he p in the fie ds, if necessary' Ancient *ree% chi dren p ayed with many toys, inc &din$ ratt es, itt e c ay anima s, horses on D whee s that co& d !e p& ed on a strin$, yo6yoGs, and terra6cotta do s' 2ducation 3 &ilitary Training 3 +parta The $oa of ed&cation in the *ree% city6states was to prepare the chi d for ad& t acti"ities as a citi3en' The nat&re of the city6 states "aried $reat y, and this was a so tr&e of the ed&cation they considered appropriate' In most *ree% city6states, when yo&n$, the !oys stayed at home, he pin$ in the fie ds, sai in$, and fishin$' At a$e 2 or /, they went to schoo ' (oth dai y ife and ed&cation were "ery different in Sparta Kmi itantL, than in Athens Karts and c& t&reL or in the other ancient *ree% city6 states' The $oa of ed&cation in Sparta, an a&thoritarian, mi itary city6 state, was to prod&ce so dier6citi3ens who were we 6dri ed, we 6discip ined marchin$ army' Spartans !e ie"ed in a ife of

discip ine, se f6denia , and simp icity' (oys were "ery oya to the state of Sparta' The !oys of Sparta were o! i$ed to ea"e home at the a$e of / to .oin stern y discip ined $ro&ps &nder the s&per"ision of a hierarchy of officers' 8rom a$e / to AF, they &nderwent an increasin$ y se"ere co&rse of trainin$' Spartan !oys were sent to mi itary schoo at a$e 2 or /' They i"ed, trained and s ept in their the !arrac%s of their !rotherhood' At schoo , they were ta&$ht s&r"i"a s%i s and other s%i s necessary to !e a $reat so dier' Schoo co&rses were "ery hard and often painf& ' A tho&$h st&dents were ta&$ht to read and write, those s%i s were not "ery important to the ancient Spartans' On y warfare mattered' The !oys were not fed we , and were to d that it was fine to stea food as on$ as they did not $et ca&$ht stea in$' If they were ca&$ht, they were !eaten' They wa %ed !arefoot, s ept on hard !eds, and wor%ed at $ymnastics and other physica acti"ities s&ch as r&nnin$, .&mpin$, .a"e in and disc&s throwin$, swimmin$, and h&ntin$' They were s&!.ected to strict discip ine and harsh physica p&nishment< indeed, they were ta&$ht to ta%e pride in the amo&nt of pain they co& d end&re' At AF, Spartan !oys !ecame mi itary cadets and earned the arts of war' At C1, they .oined the state mi itia66a standin$ reser"e force a"ai a! e for d&ty in time of emer$ency66in which they ser"ed &nti they were 21 years o d' The typica Spartan may or may not ha"e !een a! e to read' (&t readin$, writin$, iterat&re, and the arts were considered &ns&ita! e for the so dier6citi3en and were therefore not part of his ed&cation' ,&sic and dancin$ were a part of that ed&cation, !&t on y !eca&se they ser"ed mi itary ends' Somewhere !etween the a$e of AF6C1, Spartan ma es had to pass a diffic& t test of fitness, mi itary a!i ity, and eadership s%i s' Any Spartan ma e who did not pass these e#aminations !ecame a perioi%os' 9The perioi%os, or the midd e c ass, were a owed to own property, ha"e !&siness dea in$s, !&t had no po itica ri$hts and were not citi3ens': If they passed, they !ecame a f& citi3en and a Spartan so dier' Spartan citi3ens were not a owed to to&ch money' That was the .o! of the midd e c ass' Spartan so diers spent most of their i"es with their fe ow so diers' They ate, s ept, and contin&ed to train in their !rotherhood !arrac%s' E"en if they were married, they did not i"e with their wi"es and fami ies' They i"ed in the !arrac%s' ,i itary ser"ice did not end &nti a Spartan ma e reached the a$e of 21' At a$e 21, a Spartan so dier co& d retire and i"e in their home with their fami y' Un i%e the other *ree% city6states, Sparta pro"ided trainin$ for $ir s that went !eyond the domestic arts' The $ir s were not forced to ea"e home, !&t otherwise their trainin$ was simi ar to that of the !oys' They too earned to r&n, .&mp, throw the

