TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ v LIST OF PLATES ....................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 TIMBER STRENGTH.......................................................................................................... 3 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................... 5 1.4 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS .............................................................................................. 5 1.6 TESTING .............................................................................................................................. 6 CHAPTER 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 7 2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 7 2.1.1 Nature and properties of timber ..................................................................................... 7 2.1.2 Grevillea Robusta......................................................................................................... 13 2.1.3 Glue laminated timber technology in Kenya ............................................................... 14 2.1.4 Kenya standard/ Codes of practice10 ............................................................................ 15 2.1.5 Moisture content of glulam timber .............................................................................. 19 2.1.6 Factors reducing the strength of glulam timber ........................................................... 22 2.2 MANUFACTURE OF GLUE LAMINATED TIMBER ................................................... 23 2.2.1 Requirements ............................................................................................................... 23 2.2.2 Procedure of manufacture ............................................................................................ 24 2.3 ADHESIVES ...................................................................................................................... 28 i

2.3.1 Introduction. ................................................................................................................. 28 2.3.2 Necessity of adhesive ................................................................................................... 31 2.3.3 Factors affecting adhesion ........................................................................................... 32 2.3.4 Factors governing the choice of an adhesive ............................................................... 32 2.3.5 Factors affecting the formation of a good glue bond ................................................... 34 CHAPTER 3.0 THEORETICAL CHAPTER .......................................................................... 37 3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 37 3.2 STRENGTH TESTING ...................................................................................................... 38 3.2.1 Static bending............................................................................................................... 38 3.2.2 Compression parallel to grain ...................................................................................... 38 3.3.3 Shear parallel to grain .................................................................................................. 38 3.3 BENDING THEORY ......................................................................................................... 38 3.4 VARIATION OF STRENGTH WITH MOISTURE CONTENT ...................................... 43 CHAPTER 4.0 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................... 46 4.1 INTRODUCTION. ............................................................................................................. 46 4.2 MATERIALS. ..................................................................................................................... 46 4.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION. ....................................... 47 4.3 EXPERIMENTS ................................................................................................................. 48 CHAPTER 5.0 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS............................................................... 53 5.1 STATIC BENDING RESULTS ......................................................................................... 53 5.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULTS ......................................................................... 55 5.3 SHEAR TEST RESULTS................................................................................................... 56 5.4 COMPUTED VALUES FOR K ......................................................................................... 57 5.5 ANALYSIS ON K VALUES ............................................................................................. 59 5.6 STANDARDIZATION OF THE RESULTS ..................................................................... 60 ii

5.7 CALCULATION OF CONSTANT K ................................................................................ 62 5.8 INDEX OF RESULT AUTHENTICITY ........................................................................... 63 CHAPTER 6.0 DISCUSSION.................................................................................................... 64 6.1 STATIC BENDING............................................................................................................ 64 6.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ........................................................................................... 67 6.3 SHEAR STRENGTH.......................................................................................................... 68 6.4 VALUES FOR K ................................................................................................................ 70 CHAPTER 7.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 71 CHAPTER 8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................. 74 CHAPTER 9.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 75 APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................... 77 APPENDIX 2 ............................................................................................................................... 83

iii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Transverse section of a tree trunk. ................................................................................ 7 Figure 2.2 Notched beams ............................................................................................................ 17 Figure 3.1 Load deflection curve .................................................................................................. 39 Figure 3.3 Beam subject to pure sagging bending moment.......................................................... 40 Figure 4.1 Method of applying shear stress to a glue line ........................................................... 52 Figure 5.1 Graphical results from the Hounsfield Tensometer .................................................... 54 Figure 5.2 Estimated normal distribution curves for K values .................................................... 60 Figure 6.1 Bending strength vs. moisture content curve .............................................................. 64 Figure 6.2 Modulus of elasticity vs. moisture content curve ........................................................ 65 Figure 6.3 Deflection vs. moisture content curve ......................................................................... 66 Figure 6.4 Compressive strength vs. moisture content curve ....................................................... 67 Figure 6.5 Shear strength vs. moisture content curve .................................................................. 68 Figure 6.6 Performance of the shear test ..................................................................................... 69 Figure 7.1 Modulus of rapture (N/mm2) vs. Moisture content .................................................... 72 Figure 7.2 Compressive strength (N/mm2) vs. Moisture content .................................................. 73

iv

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Factors reducing the strength of glue laminated timber .............................................. 22 Table 2.2 Categories of woodworking adhesives. ........................................................................ 29 Table 2.3 Suggested selection of adhesives for use in timber structures3 .................................... 33 Table 5.1 Computed K values for Static Bending ......................................................................... 57 Table 5.2 Computed K values for Compressive Strength ............................................................. 58 Table 5.3 Calculations on K values .............................................................................................. 59 Table 5.4 Normal Distribution Probability Calculator ................................................................ 61 Table 5.5 Bending strength at varying moisture content levels .................................................... 62 Table 5.6 Compressive strength at varying moisture content levels ............................................ 62 Table A1.1 Data table for static bending results and analysis (20x20x300mm samples) ............ 78 Table A1.2 Data table for specific gravity results and analysis (20x20x100mm samples) .......... 79 Table A1.3 Data table for compressive strength results and analysis (20x20x50mm samples) ... 80 Table A1.4 Data table for shear results and analysis (20x20x20mm samples) ............................ 81 Table A1.5 Data table for shear results and analysis (20x20x20mm samples) ............................ 82

LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4.1 Type of wood glue used.. ............................................................................................... 47 Plate 4.2 Gluing of the samples. ................................................................................................... 48 Plate 4.3 Laminated 20x20x300mm samples ready for tests in static bending ............................ 48 Plate 4.4 Hounsfield Tensometer equipment ................................................................................ 49 Plate 4.5 Performing the static bending test. ................................................................................ 49 Plate 4.6 Volumes of samples being measured for the specific gravity test ................................. 50 Plate 4.7 20x20x50mm laminated specimens for compressive strength test ................................ 51 Plate 4.8 Performing the shear test using a Hounsfield Tensometer ........................................... 52 Plate 5.1 Failed laminated samples from the static bending test ................................................. 53 Plate 5.2 Failure mode by splintering tension .............................................................................. 53 Plate 5.3 Compressive strength test on a Hounsfield Tensometer................................................ 55 Plate 5.4 Failed compressive test samples. Notice the failure along the lamination ................... 55 Plate 5.5 Failed specimen from shear test. ................................................................................... 56 Plate 6.1 Delamination of dry samples immersed in water.. ........................................................ 69

vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
FSP - Fibre saturation point EMC Equilibrium moisture content MC Moisture content SG Specific gravity GS Grade stresses according to KS 02-771 SS Service stresses according to KS 02-771 MR Modulus of rapture

vii

CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION Timber is one of the structural materials that have been in use since the early days and its demand has continued to increase by the day. With the destruction of forests, its availability has decreased. Currently, the total forest area in Kenya is 3,522,000ha which is about 6.9% of the total land cover14. The ever soaring demand for timber in the country has led to scarcity since the timber supply is just a fraction of the total demand. This scenario points to the need for research into the properties of timber which is the most important factor that will lead to their maximum utilization. A product of such research work is glue laminated timber. Structural glue laminated timber (glulam) is an engineered stress-rated product of construction in which a number of laminations are arranged parallel to the axis of a member, the individual boards comprising the laminations, being assembled with the grain approximately parallel and glued together to form a member which functions as a single structural unit. The laminations in this type of member are often referred to as horizontal laminations in contrast to those in a member in which the laminations run at right angles to the neutral plane and are known as vertical laminations. Glulam differs in construction from plywood because in the latter the layers are arranged with the grain of adjacent piles at an angle, usually 90 degrees to the grain of others. Although the dispersion of defects that results from laminating has a beneficial effect, tests have not confirmed the general belief the act of gluing together laminations improves strength properties over a solid piece of timber.1 Adhesives in laminations permit a more economical use of timber as thin laminations are used with a maximum thickness of 2 in. (51mm) the rules governing the selection of boards are usually less exacting than those which apply when sawn timbers are used as structural members. The advantages of glued laminated timber over solid sawn timber include:-

1. Adhesives permit short and narrow boards to be efficiently ended and edge jointed into much larger laminations which can be assembled into structures of virtually any size, cross-section and shape. 2. Since the thickness of laminations does not exceed 2 in. (51mm), they can be easily dried to specified moisture content before use, with less seasoning defects and with greater working stresses especially when used in an interior member. 3. The method of manufacture permits the use of low grade laminations in areas of low stress and stronger laminations where higher stresses occur. 4. Laminated construction enables the engineer and architect to design a beam or arch which is at the same time practical and artistic, the section being varied along its length in accordance with strength requirements. 5. The large dimensions of glue laminated member make it considerably more fire resistant than the arch or beam built of individual pieces designed to carry the same load. Heavy sections of timber are slow burning and resist heat penetration, thus supporting a load when incombustible structural materials collapse. 6. Laminated beams because of their low weight to strength ratio can often be erected by local labour without expensive plant in positions where heavier forms of construction could not be employed. Glued laminated members have also their disadvantages; Compared with sawn timber sections glulam cost more to produce. The waste factor during manufacture is high, ranging from 33 to 50 percent, due to end jointing, finishing to size and design considerations. Only adhesives which are known to possess long term durability can be used in glulam structures and, when used out of doors, they must be weatherproof. Structural adhesives are generally of high cost, the weatherproof types being much more expensive and often requiring more exacting curing techniques than those only suitable for interior use.3 To produce glulam members with joints and glue lines of adequate strength, special equipment and operational skills are required. The essential equipment is expensive, frequently having to be made specially, and, because of the strength of a glulam member may depend upon the strength

of the glue joints, considerable care and quality control has to be exercised during the manufacturing processes and to some extend not normally required for other timber structures. Glued laminated timber construction has proved to be an ideal medium for the manufacture of beams, two and three-hinged arches for schools, churches and other buildings and edge beams for timber-shells roofs. Small footbridges have also been manufactured using laminated beams. In the ship and boatbuilding industry laminated timber has began to replace grown timbers which are sometimes in short supply. Glulam has been successfully used as a structural building material in Europe since the 1890's. In the United States, it has been used in buildings since approximately 1935. The introduction of wet use adhesives in the mid 1940's allowed the uses of glulam to be expanded to include exposed applications such as highway and railway bridges, transmission facilities and other structures.2 In production of glulam, any timber species can be used but the use of softwood predominates, as hardwood is often associated with difficulties in gluing. Planks or laminations of approximately 40-50mm in thickness and 1.5-5.0m in length are commonly used. For curved beams, thinner laminations are used. The laminations are dried to uniform moisture content of about 12-15% and strength graded. Strength grading makes it possible to match the lamination quality to expected stress levels in bending members, such that high quality laminations are placed in outer parts of the cross section and lower quality laminations in the inner zones.3 Glulam is usually kept under pressure during curing, after which, the beam is usually planed to achieve a smooth and clean surface. For glulam manufacturing, the most frequently used adhesives are Phenol-Resorcinol-Formaldehyde (PRF) and Mulamine-Urea-Formaldehyde (MUF) adhesives. High frequency techniques i.e. microwaves can be used to speed up the process. Glulam can be produced in almost any size but for practical reasons related to transportation and factory layouts, the maximum length is approximately 16-20m.3 1.2 TIMBER STRENGTH Living trees contain considerable amount of water; this water is often referred to as sap. When the tree is cut down and sawn into timber, it immediately begins to lose its moisture. Although 3