.a"e in and disc&s, and wrest e mi$htiest stran$ e a !& ' *ir s a so went to schoo at a$e 2 or /' They i"ed, s ept and trained in their sisterhoodGs !arrac%s' No one %nows if their schoo was as cr&e or as r&$$ed as the !oys schoo , !&t the $ir s were ta&$ht wrest in$, $ymnastics and com!at s%i s' Some historians !e ie"e the two schoo s were "ery simi ar, and that an attempt was made to train the $ir s as thoro&$h y as they trained the !oys' In any case, the Spartans !e ie"ed that stron$ yo&n$ women wo& d prod&ce stron$ !a!ies' At a$e AF, if a Sparta $ir passed her s%i s and fitness test, she wo& d !e assi$ned a h&s!and and a owed to ret&rn home' If she fai ed, she wo& d ose her ri$hts as a citi3en, and !ecame a perioi%os, a mem!er of the midd e c ass' In most of the other *ree% city6states, women were re+&ired to stay inside their homes most of their i"es' In Sparta, citi3en women were free to mo"e aro&nd, and en.oyed a $reat dea of freedom, as their h&s!ands did not i"e at home' 2ducations in Athens The $oa of ed&cation in Athens, a democratic city6state, was to prod&ce citi3ens trained in the arts of !oth peace and war' In ancient Athens, the p&rpose of ed&cation was to prod&ce citi3ens trained in the arts, to prepare citi3ens for !oth peace and war' Other than re+&irin$ two years of mi itary trainin$ that !e$an at a$e AF, the state eft parents to ed&cate their sons as they saw fit' The schoo s were pri"ate, !&t the t&ition was ow eno&$h so that e"en the poorest citi3ens co& d afford to send their chi dren for at east a few years' Unti a$e 2 or /, !oys $enera y were ta&$ht at home !y their mother' ,ost Athenian $ir s had a primari y domestic ed&cation' The most hi$h y ed&cated women were the hetaerae, or co&rtesans, who attended specia schoo s where they earned to !e interestin$ companions for the men who co& d afford to maintain them' (oys attended e ementary schoo from the time they were a!o&t a$e 2 or / &nti they were AB or AD' ?art of their trainin$ was $ymnastics' Yo&n$er !oys earned to mo"e $racef& y, do ca isthenics, and p ay !a and other $ames' The o der !oys earned r&nnin$, .&mpin$, !o#in$, wrest in$, and disc&s and .a"e in throwin$' The !oys a so earned to p ay the yre and sin$, to co&nt, and to read and write' (&t it was iterat&re that was at the heart of their schoo in$' The nationa epic poems of the *ree%s 6 HomerGs Odyssey and Iliad 6 were a "ita part of the ife of the Athenian peop e' As soon as their p&pi s co& d write, the teachers dictated passa$es from Homer for them to ta%e down, memori3e, and ater act o&t' Teachers and p&pi s a so disc&ssed the feats of the *ree% heroes descri!ed !y Homer' The ed&cation of mind, !ody, and aesthetic sense was, accordin$ to ? ato, so that the !oys' 8rom a$e 2 to AD, they went to a nei$h!orhood primary schoo or to a pri"ate schoo '

(oo%s were "ery e#pensi"e and rare, so s&!.ects were read o&t6 o&d, and the !oys had to memori3e e"erythin$' To he p them earn, they &sed writin$ ta! ets and r& ers' At AB or AD, the forma ed&cation of the poorer !oys pro!a! y ended and was fo owed !y apprenticeship at a trade' The wea thier !oys contin&ed their ed&cation &nder the t&te a$e of phi osopher6teachers' Unti a!o&t BE1 () there were no permanent schoo s and no forma co&rses for s&ch hi$her ed&cation' Socrates, for e#amp e, wandered aro&nd Athens, stoppin$ here or there to ho d disc&ssions with the peop e a!o&t a sorts of thin$s pertainin$ to the cond&ct of manGs ife' (&t $rad&a y, as $ro&ps of st&dents attached themse "es to one teacher or another, permanent schoo s were esta! ished' It was in s&ch schoo s that ? ato, Socrates, and Aristot e ta&$ht' The !oys who attended these schoo s fe into more or ess two $ro&ps' Those who wanted earnin$ for its own sa%e st&died with phi osophers i%e ? ato who ta&$ht s&ch s&!.ects as $eometry, astronomy, harmonics 9the mathematica theory of m&sic:, and arithmetic' Those who wanted trainin$ for p&! ic ife st&died with phi osophers i%e Socrates who ta&$ht primari y oratory and rhetoric' In democratic Athens s&ch trainin$ was appropriate and necessary !eca&se power rested with the men who had the a!i ity to pers&ade their fe ow senators to act' Pets (irds, do$s, $oats, tortoises, and mice were a pop& ar pets' )ats, howe"er, were not' (omes 3 Courtyards *ree% ho&ses, in the 2th and 0th cent&ry (')', were made &p of two or three rooms, !