this process of loosing moisture can be very unpredictable, proper seasoning can be carried out to produce structural sound timber. Timber is a variable material, specimens of a given kind of wood cut from different trees or even pieces from the same log often exhibit dissimilarity in density and strength. These variations are attributed to the numerous and changing environmental conditions under which the timber was produced. The strength of timber is influenced by the following factors: 1. Moisture content In general, below the fibre saturation point (FSP) the mechanical properties of timber increases with decreasing moisture content, although the rate of increase is not identical for the different strength properties. Dry timber has a higher load bearing capability but it is brittle and cannot bend easily unlike green timber. Seasoning, which is the process of drying timber, controls the moisture content. The importance of seasoning is to: increase stability, reduce risk of decay, reduce weight, increase strength and allow for preservation treatment, gluing and finishing. 2. Structure of cell walls. Strength properties of timber are directly proportional to its specific gravity (SG). In softwoods and ring porous hardwoods the strength is dependent on late wood in the growth ring and in very slowly grown species it is below average in both specific gravity and strength. Strength properties vary, with the position in a tree a sample is obtained from. Some localities produce timber of more average strength than the specific gravity.3 Differences in chemical composition of the cell wall have also a major influence on the strength properties of individual pieces of timber. 3. Drying defects. The loss of water has no effect on wood properties, but excessive drying results in reduction in weight which results to strength loss and can be as fatal as to cause collapse. During seasoning the free water leaves the timber and reaches its FSP. Continued drying will cause the bound 4

water to be driven from the timber. It is the loss of this bound water i.e. the drying from FSP to EMC that influences the physical and mechanical properties of timber. The loss of moisture during the later stages of drying (that is from FSP of about 25% MC. to EMC. of about 12%) that causes drying defects such as twist, bow, cup, spring, checks, splits etc. 4 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT With little published information on laminated wood in Kenya, efficient production and use of timber by lamination cannot be easily achieved. Kenya having varied humid environments prompts a study into the effect of moisture variation on the structural performance of glue laminated grevillea timber. Glues used for laminations are expensive and some are toxic, it is important they be used economically and safely so as not to endanger human life. 1.4 OBJECTIVES The objective of this project is: 1. To develop strength-moisture variation curves for glue laminated grevillea timber by experimentally investigating the variation of compressive strength, static bending and shear along the glue line with changes in moisture content. 2. Determine the value of constant K in Wilsons equation (1932) that forms the basis on which adjustments of strength values of various moisture content of timber below the fibre saturation point are made. Log S= Log Sp + K (Mp - M) Where S= Strength corresponding to a moisture content M. Sp and Mp= Strength and moisture content respectively at fibre saturation point. K=constant.5 1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS This study was basically concerned with effect of moisture variation on performance of glue laminated grevillea timber. It was limited to the Kenyan standards. Locally available sample laminates of Grevillea Robusta were used. The glue that was used is locally available wood glue; Ponal Professional White wood glue manufactured by Henkel Industries at Ruaraka, Nairobi. 5

The sections tested were made from clean, well planned pieces of wood with varied moisture content. Curing of the laminations was at room temperature. 1.6 TESTING The preparation of the specimens and method of test was based on Kenya Standard Methods of Test for Determination of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood. Mechanical sampling of the materials was done; these were clear test species free from visible defects and collected from different logs. The laminated sections were then manufactured and tested for static bending, compression parallel to the grain, shear strength of the glue lines and moisture content. The results were then tabulated and analyzed. The failure modes of the laminated sections was also observed and noted. Analysis on the laminations was based on statistical methods and the conclusion and recommendations were arrived at from these findings.

CHAPTER 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.1.1 Nature and properties of timber 1. Structure of wood

Figure 2.1 Transverse section of a tree trunk. The Outer bark provides mechanical protection to the softer inner bark, and also helps to limit evaporative water loss. Inner bark (phloem) is the tissue through which sugars produced by photosynthesis are translocated from the leaves to the roots or growing portions of the tree. Heartwood is the central area of the trunk of a tree which may be darker in colour than the surrounding wood. It sole function is to give strength to and support the tree.

Sapwood is the area of timber, often lighter in colour, which surrounds the heartwood. It contains living cells which provide channels for water and other substances to move from the roots to the leaves. The cambium is a layer of thin walled cells between the bark and the wood, which is capable of dividing in a vertical direction and forming a new tissue on both sides. Growth (annual) rings are layers of tissue that form when seasonal growth occurs in a tree. In temperate climates the growth of the tree may be more rapid in the spring and summer months, while during the winter months this activity may cease. It may be possible to determine the age of a tree by counting the number of growth rings. In tropical climates the growth may be more continuous and uniform and annual rings may not occur under these conditions. Medullary rays are groups of cells that carry food from the inner bark to the cambium layer and act as storage tanks for food. 2. Types of wood: hardwoods and softwoods Softwoods are those species which belong to the conifers and are usually evergreen tress with needle or scale-like leaves, bearing cones which contain seeds. Examples include pines, cypress, cedar, fir and spruce. Hardwoods are broad-leaved tress, dycotyledons, the seeds which are enclosed in seed cases of fruits, and the trees are generally deciduous. Typical hardwoods are oak, elm, ash, beech, jarrah and mahogany.15 3. Properties of wood a) Chemical Composition The chemical composition of wood consists of three major structural components, cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. There are in addition extractives such as tannins, starches, colouring matter, oils, resins, fats, and inorganic salts. These minor components vary in constitution and distribution and do not form the integral part of the cell wall substance but contribute to such properties as characteristic odours of some woods, taste, colour and resistance to decay. The cell 8

wall substance is almost entirely organic matter made up of mainly carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in the rough proportion of 50%, 20%, and 30% respectively. It also contains a small amount of mineral matter and some nitrogen.3 Cellulose is present in the greatest amount (32-62%). It is a polysaccharide and is made up of a molecular network of which the sugar residues are the individual links. Hemicelluloses may comprise some 15-25% of the oven dry weight of wood. Lignin may be found in the proportion of 17-40% depending upon the species. In wood it acts as cement binding the individual cells and the cellulose chains together and by infiltration makes the cell walls harder and more durable. It is to lignin that timber owes its strength and stiffness properties, while the cellulose content provides tensile strength.3 The various extractives found in wood can affect its gluing properties. Natural oils which are found in some species may possibly necessitate chemical pre-treatment of the surfaces to be glued, and heavy deposits of resins can make timbers difficult to glue especially if high curing temperatures are used as the resins may bleed and mix with the adhesive, possibly delaying or preventing the setting reaction. b) Density of Timber Density is expressed as mass per unit volume or as specific gravity which is the ratio of its mass per unit volume to that of water. The specific gravity of all wood substance is 1.54 and the difference in the specific gravity of the various species is due to the variation in sizes of cells and the thickness of the cell walls, so that, for a given volume, some timbers contain more wood substance and less air than others. Species with the most wood substance, i.e. the heaviest, have cells with thick walls and small cell cavities and are of greater density. The denser species of timber are strongest.3 Shrinkage, crushing strength parallel to the grain and stiffness increase directly with increase in density but bending strength shows an increase of approximately 25% greater than the increase in density and hardness an approximate increase of 150% over a corresponding increase in density. 3

c) Hardness This is the ability of the timber to resist wear, scratching, abrasion and indentation. This property is of importance if glued timber components have to be manufactured for commercial or marine purposes where abrasion or indentation of timber is likely to occur. d) Resistance to Fire Small sections of timber ignite easily and once alight; will support combustion until reduced to ash. Large sections in contrast are difficult to ignite and once ignited burn only slowly because of the insulating layers of charcoal which are formed on their surfaces. Timber has a much lower thermal conductivity than metals and the heat necessary to produce the flammable gases is only transmitted slowly from the outside of the section to the inside. When the layers of charcoal increase in thickness, the rate of burning is lowered. If the burning is not sustained by adjacent fire, it may cease.3 The strength of timber is only reduced in proportion to the degree of charring; the load bearing properties of the timber remaining un-burnt are unaffected by prolonged heat and no expansion will occur to displace walls and fixings. 4. Defects of timber A 'defect' is generally an imperfection, which either weakens the wood greatly or makes the wood unsuitable to work with for the purpose it is to be used. There are two sources of defects in timber (1) natural defects: Present in a growing tree, such as growth defects, grain irregularity, shakes and knots and; (2) defects which arise once the tree is cut down, either through poor handling or poor seasoning of the tree. a) Knots A knot is that portion of a branch embedded within the wood of the trunk of a tree of a larger branch and cut through by a saw in the process of converting logs to lumber. Knots vary in number, size and shape and depend upon various factors such as growth properties, the species, and the density of the forest, site conditions and climate.3

10

b) Shakes They are caused by the wind making the tree sway. The shakes or cracks in the timber may follow the direction of the growth rings or they may emanate from the pith in the direction of the rays, running at right angles to the growth rings. Shakes reduce the resistance of timber members to longitudinal shear. They are not seasoning defects although seasoning aggravates the original damage. Types of shakes include cross, heart and shell star. c) Pitch streaks and pockets Pitch streaks result when heavy concentrations of resins permeate the cell walls forming patches and streaks in wood. Pitch pockets form between annual rings and appear on the flat sawn surfaces as oval areas and on quarter-sawn surfaces as long streaks with a flat surface near the pith of the tree and a curved surface towards the bark. Pitch pockets and streaks in heavy concentrations in laminations could make them difficult to glue adequately. Laminating grading rules often require that highly resinous boards are not used for structural grading.15 d) Wane This is the lack of wood or bark, from any cause, on the edge or corner of a piece of timber. e) Wood destroying fungi and wood staining fungi Fungi do not manufacture their own food but obtain their food requirements from wood, either the cell wall substance or the cell contents. If timber is seasoned and maintained at moisture content below 20%, then fungi will not develop and the existing growth was arrested. Treating the timber with chemicals which are toxic to fungi also controls them.3 Wood-staining fungi are divided into two classes: (a) Moulds and (b) sap-staining fungi. Moulds are surface growths which are produced in many colours, white, yellow, green, purple, blue, black and a high humidity and warm temperature is necessary for their growth. The strength properties of timber are not affected by mould growth as it is entirely a surface growth and can be removed by scrubbing, brushing or resurfacing. The sap staining fungus, which causes blue stains, live exclusively in the sapwood of trees. These fungi only slightly reduce the strength of timber as they live on the cell contents. Toughness is the strength property affected. 11

Boards stained by fungi, when used as laminations in glulam members, often destroy the appearance of structures as once timber has been stained it is not possible to restore it to its original colour. Wood-destroying fungi seriously reduce the strength of timber as they feed on the cell walls of the wood. They are able to break down the wood substance by means of enzymes which they secrete. Those that feed mainly by destroying cellulose leave a residual, brown in colour made up largely of lignin and are known as brown rots. Fungi which attack lignin and cellulose, leaving a white residue are known as white rots. f) Reaction wood (compression and tension wood) This is the abnormal wood that forms in both softwoods and hardwoods, sometimes making the timber unsuitable for structural purposes. In softwoods it is known as compression wood and forms on the lower (compression) side of branches and trunks of leaning trees, so that eccentric growth rings develop, making the pith off centre. It is caused by increased local cambial activity stimulated by gravity or by longitudinal compression stresses. Tension wood is the formation of abnormal wood on the upper sides of inclined branches and trunks in hardwoods. The growth rings are thicker at the point where the abnormal wood occurs resulting in their eccentricity. The longitudinal shrinkage of tension wood is much greater than that of normal wood but its strength in compression parallel to the grain is less. Abnormal fibres of tension wood make its surface difficult to work on, planned surfaces often having torn or raised grain.3 g) Compression failures These are forms of localised buckling, or wrinkling, of the wood fibres resulting in ridges often visible running across the fibres or as whitish streaks which are barely visible and require use of a microscope to ensure recognition. They indicate permanent deformation of the cell walls resulting from compression of the wood parallel to the grain wall beyond its proportional limit. They may be caused in standing trees by severe stresses set up when they are bent by strong winds or exceptional fall in snow; when the 12

felled tree hits the ground, rocks or other trees, when roughly handled in the form of logs and sawn products or the overloading of structural members. When they occur in timber columns they are usually associated with buckling due to eccentricity of loading. 2.1.2 Grevillea Robusta Grevillea Robusta is tree species that occurs naturally in Australia. But, has been introduced into warm, temperate, subtropical highland regions around the world and is widely planted in India, Sri Lanka and many countries in Africa. Common names in English of this tree species are: grevillea, river oak, silk oak, silk-oak grevillea, silky oak, silver oak, southern silky oak in Swahili: mgrivea, and mukima in kikuyu.6 It occurs naturally in two distinct habitats: riverine rainforest or in vine forest. Where rainfall distribution has a summer maximum in the natural range; it also grows well in climates with a winter maximum or a bimodal rainfall regime. In temperate areas, it can survive moderate winter frosts. It is not resistant to persistent strong winds. In its natural range, the species is semi-deciduous, shedding most of its leaves in the dry season, and can stand up to 6 months of drought. It has the following biophysical limits: a) Altitude: 0-2300 m. b) Mean annual temperature: 14-23 to 25-31 C, c) Mean annual rainfall: 600-1700 mm d) Soil type: Establishes well in riverine habitats, on alluvial soils that are free of water logging and mildly acid to neutral. Loam soil is preferred. It also occurs on clay loam and sand. In the humid tropical lowlands and other regions with high humidity, Grevillea Robusta is vulnerable to attack by fungal diseases such as Botryosphaeria dothidea and Corticium salmonicolor. In lowland environments in the Caribbean Grevillea Robusta are severely attacked by the scale insect Asterolecanium pustulans effectively precluding its use there. Attack by termites can be a problem when the species is planted on dry sites in Africa.8 Grevillea Robusta is usually a medium-sized to large tree, that is 12-25 (max. 40) m tall; crown conical, dense, with branches projecting upwards. Bole straight, branchless for up to 15 m, up to 80 (max. 120) cm in diameter, usually without buttresses; bark fissured, sometimes postulate, 13

dark grey to dark brown, inner bark reddish-brown. Leaves alternate, fernlike, 15-30 cm long, deeply divided into narrow, long, pointed lobes 6-12 mm wide, upper surfaces are shiny dark green and hairless, underneath silky with whitish or ash-coloured hairs. Flowers showy, yellowish, numerous, paired, on long slender stalks 1-2 cm, composed of 4 narrow yellow or orange sepals 12 mm long Fruits pod like, broad, slightly flattened (boat shaped), The name commemorates Charles F. Greville (1749-1809), one of the founders of the Royal Horticultural Society of London.6 Grevillea Robusta was introduced into Kenya as a shade and windbreak tree for tea plantations more than 100 years ago7. It has got the following uses: a) Wood. The sawn timber is of medium strength and is used for furniture, packing cases, flooring, panelling, plywood and the manufacture of small wooden items such as pencils. The branches and twigs are used for firewood and charcoal. Poles are used for house construction in rural areas, scaffolding and rafters b) Agroforestry. Grevillea Robusta is one of the most important trees for agroforestry in the tropical highlands of Eastern and Central Africa. It is commonly planted as a boundary tree around the perimeter of small farms, in a single row at 22.5 m spacing. It is also planted in rows between small fields, and as scattered individuals over crops such as coffee and maize.8 c) Soil mulch and fodder supplement. In the dry season when other fodder sources are scarce the leaves of Grevillea Robusta are used by some farmers in Embu district as a fodder supplement for cattle. They are also used as bedding in livestock stalls. d) Tea and coffee shade. From the late nineteenth century onwards, Grevillea Robusta has been planted extensively as high shade for tea and coffee plantations, and this use continues in many countries.8 2.1.3 Glue laminated timber technology in Kenya Structural glue laminated timber (glulam) is an engineered stress-rated product of construction in which a number of laminations are arranged parallel to the axis of a member, the individual boards comprising the laminations, being assembled with the grain approximately parallel and glued together to form a member which functions as a single structural unit. The laminations in 14

this type of member are often referred to as horizontal laminations in contrast to those in a member in which the laminations run at right angles to the neutral plane and are known as vertical laminations. There are four basic reasons for laminating timber9: a) Sections can be produced very much larger than can be obtained from a single piece of timber b) Large defects such as knots can be distributed throughout a glulam section by converting the solid timber section into laminates and forming a glulam section c) Structural members of tapered and curved profiles can be produced easily (by laminating a previously two-dimensional curved glulam a three-dimensional portal or arch frame can be made) d) Members can be cambered to offset deflections due, say, to the self-weight of the structure. In Kenya Glued laminated timber technology is not highly developed only being practiced by a few companies. Harley timber located in Kiserian manufactures glulam. It is used for the manufacture of beams, two and three-hinged arches for schools, churches and other buildings and edge beams for timber-shells roofs. 2.1.4 Kenya standard/ Codes of practice10 PART 1: Code of Practice for Permissible Stress Design, Materials and Workmanship. SECTION 1: General This provides guidance and recommendations for the structural use and the principal construction timber that are in general use in Kenya. The code covers three conditions of moisture content on strength properties: a) Service condition 1: All service conditions where the air temperature and humidity will result in solid timber attaining an equilibrium moisture content not exceeding 12% for any significant period. It is typical for solid timber used for a covered building in a Nairobi type of climate. Stresses are given in this part of KS 828. 15

b) Service condition 2: All service conditions where the air temperature and humidity would result in solid sawn timber attaining an equilibrium moisture content not exceeding 18% for any significant period. It is typical in a Mombasa type climate for a covered but open building. c) Service condition 3: All service conditions either in contact with water or where the air temperature and humidity will result in solid sawn timber attaining an equilibrium moisture content not exceeding 18% for any significant period or where due to large cross-section of timber , the moisture content is likely to remain above 18%. Typical for sawn timber frequently in contact with water. Permissible stresses for service condition 2 and 3 should be obtained by multiplying the tabulated service condition 1 stresses by the appropriate modification factors. SECTION 2: This section deals with sawn timber and gives recommendations for the structural use of sawn cypress and pine timber: 1) Modification factor ,K2, are recommended by which stresses and moduli for service conditions 1 and 2 should be multiplied with to obtain stresses and moduli applicable to service condition 3. 2) Where the direction of the load is inclined to the grain at an angle , the permissible compression stresses for the inclined surface should be calculated from the equation:

c,adm, = c,adm,|| - (c,adm,|| - c,adm, ) sin

Where

c,adm,||

and

c,adm,

are the grade compression stresses parallel and

perpendicular to the grain respectively, modified as appropriate for moisture content and/or duration of loading. 3) Modification factors K3 for various loading durations are given in this section. The code requires that when K3 greater than unity is used the design should be checked to ensure that the permissible stresses are not exceeded for any other condition of loading that

16

might be relevant. It is applicable to all strength properties but not to moduli of elasticity or to shear moduli. 4) Modification factor K4 for the length and position of bearing. Grade stresses for compression perpendicular to the grain apply to bearings of any length at the ends of a member, and bearings 150mm or more in length at any position. For bearings less than 150mm long located 75mm or more from the end of a member the code specifies the modification factor K4 by which the grade stresses should be multiplied. 5) Shear at notched ends: square-cornered notches at the ends of a flexural member cause a stress concentration which should be allowed as follows,

Figure 2.2 Notched beams a) For a notch at the top edge, ( )

= 1.0 for a he b) For a notch on the underside,

17

Where h is the total depth of the beam and he is the effective depth in mm.

6) Form factor K6. Grade bending stresses apply to solid sawn timber of rectangular crosssection. For other shapes the grade bending stresses should be multiplied by 1.18 for solid circular sections and 1.41 for solid square sections loaded on diagonal. 7) Total depth of the beam. The grade bending stresses given in table 8 of the code apply to materials assigned to a strength class and having a depth, h of 300mm. For other depths, the grade bending stresses should be multiplied by K7 where: K7 = 1.17 for solid timber beams having h 72mm K7 = (300/h)0.11 for solid and glued laminated beams having 72mm h 300mm K7 = 0.81 (h2 + 92300) for solid and glued laminated beams with h (h2 + 56800) 8) Load sharing systems which consist of four or more members spaced a maximum of 610mm centre to centre and which has adequate provision for the lateral distribution of loads. The appropriate grade stresses should be multiplied by the load sharing modification factor K8 which has a value of 1.1. 9) Other factors discussed in section 2 of the code include deflection and stiffness limits, maximum depth to breadth ratios for solid and laminated members which depend on the degree of lateral support, effective length of compression members and the slenderness ratio, and equations governing the maximum loading conditions and load combinations for specific members used as struts or ties. SECTION 3: This section deals with glued laminated timber (glulam). It requires that glued laminated timber be manufactured in accordance with BS EN386 and section 3.4 and that the timber used for laminated softwoods members be strength graded visually to GS and SS grade according with KS 02-771 and the additional recommendations for wane, fissures and distortion etc given in annex of BS EN386. 300mm.

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Grade stresses for horizontally glued laminated members The grade stresses should be taken as the products of the grade stresses given in table 2 of the code for relevant grade and species, and the modification factors from table 13. The size factors K8 and K12 should not be applied to the laminate strengths but only on the glulam strengths. For tension perpendicular to the grain and torsional shear, permissible stresses should be calculated in accordance with section 2.7 of the code and the factor K17 should be disregarded. The modification factors given in table 13 of the code apply to members having four or more laminations, all of similar thickness. Grade stresses for vertically glued laminated beams Permissible stresses are governed by the particular condition of service and loading given in section 2.6.2 2.6.3, 2.8 and 2.9 of the code and by the modification factors K19, K20 and K21 given in table 14 of the code appropriate to the number of laminations. The size factors K8 and K12 should not be applied to the laminate strengths but only on the glulam strengths. For tension perpendicular to the grain and torsional shear, permissible stresses should be calculated in accordance with section 2.7 of the code and the factor K17 should be disregarded. 2.1.5 Moisture content of glulam timber Timber used for structural purposes will always contain a certain amount of water which will depend upon the dimensions of the piece and the drying process to which it has been subjected. Timber is hygroscopic and when exposed to atmospheric humidity will lose or absorb moisture from the atmosphere until it maintains an equilibrium moisture content, which will vary from time to time with changes in temperature and relative humidity.3 1. Moisture content determination There are three methods: (a) the use of an electric moisture meter (b) the oven-dry method (c) the distillation method.