&i t aro&nd an open air co&rtyard, !&i t of stone, wood, or c ay !ric%s' Lar$er homes mi$ht a so ha"e a %itchen, a room for !athin$, a menGs dinin$ room, and perhaps a womanGs sittin$ area' A tho&$h the *ree% women were a owed to ea"e their homes for on y short periods of time, they co& d en.oy the open air, in the pri"acy of their co&rtyard' ,&ch of ancient *ree% fami y ife centered aro&nd the co&rtyard' The ancient *ree%s o"ed stories and fa! es' One fa"orite fami y acti"ity was to $ather in the co&rtyard to hear these stories, to d !y the mother or father' In their co&rtyard, *ree% women mi$ht re a#, chat, and sew' "iet ,ost mea s were en.oyed in a co&rtyard near the home' *ree% coo%in$ e+&ipment was sma and i$ht and co& d easi y !e set

&p there' On !ri$ht, s&nny days, the women pro!a! y she tered &nder a co"ered area of their co&rtyard, as the ancient *ree%s !e ie"ed a pa e comp e#ion was a si$n of !ea&ty' 8ood in Ancient *reece consisted of $rains, fi$s, wheat to ma%e !read, !ar ey, fr&it, "e$eta! es, !reads, and ca%e' ?eop e in Ancient *reece a so ate $rapes, seafood of a %inds, and dran% wine' A on$ the coast ine, the soi was not "ery ferti e, !&t the ancient *ree%s &sed systems of irri$ation and crop rotation to he p so "e that pro! em' They %ept $oats, for mi % and cheese' They sometimes h&nted for meat' Clothing 3 Accesories *ree% c othin$ was "ery simp e' ,en and women wore inen in the s&mmer and woo in the winter' The ancient *ree%s co& d !&y c oth and c othes in the a$ora, the mar%etp ace, !&t that was e#pensi"e' ,ost fami ies made their own c othes, which were simp e t&nics and warm c oa%s, made of inen or woo , dyed a !ri$ht co or, or ! eached white' ) othes were made !y the mother, her da&$hters, and fema e s a"es' They were often decorated to represent the city6state in which they i"ed' The ancient *ree%s were "ery pro&d of their home city6 state' Now and then, they mi$ht !&y .ewe ry from a tra"e in$ pedd er, hairpins, rin$s, and earrin$s, !&t on y the rich co& d afford m&ch .ewe ry' (oth men and women in ancient Athens, and in most of the other city6states, &sed perf&me, made !y !oi in$ f owers and her!s' The first rea hat, the !road6!rimmed petasos, was in"ented !y the ancient *ree%s' It was worn on y for tra"e in$' A chin strap he d it on, so when it was not needed, as protection from the weather, it co& d han$ down ones !ac%' (oth men and women en.oyed &sin$ mirrors and hair!r&shes' Hair was c&r ed, arran$ed in interestin$ and caref& y desi$ned sty es, and he d in p ace with scented wa#es and otions' ;omen %ept their hair on$, in !raids, arran$ed on top of their head, or wore their hair in ponytai s' Head!ands, made of ri!!on or meta , were "ery pop& ar' ( ond hair was rare' *ree% admired the ! onde oo% and many tried ! eachin$ their hair' ,en c&t their hair short and, &n ess they were so diers, wore !eards' (ar!er shops first !ecame pop& ar in ancient *reece, and were an important part of the socia ife of many ancient *ree% ma es' In the !ar!er shop, the men e#chan$ed po itica and sports news, phi osophy, and $ossip' "ancing 3 &usic