19

The use of the oven dry method requires a simple, but accurate balance with a small thermostatically controlled oven which can be maintained at a temperature of 100 C. The formula for moisture content determination is; ( ) where W is the original wet weight

of the sample when cut prior to oven drying and D the weight of the sample after all moisture has been removed by drying. The distillation method is used when the timber contains oils, resins, or other volatile extractives which would be likely to provide inaccurate figures if the oven-dry method is used. A solid timber sample is not used for this method and sawdust, wood chips or other small particles of timber from the piece to be measured are substituted. Portable moisture metres are widely used as they provide rapid measurements of the moisture on the surface of timber or at a depth of around in. (6mm) below the surface, although the depth

will vary with the length of the electrodes used. Their disadvantage is the unavoidable accuracy in readings. This is due to variation in electrical properties within species and the fact that the meter will indicate the moisture content of the wettest section with which the electrodes make contact irrespective of their length and of moisture content at position of maximum penetration. 2. Timber shrinkage The amount of shrinkage which will occur in a piece of timber will depend upon its initial moisture content and the equilibrium moisture content which it will achieve in service. Shrinkage commences when timber starts to dry from approximately 25 to 30% moisture content. Below the fibre saturation point, for each 1% decrease in moisture content approximately 3-4% of total shrinkage to the oven dry condition occurs.3 Shrinkage is a cause of end and surface checks, distortions such as bow, cup, twist and case hardening all of which reduce the strength and efficiency of pieces of timber.3 3. Effect of shrinkage and swelling on glue lines Changes in dimensions in glued laminated timber members lead to delamination. These changes may be due to laminations, at the time of gluing, being at different moisture content than that

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which they will attain in service, to lack of adequate protection during delivery to and storage in site or because the structure is exposed to weather. Glue lines are able to resist high shear stresses but are weak when stressed in tension. Cleavage defect due to differential shrinkage causes tensile stresses which often result in delamination. Bastard sawn boards tend to cup at the edges and heavy timbers shrink to a greater extent across the grain and both these movements will exert tension stresses on the glue lines.3 4. Seasoning of timber Correctly dried timber is essential in the manufacture of glued structures. To avoid stresses caused by moisture movement, the moisture content of timber at the time of gluing should be no greater than the equilibrium moisture content it will achieve in service, up to a maximum of 15%. Proper seasoning must thus be done.4 Two methods are available for drying timber: air drying and kiln seasoning. Air drying is mostly used and the moisture content can be reduced to about 15% by this method.4 Timber is strip piled at a slope on a solid foundation, the site should be well-drained or in unheated well-ventilated sheds. The rate of drying depends on weather conditions, prevailing winds and rain. Timber required for more refined uses such as flooring, furniture and general interior uses must be dried to a moisture content of not more than 5-10%. This is done in a dry kiln-a large air tight structure which timber is dried to correct the moisture content. Moisture is evaporated from timber in a kiln a much faster rate than from timber which is being air seasoned as the higher temperatures used in a kiln brings the moisture to the surface of the timber more rapidly and is then absorbed by the circulating air. For glulam work kiln-dried timber is mostly used.3

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2.1.6 Factors reducing the strength of glulam timber 1. Timber defects These are illustrated in the table 2.1 below. Table 2.1 Factors reducing the strength of glue laminated timber
a) Knots They distort the direction of wood grain passing around them, causing localized cross grain often at steep angles to the general grain. This is deviation of timber fibres from the longitudinal axis. The more the steep slope of grain, the greater the reduction in strength. When it occurs in a timber member longitudinal tensile and compressive stresses will have components acting across the grain, a direction which timber is least strong. Considerations such as bearing area, nailing surface, appearance and fabrication limit wane than bending strength. These reduce resistance to shear in members subjected to bending. They are permitted as they do not greatly reduce the strength of timber but highly resinous boards are difficult to glue and may prove troublesome if used in glulam construction. Laminations in which these seasoning defects appear are subjected to strict grading rules so as to ensure there intimate contact between adjacent laminations when pressure is applied to the glued assembly.

b) Slope of grain

c) Wane

d) Shakes, checks and splits e) Pitch pockets

f) Bow, cup, spring, twist

2. Moisture content When timber dries various strength properties are not affected by moisture but some may become weaker particularly those related to toughness and shock resistance, others such as crushing strength and bending strength increases greatly. 3. Decay The use of decayed timber is not permitted in timber structures as it has little mechanical strength.

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4. Duration of load Duration of stress is the time during which a load or a force acts on a member3. It is an important factor used in determining working stresses to be used in the design of a timber structure. When timber is subjected to impact bending tests, the load being applied suddenly for a few seconds duration and then released, it is able to resist more than twice the force which will cause failure in static bending. The load required to break a beam in a few minutes is approximately twice that which will cause failure when continuously loaded for a long period.3 2.2 MANUFACTURE OF GLUE LAMINATED TIMBER 2.2.1 Requirements 1. Thickness of laminations The timber is generally restricted to a maximum of 2-in. (51mm) in thickness. Thicker thicknesses are not used due to the difficulty and costs of drying boards to the required moisture content with minimum degrade. The maximum thickness laminations are usually only used in straight members. When curved components are being manufactured the lamination thickness has to be governed by the design requirements and the radius of curvature.3 There is an advantage of using the maximum thickness of laminations which the design considerations permit, as the smaller the number of laminations used in construction of a laminated member, the less it will cost to produce as there was a saving in adhesive, man hours and machine hours. 2. Moisture content of laminations The optimum moisture content is that which will produce the strongest glue joint and when increased by the water in the glue, approach the average equilibrium moisture content likely to be attained in service. When laminations are spread with adhesives their moisture content increases and the amount of increase depends on the type of adhesive, the species of timber and the quantity of adhesive being spread. The maximum moisture content permitted at the time of gluing is 15%.3 Alterations in moisture content of laminated members after construction should be reduced as much as possible, as the timber will shrink when the moisture content decreases and swells when it increases. These movements produce stresses in the timber and in the glue lines which may lead to delamination. 23

3. Storage of kiln-dried timber Timber is usually kiln dried and it should then be stored so that no major change takes place in the moisture content. It should not be stored in too high temperatures as it will become hotter, with the result that the adhesive, when spread on the laminations would cure much more quickly than expected upsetting planned assembly times. The adhesive to be spread could also be in an advanced stage of setting before adequate pressure can be applied to the whole assembly, resulting in glue lines of inadequate strength. The boards should therefore be stored where the temperature and humidity can be properly controlled until when they are required for processing. A temperature of 60 F (15C) and a relative humidity between 55% and 65% is suitable.3 2.2.2 Procedure of manufacture 1. End-joint manufacture Any type of end joint used in a glulam member must be accurately profiled, correctly aligned and effectively cured. End joints are cut without knots as they are difficult to glue and may lead to partial or complete failure of the joint. 2. Machining laminations prior to gluing When the boards have been end jointed into laminations, the surfaces will then be prepared for gluing. Intentional roughening of laminations, by tooth planning or sanding can be done in order to obtain more efficient glue lines but this method may not have the desired effect. Sanding may fill the timber surfaces with coarse dust which may hinder good bonding properties and if the surface is deeply scored, bubbles may be entrapped in the glue line leading to reduced strength of the bond.2 The final planning will reduce the laminations to specification thickness, remove excessive glue and irregularities from end joints and adjust oversize patches. 3. Thickness of laminations for bending The final thickness of the laminations to be used in the manufacture of curved members was governed by the radius of curvature to which they was bent. Laminations are bent cold and dry because it is difficult to prepare the surfaces of timber which have been steamed so that they are

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suitable for gluing and because it is generally impossible to apply an adhesive mechanically to long preformed laminations. 4. Dry assembly This is an operation whereby if the laminations of different grades are being used in the manufacture of a laminated member or when the manufacturing standards and design specifications require the special positioning of end joints, it is necessary to assemble the member with the grades of laminations and the end joints in the correct positions prior to gluing.3 It is carried out in such a manner that when it is complete, the top lamination is the one which was first to pass through the glue spreader. 5. Gluing and cramping The type of cramping jigs or bed being used must be set out in a way that the laminated member was manufactured to the correct profile. A template or pattern of the finished member is usually prepared in a material which will maintain its shape. If the member has to be drilled for metal connections, the fixing holes are also drilled in the template. The template or pattern is used to set up the cramping jigs to shape.3 A caul or pressure board is used between the jigs and the first lamination and the thickness of this board must be taken into account. If curved members are to be manufactured, then the jigs are generally set out to accommodate the smaller inner radius. This applies to portal or pin arches which are often built up on the haunch sections and later to shape. 6. Spreading the laminations with adhesives Gluing is best done as soon as possible after machining before the surfaces accumulate dust and dirt and before greasy fingers share their load too generously with the wood. Delay also results in raised grain and causes warping or cupping lowering the glue line strength. Freshly planned surfaces make better and stronger glue joints.3

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Before laminations can be spread the adhesives specified for use was properly mixed strictly in accordance with the adhesive manufacturers instructions. Among the methods adopted by glulam manufacturers are:2 a) Stirring or whisking by hand. b) Slow speed electric drill with reduction gear attachment and stirring equipment. c) Special container with paddle blades attached to and driven by glue spreader. d) Motor driven glue mixer. The mixed adhesive should be double spread on laminations, i.e. spread on both sides of laminations at a recommended rate. This ensures a better wetting of the timber as it generally permits longer assembly periods than when the adhesive is applied on only one side. The first and the last boards require glue on only one side. Glue spreads should be kept as low as possible consistent with high quality glue lines. Surplus glue does not improve the joint and may be more dangerous than insufficient spread. Glued surfaces should always be well fitted and brought into intimate contact as there are no glues that are desirable as gap fillers, or that make up for the poor fitting of inefficient workmen. Spreading the adhesive on the laminations, hand rollers, stiff fibre brushes, glue guns, spray guns or mechanised glue spreaders are used. Spreading by hand is usually slow, in accurate and uneconomic. This leads to inconsistency, takes more time and uses more adhesive in large scale production than a mechanised glue spreader.2 7. Application of pressure As the laminations are removed from the glue spreader they are placed in the cramping jigs. Waxed release paper is inserted before the first lamination and the last lamination of each other so as to ensure that they do not adhere to the caul (pressure) boards or to the laminations of another member if two or more are being cramped simultaneously. When cramps are used to exert pressure these should be used in conjunction with pressure blocks and caul boards of such dimensions as may be required to secure a uniform distribution of pressure on the glue lines without rushing the fibres of the laminations in the direction parallel to the grain. Cramping may start at any point but must progress to an end or ends. Cramping pressure should be sufficient to 26

maintain the laminations in intimate contact and ensure the adhesive is squeezed into a firm film of even thickness throughout the whole of the cramping period.3 The success of the cramping operation depends upon the correct observance of the various assembly periods. i. Assembly period the time taken from the spreading of the glue on the first lamination to the application of the final pressure. ii. Open assembly the period between spreading the glue on the lamination and bringing it to contact with the face of the adjacent lamination. iii. Closed assembly the time interval between placing together of glued laminations and the application of the final pressure.

8. Cramping period The laminating assembly on the cramping beds should remain cramped and undisturbed, under pressure and at the required temperature and humidity to ensure that adequate glue line strength is materialized. Adhesives do not reach maximum strength during the cramping period, so when members are removed from the camping bed they should be handled with care and left to rest for a further period before any work on them is undertaken. This is the conditioning period and is the minimum period which must elapse, following the removal of pressure and heat from the laminated member before heavy machining or exposure to service conditions. In this condition the glue line strength continues to increase.3 9. Final Processing Here any modifications necessary to ensure compliance with appearance grade requirements are carried out. The specifications may include sections dealing with quality of final processing, painting or vanishing and wrapping to protect the member during transit and until it is erected. Before a structure is dispatched the two ends should be treated with sufficient coats of suitable end sealer (aluminium primer) to prevent the absorption or loss of moisture through the end grain. It is also advantageous to apply two coats of vanish, as these will give some protection to

27

the glue lines and help prevent dimensional changes taking place in the timber and prevent damage to the glue lines.2 2.3 ADHESIVES 2.3.1 Introduction. An adhesive should be capable of producing a substantially permanent union between two adherents. It must therefore at some stage during the bonding process, become a liquid (solution, emulsion or melt) capable of attaching itself to the wood and of subsequent solidification. A structural adhesive must permit the glued member to operate as a structural member for the whole of its planned service life. Under the most rigorous conditions of exposure it must show complete resistance to water, heat, mould growth, fungi and chemically polluted air. There are several classes of adhesives. A particular adhesive may fall in more than one of these classes as below: a) Adhesives which permanently posses flow properties. Intact and contact adhesives (permanently tacky), bitumen, polyvinyl acetate. These glues usually provide rapid bonds, but will not withstand a high sustained load. b) Adhesives which solidify by loss of solvent. These glues often dry slowly and are bound to contact on curing, with a liability to set up stresses in the glue line. Most wood glues such as animal, urea, phenolic lose solvent during setting. Examples are rubber latex, polyvinyl acetate and bitumen emulsion. c) Adhesives which are first heated to a liquid state and then set by cooling (melt freeze). These adhesives often give rapid stress-free joints, which frequently are not heat stable. Animal glue partly sets by this mechanism. An example is bitumen. d) Adhesives which set by chemical reaction. These require heat to ensure a cure, but cold-setting types, often acidic in character, can be obtained. They are the frequently the most efficient, possessing the greater durability under adverse conditions. Examples are phenol formaldehyde, resorcinol formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde and epoxy.3

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Adhesives used for glulam work are thermo-setting and can be made to harden or cure more rapidly by the application of heat. Once set they do not soften at all, or soften to a limited degree, when subjected to high temperatures. This is in contrast to thermo-plastic adhesives which, when set either liquefy or become flexible when exposed to high temperatures. 1. Classification of adhesives Adhesives may be natural or synthetic. The wood working adhesives which fall in each category are set out as below.3 Table 2.2 Categories of woodworking adhesives.
Natural Bone, hide and fish Blood albumen Starch Vegetable Casein Synthetic Phenol formaldehyde Urea formaldehyde Resorcinol formaldehyde Melamine formaldehyde Polyvinyl acetate (p.v.a) Epoxy

Durability classification also exists. Draft British Standard Specification for synthetic resin adhesives, gap filling, for construction work in wood (Revision of B.S. 1204) which refers only to synthetic adhesives gives durability designations of four types of adhesives which are derived partly from the kind of test employed in the specification. These designations are: a) Type W B P: Weatherproof and boilproof. These make joints that are highly resistant to weather, micro-organisms, clod and boiling water, and dry heat. E.g. phenol formaldehyde and resorcinol formaldehyde. b) Type B R: Boil-resistant. Joints made with these adhesives have good resistance to weather and to the boiling-water test, but fail under prolonged exposure to weather that Type W B P adhesives will survive. The joints will withstand cold water for many years and are highly resistant to attack by micro-organisms. E.g. melamine formaldehyde. 29

c) Type M R: Moisture-resistant and moderately weather resistant. Joints made with these adhesives will survive full exposure to weather for a few years. They will withstand cold weather for a long period and hot water for a little time, but fail under the boiling water test. They are resistant to attack by micro-organisms. E.g. urea formaldehyde. d) Type I N T: Interior. Joints made with these adhesives are resistant to cold water, but need not withstand attack by micro-organisms. E.g. P.V.A. and natural adhesives.3

2. Adhesive components Structural adhesives may be supplied in powder form to which water is added or as a resin to which a hardener or catalyst is added. The powder or resin is therefore not usually adequate to perform as an adhesive as the additive usually promotes the rate of set of the mixed adhesive. The adhesive must then be used within the pot life as it soon starts to set when the additive is incorporated. Same type of adhesive are obtainable in both liquid and powder form, and in the latter state often contains the catalyst, the resin having been dehydrated and mixed with dry catalyst components. The addition of water causes the adhesive to begin to harden. Hardeners are also supplied in powder form, and when the adhesive is gap filling, filler is often mixed in with the powdered hardener by the manufacturer. 3. Fillers and extenders Structural adhesives used for laminating, especially the synthetic types, have fillers included in their adhesive components to make them gap filling or to improve their working properties. Fillers which are added by adhesive manufacturers include inert materials such as walnut-shell flour and wheat flour. Small quantities of fillers added to syntheticresin adhesives often improve their storage qualities, make for simpler use and may improve performance.3 Extenders are same materials as fillers but are used in greater quantities with the sole objective of reducing the cost of manufacture. Extenders up to 10% of the weight of the resin can be incorporated in the mixed adhesive without affecting its durability and with possibly improved results.2 30

4. Catalysts Many hardeners used with synthetic resins to produce adhesives are catalysts. A catalyst is a material used to control the chemical change in other bodies without undergoing any chemical change itself and without loss of volume and weight. Some hardeners are used up during reaction and are thus not catalysts. For example, the type of accelerator used to affect the cure of a polyester resin. Used with synthetic resins, they promote the setting of the adhesive and can be used without the application of heat.2 2.3.2 Necessity of adhesive 1. Interfacial forces Two atomically smooth and clean pieces of mica adhere to each other, the joint having shear strength equal to that of the material. This is due to the development of strong surface forces at the two interfaces when they are brought into complete contact. This is not possible in practice for materials to bond due to, in part, the surface roughness and lack of cleanliness. 2. Surface roughness The strong surface forces which exist can only develop if the two surfaces are so smooth and clean that they compete and perfect contact is formed between them when they are brought together. Timber surfaces can never be brought to anything like the smoothness which is possible with finely polished glass or metal. This is because of the fibrous structure of the wood, the acts of sanding or planning produces ridges and valleys which are rougher than those which prevent steel or glass surfaces adhering without a liquid film. Also timber does not have a uniform surface and during preparation a greater proportion of the softer parts were removed, leaving high ridges of the harder regions. An adhesive is therefore needed to join timber surfaces together. It should fill the valleys and voids, make contact between the surfaces and form a rigid connection between the adherents.3

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3. Cleanliness of surfaces Prepared surfaces rapidly become covered with molecules of gases and vapours, dust and dirt from the surrounding atmosphere. Water is the main substance which settles on the surface. When perfectly prepared substances are brought together there is no contact, because layers of moisture and other substances which may be present in the atmosphere, invincible to the naked eye, completely cover them and prevent adhesion. An adhesive should therefore remove surface impurities and so establish continuous contact between the materials to be struck together. 2.3.3 Factors affecting adhesion 1. Wetting For good gluing the adhesive should be able to wet the surface to which it is to be applied and thus displace air from the surface. The adhesive should therefore be applied in liquid or plastic form. Unless the liquid wets the solid, i.e. the receding angle of contact is zero; the strength of the bond was poor. The ability of a liquid to wet a solid is governed by the wettability of the liquid which is determined by its surface tension, temperature, and viscosity, the interfacial tension between the liquid and the solid and its chemical affinity with the solid surface.2 2. Surface roughness and porosity A surface which is smooth is preferred to one that is rough. Timber is a material which cannot be prepared to present a smooth surface, because of the nature of its structure. It is also porous and has a large number of cells which may conduct away solvents so rapidly that a starved joint occurs.3 If the surface is very uneven, or deeply scored, there is a possibility that all the air bubbles may not be displaced by the liquid adhesive when wetting takes place. 2.3.4 Factors governing the choice of an adhesive 1. Durability of adhesives The durability of an adhesive under various climatic conditions is of major importance when determining its use for structural work. These adhesives vary in behaviour when exposed to 32

moisture changes, especially intermittent wetting and drying, and prolonged exposure to high temperatures. Some types should be used only in interior structures under dry conditions for the whole of their service lives; others can be in exterior structures in wet conditions but may be susceptible to high temperatures. A few have a far greater durability and the restrictions on their use are only slightly limiting.3 Table 2.3 Suggested selection of adhesives for use in timber structures3
Adhesive Casein Urea formaldehyde Phenol resorcinol formaldehyde Resorcinol formaldehyde Phenol formaldehyde WBP WBP Dry and wet Dry and wet British Standard Classification INT MR WBP For use in exposure category Dry Dry Dry and wet

2. Ease of use in manufacture An adhesive joint will only become as good as the technique used in its manufacture permit and the adhesive, must be handled and used with care. If an adhesive is difficult to use, or its behaviour during use is inconsistent, this could lead to a reduction in its potential durability. Water-soluble adhesives are the easiest to handle as they can be cleaned without difficulty from the glue spreader, provided they are not allowed to set and thus limiting the risk of contamination. The working life of an adhesive must at least be equal to the assembly time of the structure to be manufactured to reduce sources of weaknesses that might lead to delamination.3 3. Cost of adhesive Natural adhesives are usually added to large amounts of water and produce the cheapest form of mixed adhesives, but they are not weather resistant. These adhesives do require elaborate heating systems for curing although setting may be accelerated by heating. Weatherproof adhesives of the resorcinol types are much more expensive in mixed form though they produce strong glue lines. 33

Adhesives that are not soluble may be difficult to clean from the glue spreader and mixing equipment and may require the installation of special cleaning equipment or the use of expensive chemicals. The expense involved in removing excess squeeze out should also be considered and this will vary depending upon the class of adhesive used. 4. Type of joint to be made Adhesives which remain permanently flexible are not suitable for rigid type joints. When subjected to continuous loading the adhesive will creep or deform and the solids forming the joints will begin to slide slowly away from each other. They may resist short-duration loads and shocks, their high elongation permitting them to absorb or resist the strain. Adhesives of the non-rigid types include polyvinyl acetate, contact and impact rubber types. Such adhesives will stick anything together, but the bond does not last under even moderate stresses when these are continuous. Thermo-plastic adhesives will exhibit plastic flow tendencies if sufficiently high temperatures are reached, and the temperature required may not be greatly in excess of room temperature. Casein will lose strength if the glue line become temporarily wet, but regains its strength when they dry out.3 2.3.5 Factors affecting the formation of a good glue bond 1. Gluability of timber A particular species of timber may not produce glue lines of equal strength with all the classes of structural adhesives, and the relative amounts of sapwood and heartwood which occurs at the interfaces of the joints further influences the strength of the glue bonds. The bands of softer wood i.e. sapwood usually glue more easily than bands of denser wood i.e. heartwood. The higher the specific gravity of timber the more difficult it is to glue.3 Porous timbers, or those of high moisture content, will absorb and dilute adhesives especially those of low viscosity and may produce poor glue lines because of insufficient adhesive remains at the interfaces. 2. Moisture content of timber Adhesives give best results when the moisture content of timber is within the range of 8-12%.3 The higher the moisture content of the laminations the greater the possibility of dilution of the 34

adhesive and its penetration into the pores of timber, resulting in starved joints. As timber shrinks and swells with changes in humidity in an attempt to achieve equilibrium, the boards to be glued should be at the same moisture content, so that uniform movement occurs at the two interfaces. 3. Preparation of timber surfaces The efficiency of the glue line will depend upon the preparation of the timber surfaces forming the boundary layers. The surfaces should be as smooth as possible and free from contamination, so that maximum molecular attraction forces operate with adequate wetting of the surfaces. 3 The strength of a glue line increases as it becomes thinner. The thicker the glue line the greater the possibility of voids occurring due to contraction of the adhesive or entrapped air being retained. These voids and air bubbles considerably reduce the strength of the glue line.2 4. Assembly periods All gluing operations have to be completed within the assembly period. This period consists of open and closed periods which influence the ability of the adhesive to make an adequate glue line and their observance will depend upon the type of the adhesive and the species of timber to be glued. The open assembly period is regulated by the necessity to permit the solvent in the adhesive to evaporate. This period must be related to the closed assembly period which may be of long duration, as it is necessary that pressure is applied while the adhesive is still damp or tacky.3 5. Storage of adhesive components Adhesive components should always be stored in a dry room or compartment which can be maintained at a temperature of 60-80F (15.6-26.7C). They should also not exceed their storage life of about 12 months provided the containers are always kept properly sealed.3 Loss of solvent from liquid components, due to damaged containers or incorrectly placed covers, and the access of moisture to powdered components, is likely to reduce their storage life and seriously affect the efficiency of the adhesive.