Dance was "ery important to the ancient *ree%s' They !e ie"ed that dance impro"ed !oth physica and emotiona hea th' Rare y did men and women dance to$ether' Some dances were danced !y men and others !y women' There were more than C11 ancient *ree% dances< comic dances, war i%e dances, dances for ath etes and for re i$io&s worship, p &s dances for weddin$s, f&nera s, and ce e!rations' Dance was accompanied !y m&sic p ayed on yres, f &tes, and a wide "ariety of perc&ssion instr&ments s&ch as tam!o&rines, cym!a s and castanets' +tory telling The ancient *ree%s o"ed stories' They created many mar"e o&s stories, myths, and fa! es that we en.oy today, i%e Odysseus and the Terrible Sea and Circe, a !ea&tif& !&t e"i enchantress' AesopGs 8a! es, written !y Aesop, an ancient *ree%, are sti read and en.oyed a o"er the wor d' &arriage 3 .eddings In ancient Athens, weddin$ ceremonies started after dar%' The "ei ed !ride tra"e ed from her home to the home of the $room whi e standin$ in a chariot' Her fami y fo owed the chariot on foot, carryin$ the $ifts' 8riends of the !ride and $room it the way, carryin$ torches and p ayin$ m&sic to scare away e"i spirits' D&rin$ the weddin$ ceremony, the !ride wo& d eat an app e, or another piece of fr&it, to show that food and other !asic needs wo& d now come from her h&s!and' *ifts to the new co&p e mi$ht inc &de !as%ets, f&rnit&re, .ewe ry, mirrors, perf&me, "ases fi ed with $reenery' In ancient Sparta, the ceremony was "ery simp e' After a t&ss e, to pro"e his s&perior stren$th, the $room wo& d toss his !ride o"er his sho& der and carried her off' +lavery S a"ery p ayed a ma.or ro e in ancient *ree% ci"i i3ation' S a"es co& d !e fo&nd e"erywhere' They wor%ed not on y as domestic ser"ants, !&t as factory wor%ers, shop%eepers, minewor%ers, farm wor%ers and as shipGs crew mem!ers' There may ha"e !een as many, if not more, s a"es than free peop e in ancient *reece' It is diffic& t for historians to determine e#act y how many s a"es there were d&rin$ these times, !eca&se many did not appear any different from the poorer *ree% citi3ens' There were many different ways in which a person co& d ha"e !ecome a s a"e in ancient *reece' They mi$ht ha"e !een !orn into s a"ery as the chi d of a s a"e' They mi$ht ha"e !een ta%en prisoner if their city was attac%ed in one of the many !att es which too% p ace d&rin$ these times' They mi$ht ha"e !een e#posed as an infant, meanin$ the parents a!andoned

their new!orn !a!y &pon a hi side or at the $ates of the city to die or !e c aimed !y a passer!y' This method was not &ncommon in ancient *reece' Another possi! e way in which one mi$ht ha"e !ecome a s a"e was if a fami y needed money, they mi$ht se one of the chi dren into s a"ery' *enera y it was a da&$hter !eca&se the ma e chi dren were m&ch needed to he p o&t with the chores or the farm' Midnappin$ was another fair y common way in which one co& d ha"e !een so d into s a"ery' S a"es were treated different y in ancient *reece dependin$ &pon what their p&rpose was' If one was a ho&seho d ser"ant, they had a fair y $ood sit&ation, at east as $ood as s a"ery co& d !e' They were often treated a most as part of the fami y' They were e"en a owed to ta%e part in the fami y rit&a s, i%e the sacrifice' S a"es were a ways s&per"ised !y the woman of the ho&se who was responsi! e for ma%in$ s&re that a the s a"es were %ept !&sy and didnGt $et o&t of ine' This co& d !e +&ite a tas% as most wea thy *ree% ho&seho ds had as many as A16C1 s a"es' There were imits to what a s a"e co& d do' They co& d not enter the *ymnasi&m or the ?&! ic Assem! y' They co& d not &se their own names, !