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6. Application of pressure Pressure is applied to a glued joint to maintain the surfaces making the joint in intimate contact and ensure that the adhesive forms a thin continuous film of uniform thickness. The equipment should be capable of securing adequate, uniform distribution of pressure on the glue lines, without damaging the timber, until the adhesive is fully set. Any method used should be capable of follow up pressure i.e. it should maintain a constant pressure during the period the adhesive is curing and ensure that the timber surfaces move together as the glue contracts in volume.3Pressure also eliminates entrapped air bubbles from the glue line so as to ensure a joint with the minimum weaknesses.

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CHAPTER 3.0 THEORETICAL CHAPTER

3.1 INTRODUCTION The strength and mechanical properties of timber are those that measure its ability to resist external or applied loads, shocks or forces which will tend to alter its size or shape or in any way deform it. An applied stress which tends to deform a body from its natural shape and size is measured by the stress. Axial stress is force per unit area, represented as;

Where

is stress, P is the applied load and A is the area supporting the load.

When a body is deformed by an applied force the ratio of the dimension change to the original unstrained dimension is known as strain, indicated as strain per unit length as

Where

is the strain, l the original length and

the change in the original length.

The three types of stresses which occur are tensile, compressive and shearing. When a force acts on timber in a manner which causes elongation the stress is tensile, when the force causes the timber to become shorter the stress is compressive and when it causes one portion of the timber to slide over the other the stress is shearing and the action is shear. These stresses frequently act together making a combination of stresses.3 Elasticity is the ability of a body to recover its natural shape and size after the removal of an applied force. Modulus of elasticity, E is the measure of stiffness and rigidity, but not of strength and is the relationship of stress to strain, indicated by;

Where

is the stress per unit area and e the strain per unit length.

37

The modulus of elasticity which is only applicable within the elastic limit is calculated for timber from static bending tests and is used to calculate deflection in beams or other members subjected to bending.3 3.2 STRENGTH TESTING Many properties of timber are determined in the laboratory by tests carried out on pieces of timber of structural sizes and small clear specimens of each species. These are prepared from trees which are chosen being representative of the species to be tested. The standard test specimens are 20 x 20 mm, in cross-section, but of varying lengths, depending upon the type of mechanical test, and are free from knots, cross grain, shakes, checks and any other defects.3 3.2.1 Static bending This test provides information on the following strength properties: the maximum bending strength, modulus of elasticity, work to maximum load and total work. The maximum bending strength at maximum load indicates the stress which timber is able to sustain momentarily when continuously and slowly loaded as a beam. Work to maximum load indicates how well timber is able to absorb shock with an amount of permanent deformation and injury to the timber. Total work is a measure of the energy absorbed when timber fractures under bending stresses.2 3.2.2 Compression parallel to grain In this test the maximum crushing strength of timber under a load slowly applied parallel to the grain is determined. The information permits the determination of the strength of columns and posts for example pit props.3 3.3.3 Shear parallel to grain The test to measure the ability of timber to resist slipping of one part over another along the grain is made on a 20 mm cube, the tests being made in both radial and tangential plates.2 3.3 BENDING THEORY A beam, when loaded, is subject to bending, shearing and torsional stresses. Bending and shearing stresses are considered the reason why wood has very little resistance to torsional effects. At the same time, the beam undergoes deflection which increases with the load till 38

failure. Initially, the deflection is directly proportional to the load until the limit of proportionality is reached. Beyond this, the load deflection curve tends to flatten out with small load increments resulting in relatively large defections. After this, failure will result. This gives the rapture load for the wood member.12

Figure 3.1 Load deflection curve Bending stresses12 Bending stresses occur when a beam is loaded. In the derivation of stress equations in bending, the following assumptions are made:1. The Youngs modulus has the same value for the beam section in both tension and compression. 2. The transverse section of the beam which is plane before bending remains plane after bending. 3. The radius of curvature of the beam before bending is very large compared to the depth dimension of the beam. 4. The net pull or thrust at a transverse section of the beam is zero. 5. The transverse section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis passing through the centroid of the section and parallel to the plane of bending.12

39

Consider a length of beam Figure 3.2 (a) below that is subjected to a pure, sagging bending moment, M, applied in a vertical plane;

Figure 3.2 Bending of a symmetrical section of a beam The beams cross section has a vertical axis of symmetry as shown in Figure 3.3 (b) below;

Figure 3.3 Beam subject to pure sagging bending moment The bending moment will cause the length of beam to bend in a similar manner to that shown in Figure 3.3 (a) so that a neutral plane will exist which is, as yet, unknown distances y1 and y2 from the top and bottom of the beam, respectively in Figure 3.2 (b). Coordinates of all points in the beam are referred to axes Oxyz in which the origin O lies in the neutral plane of the beam. An elemental length, x, of the beam is formed by parallel sections MIN and PGQ (Figure 3.2(a)) and also the fibre ST of cross-sectional area A a distance y above the neutral plane. Before bending takes place, MP=IG=ST=NQ=x. The bending moment M causes the length of beam to bend about a centre of curvature 40

C as shown below;

Figure 3.4 Length of a beam subjected to pure bending moment Since the element is small in length and a pure moment is applied we can take the curved shape of the beam to be circular with a radius of curvature R measured to the neutral plane. This is a useful reference point since, strains and stresses are zero in the neutral plane. The previously parallel plane sections MIN and PGQ remain plane, but are now inclined at an angle to each other. The length MP is now shorter than x as is ST while NQ is longer; IG, being in the neutral plane, is still of length x. Since the fibre ST has changed in length it has suffered a strain x which is given by

Then ( )

i.e. ( )

So that

41

The negative sign in equation indicates that fibres in the region where y is positive will shorten when the bending moment is positive. Then, from = E, the direct stress x in the fibre ST is given by

The direct or normal force on the cross section of the fibre ST is xA. However, since the direct stress in the beam section is due to a pure bending moment as there is no axial load, the resultant normal force on the complete cross section of the beam must be zero. Then

Where A is the area of the beam cross section. Substituting for x in the above equation gives

In which both E and R are constants for a beam of a given material subjected to a given bending moment. Thus

The equation above states that the first moment of the area of the cross section of the beam with respect to the neutral axis, i.e. the z axis, is equal to zero. Thus, the neutral axis passes through the centroid of area of the cross section. Consider the elemental strip A in Figure 3.3(b); this is, in fact, the cross section of the fibre ST. The strip is above the neutral axis so that there will be a compressive force acting on its cross section of xA which is numerically equal to (Ey/R)A. This force will act at all sections along the length of ST. At S this force will exert a clockwise moment (Ey/R)yA about the neutral axis while at T the force will exert an identical anticlockwise moment about the neutral axis. Considering either end of ST, the moment resultant about the neutral axis of the stresses on all such fibres must be equivalent to the applied moment M, i.e.

42


The term is the second moment of area of the cross section of the beam about the

neutral axis and is given the symbol I, rewriting the above equation;

EI is known as the flexural rigidity. 3.4 VARIATION OF STRENGTH WITH MOISTURE CONTENT In the unseasoned condition, wood contains a considerable amount of moisture which is held partly in the cell wall and partly as free moisture within the cell cavities. When wood dries most of the free moisture is evaporated before the cell walls begin to lose their moisture. The condition where all the free moisture is removed and the cell walls are saturated is known as the fibre saturation point. As drying continues, the cell walls lose their moisture and this is accompanied by shrinkage in wood and an increase in most strength properties. Above the fibre saturation point, changes in moisture content have no apparent effect on the strength of wood. The fibre saturation point is usually determined experimentally, either from shrinkage measurements to determine the point at which shrinkage begins or from the relation of strength to moisture content. Determinants from shrinkage measurements tend to be high and less reliable than those obtained from strength tests on specimens that have been dried to equilibrium conditions and are therefore uniform moisture content throughout. WILSONS EQUATION Although the change in strength with change in moisture content follows a similar trend for most strength properties, the magnitude of change varies from one property to another. Compression strength, for example changes more than the bending strength, which in turn changes relatively more than the modulus of elasticity. An exception is toughness, which is not increased with decreasing moisture content but sometimes actually decreases as the wood dries. Due to effect of moisture, and in order to have comparable results mechanical properties are determined at constant moisture content i.e. in green conditions or in air dry conditions (12%). 43

Moisture adjustment formulas have been developed to demonstrate that different strength properties are affected differently by changes in moisture content of wood. These are; the straight line formula and the exponential formula. Formulas of the straight line type can only be roughly approximate and that if their applications are not limited to very small moisture differences comparatively large errors in adjusted value are probable. Need for more accurate adjustments led to the development of the exponential formula that shows that, within certain limits the relation between the logarithm of the strength values for a property and the corresponding moisture content can be represented graphically by a straight line. The following relationship is used;
( )

(
Where; S = Strength at M moisture content M = Moisture content (%)

MP = Moisture content at fibre saturation point. S12 = Strength at 12% moisture content. Sg = Strength of green wood Correlation may be based on linearized form of the above relationship;

Where S1, S2 and M1, M2 are known values of strength and moisture and S3 is the strength value corresponding to moisture M3. Therefore;

(
Letting S1 = Sp, Strength value at fibre saturation point.

S3 = S, Strength value as obtained from tests at moisture content M percent 44

M1 = Mp, Moisture content at fibre saturation point. M3 = M, Moisture content (%). The mathematical formula of the exponential type derived (Wilsons equation) forms the basis on which adjustments of strength values to various moisture contents below the fibre saturation point are made. It is expressed by; Log S = Log SP + K (MP M) Where; S Strength value as obtained from tests at moisture content M percent. Sp - Strength value at fibre saturation point. Mp Moisture content at fibre saturation point. This correction is based on observations according to which, within certain limits, the relationships of the logarithms of the values of a property and the corresponding moisture content is linear. In correcting the strength values, it is assumed that moisture content is uniformly distributed in the mass of wood.13

45

CHAPTER 4.0 METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION. To achieve the objectives of this study, laboratory experiments were conducted to obtain the structural performance of glue laminated grevillea timber at varying moisture contents. This process was concerned with the determination of strength properties of small laminated clear specimens of timber. Due to the wide variation of climate, growth cycles and other parameters, the testing of small clear timber specimens is very important. The laboratory procedures were governed by ASTM D 143 - 09 Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber.11 The following tests were performed; 1. Static Bending. 2. Compression Parallel to the Grain. 3. Moisture content determination. 4. Shear test of glue lines. These tests were chosen because of their similarity to actual loadings experienced in timber construction. Static bending is similar to the flexural stress experienced in a beam. These specimens were of clear timber, generally void of irregularities such as knots, checks and other defects. In actual timber design and construction, special care must be taken to avoid such irregularities in position where they could have detrimental effects on the structure (e.g. a knot located on the tensile side of a beam in flexure). The working plan was such that 5-10 specimens were tested daily. This was to ensure that the results obtained gave a gradual change in the moisture content level. 4.2 MATERIALS. 1. Timber Timber pieces were graded according to KS-02-771 for timber lamination. The pieces were obtained from flat sawn timber boards that were freshly sawn and dry. They were then machined and planed to a size of 20x20x300mm with an error allowance of 0.5mm. The surfaces were ensured to be clean. To obtain wet samples, the freshly sawn samples were immersed in water for a period of 12 hours. The samples were then wrapped in polythene sheeting and preserved in a closed cabinet in the laboratory, to maintain their moisture content. 46

2. Glue Locally available wood glue, Ponal Professional White wood glue was used. It is manufactured by Henkel Industries at Ruaraka, Nairobi.

Plate 4.1 Type of wood glue used. Notice the laminated samples that have been fabricated. 4.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION. The study employed random sampling to select the sample. Two boards from different logs of Grevillea Robusta timber were obtained; one was freshly sawn while the other was dry. From these boards clear test pieces free from visible defects was prepared in the laboratory. The test pieces were then preserved in a closed cabinet to prevent rapid drying. The number of test pieces obtained gave 30 pieces for tests on strength in static bending, 30 pieces for tests on compression strength parallel to the grain and 30 pieces on the shear test of the glue lines. Each test piece was then cut to 4 smaller pieces of 4mm thick, which were then laminated together to form a 20x20x300mm laminated piece. The glue was applied on one side of the cut specimen to give a thickness of about 1mm. Four pieces were then joined to form the sample. They were then clamped uniformly within five minutes of applying the glue. This was achieved by means of heavy flat bars placed on the samples to give a uniform pressure of at least 0.7 N/mm2. They were left clamped to cure at room temperature for a period of three days before the loads were removed. Clamping was done initially to provide the required clamping force which dissipates air from the joint while ensuring that the glue penetrates into the material and later to 47

ensure that the pieces do not distort due to moisture loss in the setting of the glue. This was an aid in obtaining straight horizontal laminates.

Plate 4.2 Gluing of the samples. The nails aided in Plate 4.3 Laminated 20x20x300mm samples ready obtaining straight horizontal laminates for tests in static bending

4.3 EXPERIMENTS 1. Static bending test Objective To determine the bending strength parallel to grain of the laminates and their failure mode Material 30 small laminated clear specimens of size 20x20x300mm were used. 10 samples were tested from each category of dry, freshly sawn, and wet. The allowable error for the sectional dimensions was 0.5mm. Apparatus Hounsfield Tensometer fitted with a one point load bending device. A 0.5 ton steel beam and a corresponding 5KN scale were fixed to the equipment. Callipers for determining sectional dimensions. A graduated drum cylinder. Graph paper W 402. 48

25mm square high yield steel rod. An oven. A thin wire with a pointed end. A measuring cylinder.

Plate 4.4 Hounsfield Tensometer equipment

Plate 4.5 Performing the static bending test. Record of the load deflection curve being kept on the W 402 graph paper wrapped around a rotating drum

Method of testing The 30 test specimens were measured to obtain section properties, length: 300mm, cross section 20mm x 20mm and then numbered i.e. DS1 for dry samples, WS1 for wet samples and FS1 for the freshly sawn samples. Each of the specimens was placed on the loading device and loaded centrally. The distance between supports was 260mm; the speed of the loading mechanism of the testing machine was 3.3mm/min. A 0.5 ton steel beam was inserted in the machine and the corresponding 5KN scale put in place. The deflection of this beam was similar with the level applied to the specimen and this, in turn, was reflected in the mercury column which was zeroed at the beginning of every test. During loading a record of the load deflection curve was kept on the W 402 graph paper wrapped around a rotating drum with the deflection being magnified by 8. This was achieved by moving the pin to correspond to the meniscus of the mercury column and pressing the mark on the sheet. 49

This was done till failure. A small piece was then cut at the point of failure for moisture content determination. 2. Specific Gravity The static bending samples that were oven dried were then weighed in air and then immersed into a measuring cylinder to measure their volumes by means of displacement. A long wire was used to push the pieces below the water surface. The specific gravity of the samples was then calculated as;

Where MO = Oven dry weight of sample VD = Volume of water displaced

Plate 4.6 Volumes of samples being measured for the specific gravity test 3. Compression parallel to the grain Objective To determine the compression strength of glue laminated grevillea timber parallel to the grain. Material 30 small laminated clear specimens of size 20x20x50mm, 10 each for dry, freshly sawn and wet categories.

50

Method of testing A Hounsfield Tensometer was used for this test. The rate of loading the mechanism was maintained at 3.3mm/min. A 2-ton steel beam was inserted in the machine and the corresponding 20KN scale put in place. Loading was continued until the specimen failed. During loading a record of the load deflection curve was kept on the W 402 graph paper wrapped around a rotating drum with the deflection being magnified by 8. The maximum load obtained was recorded. The failed specimen was then used for moisture content determination.

Plate 4.7 20x20x50mm laminated specimens for compressive strength parallel to the grain test 4. Shear test of glue lines. Objective To determine the shear strength of the glue lines parallel to the grain of the wood specimen. Material 30 small laminated clear specimens of size 20x20x20mm, 10 each for dry, freshly sawn and wet categories.

51

Figure 4.1 Method of applying shear stress to a glue line

Plate 4.8 Performing the shear test using a Hounsfield Tensometer

Method of testing A Hounsfield Tensometer was used for this test. The shearing force was applied via a selfaligning cylindrical bearing so that the specimen was loaded at the end grain with a stress field uniform in width direction and the distance between the glue line and the sheared plane nowhere exceeded 1 mm. The loading rate was 3mm/min. The failure load for each piece was obtained and recorded. These were then used in the computation of the shear strength of the glue laminated timber. 5. Moisture content determination Oven dry method was used to determine the moisture content of the tested samples in a), c) and d). The specimens were first weighed immediately after testing and then dried in an oven at a temperature of 100-105C until they achieved a constant weight. The oven dry weights were then recorded. The moisture content, MC of each sample was the determined by expressing the change in weight as a percentage of the oven dry weight.

Where Ma = initial weight of the specimens in grams Mo = oven dry weight of the specimen in grams.

52

CHAPTER 5.0 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS

5.1 STATIC BENDING RESULTS Samples of 20x20x300mm were tested on the Hounsfield Tensometer. The failure mode was mainly by splintering tension.

Plate 5.1 Failed laminated samples from the static bending test

Plate 5.2 Failure mode by splintering tension in a laminated specimen from the static bending test

The following analysis was done on the samples: 1. Modulus of rapture (MR)

Where WR = Load at failure L = Length of sample (300mm) Z = Section Modulus (1333.33mm3) The results are tabulated in the Appendix 1, Table A1.1

53

Figure 5.1 Graphical results from the Hounsfield Tensometer 2. Modulus of elasticity (E)

Where P = Beam of 5KN used in the Hounsfield Tensometer equipment = Deflection measured off from the graph- the beam deflection only ( I = Second moment of area of the section (13333.33mm4) The results are tabulated in the Appendix 1, Table A1.1 3. Moisture content This was obtained as a percentage from,

Where Ma = initial weight of the specimens in grams Mo = oven dry weight of the specimen in grams. The results are tabulated in the Appendix 1, Table A1.1 54

4. Specific gravity

Where MO = Oven dry weight of sample VD = Volume of water displaced The results are tabulated in the Appendix 1, Table A1.2 5.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULTS Samples of 20x20x50mm were used. The ultimate stress in compression parallel to the grain,

at specific moisture content was given by;

Where WR = Load at failure a and b = Cross-sectional dimensions of the test piece (20x20mm)

Plate 5.3 Compressive strength test on a Hounsfield Tensometer

Plate 5.4 Failed compressive test samples. Notice the failure along the lamination

The results are tabulated in the Appendix 1, Table A1.3

55

5.3 SHEAR TEST RESULTS Cube samples of 20x20x20mm were used. The shear stress was calculated from;

Where;

Shear stress WR = Load at failure A = Area (400mm2)

Plate 5.5 Failed specimen from shear test. The failure occurred along the glue line as the sample was wet The results are tabulated in the Appendix 1, Table A1.4 and A1.5

56

5.4 COMPUTED VALUES FOR K Table 5.1 Computed K values for Static Bending Sample DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8 DS9 DS10 FS1 FS2 FS3 FS4 FS5 FS6 FS7 FS8 FS9 FS10 WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 WS5 WS6 WS7 WS8 WS9 WS10 Modulus of Rapture (N/mm2) 75.94 56.25 61.88 67.50 64.69 61.88 67.50 61.88 64.69 73.13 59.06 64.69 45.00 53.44 50.63 61.88 50.63 53.44 45.00 47.81 56.25 42.19 42.19 45.00 47.81 42.19 39.38 45.00 50.63 47.81 Moisture content (%) 12.27 12.16 13.66 14.89 13.72 10.71 12.44 13.25 13.92 13.33 15.42 17.87 16.39 14.85 14.66 15.90 15.96 15.52 17.02 16.03 21.22 21.03 20.00 19.54 18.52 25.58 18.90 20.24 23.44 24.62 K 0.0264 0.0129 0.0202 0.0290 0.0226 0.0149 0.0216 0.0192 0.0232 0.0278 0.0225 0.0454 0.0053 0.0146 0.0110 0.0276 0.0134 0.0161 0.0060 0.0094 0.1636 0.0020 0.0010 0.0122 0.0162 -0.0005 -0.0090 0.0170 -0.0564 -0.0215

57

Table 5.2 Computed K values for Compressive Strength Compressive Moisture content Strength (N/mm2) (%) DS1 42.00 11.11 DS2 40.75 12.40 DS3 42.25 12.40 DS4 45.75 11.76 DS5 41.75 11.48 DS6 43.75 11.86 DS7 43.00 11.76 DS8 46.00 11.11 DS9 45.75 12.40 DS10 44.50 11.76 FS1 41.50 13.24 FS2 39.50 13.53 FS3 44.50 13.64 FS4 42.00 14.39 FS5 38.50 14.18 FS6 42.00 12.78 FS7 39.00 14.18 FS8 40.50 14.39 FS9 41.50 13.24 FS10 38.50 13.64 WS1 31.25 21.93 WS2 34.00 20.35 WS3 34.75 20.54 WS4 35.75 24.11 WS5 34.50 19.47 WS6 37.50 19.82 WS7 34.50 20.87 WS8 35.50 19.30 WS9 36.50 23.01 WS10 34.00 20.91 The K values tabulated were calculated from the equation:13 Log S = Log Sp + K (Mp M) Where; S Strength value as obtained from tests at moisture content M percent. Sample K 0.0121 0.0124 0.0140 0.0165 0.0123 0.0148 0.0139 0.0157 0.0176 0.0153 0.0145 0.0124 0.0188 0.0173 0.0120 0.0143 0.0127 0.0153 0.0145 0.0113 0.0497 0.0244 0.0339 -0.0294 0.0184 0.0379 0.0411 0.0218 -0.0703 0.0368

58

Sp - Strength value at fibre saturation point. Mp Moisture content at fibre saturation point. The moisture content at fibre saturation point (Mp) was 22% (Figure 6.1 and 6.4). The strength at the fibre saturation point (Sp) was 42N/mm2 for static bending and 34 N/mm2 for compressive strength results. 5.5 ANALYSIS ON K VALUES
Table 5.3 Calculations on K values

xi
0.0053 0.0060 0.0094 0.0110 0.0113 0.0120 0.0121 0.0122 0.0123 0.0124 0.0124 0.0127 0.0129 0.0134 0.0139 0.0140 0.0143 0.0145 0.0145 0.0146 0.0148 0.0149 0.0153 0.0153 0.0157 0.0161 0.0162

xi-
-0.0156 -0.0149 -0.0115 -0.0099 -0.0097 -0.0089 -0.0088 -0.0087 -0.0086 -0.0085 -0.0085 -0.0082 -0.0080 -0.0075 -0.0070 -0.0069 -0.0066 -0.0065 -0.0065 -0.0063 -0.0061 -0.0060 -0.0056 -0.0056 -0.0052 -0.0048 -0.0047

(xi-x)2
0.00024 0.00022 0.00013 0.00010 0.00009 0.00008 0.00008 0.00008 0.00007 0.00007 0.00007 0.00007 0.00006 0.00006 0.00005 0.00005 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00003 0.00003 0.00003 0.00002 0.00002 59

xi
0.0165 0.0170 0.0173 0.0176 0.0184 0.0188 0.0192 0.0202 0.0216 0.0218 0.0225 0.0226 0.0232 0.0244 0.0264 0.0276 0.0278 0.0290 0.0339 0.0368 0.0379 0.0411 0.0454 0.0497 0.0578 0.0639 1.1080

xi-
-0.0044 -0.0039 -0.0036 -0.0033 -0.0026 -0.0021 -0.0017 -0.0007 0.0007 0.0009 0.0016 0.0017 0.0023 0.0035 0.0055 0.0067 0.0069 0.0081 0.0130 0.0159 0.0170 0.0202 0.0245 0.0288 0.0369 0.0430

(xi-)2
0.00002 0.00002 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001 0.00001 0.00003 0.00004 0.00005 0.00007 0.00017 0.00025 0.00029 0.00041 0.00060 0.00083 0.00136 0.00185 0.00794

Mean,

=
(( ( ) ) )

Standard deviation (SD) =

= 0.0124
5.6 STANDARDIZATION OF THE RESULTS This checks whether the results follow the normal distribution.