&t were assi$ned names !y their master' Not a forms of s a"ery in ancient *reece were as to era! e as that of the domestic ser"ant' The ife of a minewor%er or shipGs crew mem!er was a ife of misery and dan$er' These peop e &s&a y did not i"e on$ !eca&se of the $r&e in$ wor% and dan$ero&s conditions of their wor%' Often those forced into these conditions were those condemned to death for committin$ crimes !eca&se it was &nderstood that they wo& dnGt i"e "ery on$ &nder these circ&mstances' It is s&rprisin$ to note that the po ice force in ancient Athens was made &p main y of s a"es' ,any of the c er%s at the treas&ry office were s a"es' S a"ery was a "ery important part of ancient *reece' It p ayed a ma.or ro e in so many aspects of *ree% ci"i i3ation from domestic i"in$ to the infamo&s Athenian na"a f eet' The price one mi$ht ha"e paid for a s a"e in ancient *ree% times "aried dependin$ on their appearance, a$e and attit&de' Those who were hea thy, attracti"e, yo&n$ and s&!missi"e, co& d se for as m&ch as A1 minae 9NAF1'11:' Those who were o d, wea% and st&!!orn mi$ht ha"e so d for as itt e as AOC a mina 9NE'11:' If there happened to !e a ar$e s&pp y of s a"es on the mar%et, the price a&tomatica y went down' This &s&a y happened after winnin$ a ar$e !att e, when there were many prisoners of war' Traditiona y, st&dies of Ancient *reece foc&s on the po itica , mi itary and c& t&ra achie"ements of *ree% men' Unfort&nate y, the information we ha"e a!o&t ancient *ree% women is !iased !eca&se it comes from "ario&s so&rces s&ch

as p ays, phi osophica tracts, "ase paintin$s and sc& pt&res which were comp eted !y ma es' 8rom these so&rces, we can conc &de that *ree% society was hi$h y stratified in terms of c ass, race, and $ender' The se$re$ation of ma e and fema e ro es within ancient *reece was .&stified !y phi osophica c aims of the nat&ra s&periority of ma es' As we sha earn, s a"e women were at a disad"anta$e in *ree% society not on y !eca&se of their $ender !&t a so !eca&se of their &nderpri"i e$ed stat&s in the socia hierarchy' S a"e a!or was an essentia e ement of the ancient wor d' ;hi e ma e s a"es were assi$ned to a$ric& t&ra and ind&stria wor%, fema e s a"es were assi$ned a "ariety of domestic d&ties which inc &ded shoppin$, fetchin$ water, coo%in$, ser"in$ food, c eanin$, chi d6care, and woo 6wor%in$' In wea thy ho&seho ds some of the fema e ser"ants had more specia i3ed ro es to f& fi , s&ch as ho&se%eeper, coo% or n&rse' (eca&se fema e s a"es were itera y owned !y their emp oyers, how we s a"es were treated depended &pon their stat&s in the ho&seho d and the temperament of their owners' As a res& t of her "& nera! e position within ho&seho d, a fema e s a"e was often s&!.ected to se#&a e#p oitation and physica a!&se' Any chi dren !orn of master6ser"ant iaisons were disposed of !eca&se fema e s a"es were prohi!ited from rearin$ chi dren' PenophonGs Oceonomicus re"ea s that s a"es were e"en prohi!ited from marryin$, as marria$e was deemed the socia pri"i e$e of the e ite citi3ens of Athens' In addition to their officia chores in the ho&seho d, s a"e $ir s a so performed &nofficia ser"ices' 8or e#amp e, there is e"idence that c ose re ationships de"e oped !etween fema e s a"es and their mistresses' *i"en the re ati"e sec &sion of &pper6c ass women in the pri"ate rea m of their homes, many so&$ht o&t confidantes in their s a"e $ir s' 8or e#amp e, E&ripedesG tra$ic character of ,edea confided her deepest fee in$s with her n&rse, who !oth ad"ised and comforted her in her tro&! ed times' 8&rthermore, s a"es a ways accompanied their mistresses on e#c&rsions o&tside of the home' Tom!stones of &pstandin$ Athenian women often depict scenes of fami iarity !etween the deceased and her s a"e companion' It is i%e y that a sense of their common e#c &sion from the masc& ine wor d of p&! ic affairs wo& d ha"e drawn women to$ether, re$ard ess of c ass' The on y p&! ic area in which women were a owed to participate was re i$ion' S a"e women were inc &ded in some re i$io&s affairs and co& d !e initiated to the E e&sinian ,ysteries which ce e!rated the myth of ?ersephone' Th&s, the fate of a *ree% s a"e $ir was determined !y circ&mstance and more or ess rested in the hands of her owners, who had the power to shape her e#istence'