25

Count = 53 Mean = 0.020905 Stdev = 0.012356 Minimum = 0.005338 25th Percentile (Q1) = 0.013159 50th Percentile (Median) = 95% CI Mean = 0.0175 to 0.024311 95% CI Sigma = 0.010371 to 0.015288

20

Frequency

15

10

0 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06

Z Values

Figure 5.2 Estimated normal distribution curves for K values 60

0.07

Table 5.4 Normal Distribution Probability Calculator

Normal Distribution Probability Calculator

Input the following information: Mean Standard Deviation Lower Bound (or LSL) Upper Bound (or USL) X1 X2

0.0209 0.0124 0.0000 0.0700

Areas:
between X1 and X2

Select the Probability of Interest from the following probabilities: Prob( 0 X 0.07 )
X1 X2

0.9279

outside X1 and X2
X1 X2

Prob( X 0 AND X 0.07 )

0.0454

below X1
X1

Prob( X 0 )

0.0454

above X1
X1

Prob( X 0 )

0.9546

below X2

X2

Prob( X 0.07 )

1.0000

above X2

X2

Prob( X 0.07 )

0.0000

SigmaXL Inc., Copyright 2011

61

5.7 CALCULATION OF CONSTANT K Mean, = Standard Deviation (SD) = 0.0124 The probability of area under curve between x1 and x2 = 0.9279 (from Table 5.4) Normal deviate for 0.9279 probability, Z = 1.46 (from Cumulative Normal Probability Tables, ZValues) K = Sample Mean,( ) (Standard Deviation, SD x Normal deviate, Z) = = 0.0028 Inserting the above constant in the equation; Log S = Log Sp + K (Mp M), we get Log S = Log Sp + 0.0028(Mp M) From Figure 6.1and 6.4, at fibre saturation point (Mp = 22%) the bending strength is 42N/mm2 and the compressive strength is 34N/mm2. For moisture content values in the range 22% - 10% the strength values are as calculated below: Table 5.5 Bending strength at varying moisture content levels Moisture content (%) Modulus of Rapture (N/mm2) (0.0124 x 1.46)

22 42

20 42.55

18 43.10

16 43.66

14 44.22

12 44.80

10 45.38

Table 5.6 Compressive strength at varying moisture content levels Moisture content (%) Modulus of Rapture (N/mm2)

22 34

20 34.44

18 34.89

16 35.34

14 35.80

12 36.26

10 36.73

62

5.8 INDEX OF RESULT AUTHENTICITY In mechanical sampling the minimum number of test species n min is given approximately by the formula;16

Where, V = the percentage of coefficient of variation of the property to be determined, 15 for ultimate strength in static bending and 13 for ultimate compressive strength parallel to the grain. t = the index of result authenticity, a half the length of the confidence interval in fractions of the standard deviation p = the percentage index of test precision, the relation between the standard deviation of the arithmetic means and the arithmetic mean. Calculation of t

n = 53

t = 30.85
Calculation of confidence interval (CI) CI = t x 2 x SD CI = 30.85x2x 0.0124 = 0.7651 = 76.51%

63

CHAPTER 6.0 DISCUSSION

6.1 STATIC BENDING 1. Modulus of Rapture, MR (Bending strength) From the results in the Appendix 1, Table A1.1, the effect of moisture on the modulus of rapture was plotted as below;

Bending Strength vs Moisture content curve

100.00 90.00 80.00

Bending strength (N/mm2)

70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00

Moisture Content (%)

Figure 6.1 Bending strength vs. moisture content curve From the experiment and data analysis the dry samples produced the highest bending strength followed by the freshly sawn samples. The wet samples had the lowest bending strength. The curve shows that, as the moisture content in the wood fibres increased, the bending strength reduced. When dry timber has its water content increased to the levels found in green timber, the 64

cell walls fill with water. This causes the cell walls to expand and a dimensional change occurs. Waters presence dramatically softens the cell walls. The hydrogen bonds between different polymer chains in the crystalline cellulose micro fibrils can break. Hydrogen bonds form with water instead, as it is a small, polar molecule and so can get in between the polymer chains. Stronger hydrogen bonds are formed between cellulose and water than between cellulose and cellulose, making hydrogen bonding with water more favourable. This softens the cellulose micro fibrils as they are no longer so strongly bonded to each other, making it easier to untangle and hence stretch the fibres. This leads to a decrease in the stiffness of wood. 2. Modulus of Elasticity The changes in modulus of elasticity with moisture content results are tabulated in the Appendix 1, Table A1.1. The modulus of elasticity decreases with an increase in moisture content.

3700.00

Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2)

3200.00

2700.00

2200.00

1700.00

1200.00

700.00

200.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00

Moisture content (%)

Figure 6.2 Modulus of elasticity vs. moisture content curve 65

Modulus of elasticity is a factor of deflection. They are inversely proportional, as deflection increases the modulus of elasticity decreases. 3. Deflection Results for deflection of the samples at the various moisture contents are tabulated in Appendix 1, Table A1.1. The deflection increases with an increase in moisture content.
150.00 140.00 130.00 120.00

Deflection (mm)

110.00 100.00 90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00

Moisture Content (%)

Figure 6.3 Deflection vs. moisture content curve The graph shows that as the moisture content in the samples increased, the deflection increased. An increase in moisture content increases the elasticity of the samples making them to deflect more.

66

6.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH From the results in the Appendix 1, Table A1.3, the effect of moisture on the compressive strength was plotted as below; Compressive strength vs. Moisture content curve

60.00

55.00

50.00

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

45.00

40.00

35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00

Moisture content (%) Figure 6.4 Compressive strength vs. moisture content curve The dry samples produced the highest compressive strength followed by the freshly sawn samples. The wet samples had the lowest compressive strength. The curve shows that, as the moisture content in the wood fibres reduced, the compressive strength increased.

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6.3 SHEAR STRENGTH From the results in the Appendix 1, Table A1.3, the effect of moisture on the shear strength was plotted as below;

Shear strength vs. Moisture content

20.00 18.00 16.00 14.00

Shear strength (N/mm2)

12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00

Moisture Content (%) Figure 6.5 Shear strength vs. moisture content curve For shear the dry samples had the highest strength and the shearing did not occur along the glue line. The freshly sawn samples followed. The wet samples had the lowest strength and the shearing occurred along the glue line. During the performance of the test, one sample was loaded for shear with the glue lines perpendicular to the shearing plane. A strength value of 6.0KN was recorded. This value was 68

larger than the highest value for strength parallel to the glue lines of the dry samples of 5.3KN. This shows that the lamination was in a position to withstand higher loads when loaded perpendicularly.

Figure 6.6 (a) Glue lines parallel to the shearing plane (b) Performance of the shear test with the glue lines perpendicular to the shearing plane For the glue type used, it was noted that for the laminated dry samples soaked in water for a period of 24 hours, delamination occurred. Water penetrated the lamination thereby affecting its performance.

Notice the delamination in the laminates

Plate 6.1 Delamination of dry samples immersed in water. Water penetration caused the glue to ooze out creating the whitish colouration.

69

6.4 VALUES FOR K Precise performance of glue laminated Grevillea Robusta timber technology in Kenya will be possible if all the factors affecting strength can be established. Basic and grade stresses desired are updated over the years and form the basis for selection of laminated sections for various uses. Basic stresses are obtained from application of reduction factors on the ultimate strength values that have been determined experimentally. Due to high variability of the material, extensive experimentation is always necessary to ensure reliability of results. If only a few tests are made, the individual tests will appear erratically, but as the number of tests increased a pattern of degree of variation becomes evident. For the tests under consideration the belt shaped theoretical curve (Figure 5.2) superimposed on the actual distribution is the normal curve. The observed difference in the K values in results is due to variations in density and the presence of defects. The actual distribution follows the theoretical distribution with sufficient closeness to justify application of normal theory of distribution to these experimental results. The properties of the normal distribution curve can be used to forecast the proportion of the results which will be greater or less than a given value, or conversely to calculate the value below which a certain percentage of the results will not fall. The value of K was obtained by subtracting a value of the product of the normal deviate, Z and the standard deviation from the mean value. The value obtained for moisture content at fibre saturation point of 22% was lower than the average range of between 24-27%. This resulted from the drying for laminations and weighing method used in determination of moisture content. For lamination, low moisture content in the timbers is recommended (15% 3). A total of 60 samples were tested. This was less than the targeted number of 100 samples. This was due to shortage of time for testing, delays in delivery of the timber for laminations and the lack of funds for purchase of the glue. The confidence interval of 76.51% at which the final K value was deduced indicated the need for a larger sample size in order to increase the index of result authenticity. 70

CHAPTER 7.0 CONCLUSION

This study investigated effect of moisture variation on performance of glue laminated Grevillea Robusta timber. This was in relation to the scarcity of timber and gaps in the information available on timber and glue laminated timber in Kenya. The study specifically sought to establish strength-moisture variation curves for glue laminated Grevillea Robusta timber by experimentally investigating the variation of compressive strength, static bending and shear along the glue line with changes in moisture content and to determine the value of constant K in Wilsons equation (1932), Log S = Log Sp + K(Mp M) that forms the basis on which adjustments of strength values of various moisture content of timber below the fibre saturation point are made. The study established that:1. From the strength-moisture variation curves for glue laminated Grevillea Robusta timber, the performance in terms of strength in static bending, compression parallel to the grain and shear along the glue lines was observed to increase with a reduction in moisture content. 2. Lamination of timber leads to more efficient use of timber and less wastage. Small pieces that would rather be structurally useless were glued together to produce a superior material. Timber used in lamination does not have to be prime, knots can be incorporated in the laminates but care should be taken to ensure that they are not placed at the edges. 3. The gluing process is affected by moisture. Glue laminated timber manufacture should be performed at an optimum moisture content of 15%. To increase the performance of the structure weather proof glues, which are unaffected by moisture should be used in place of ordinary carpenters glue. 4. To prevent against the occurrence of shear along the glue lines occurring, loadings on glue laminated timber members should be applied with the glue lines perpendicular. This enables the structure to take higher loads. 5. The fibre saturation moisture content from the strength-moisture variation curves for glue laminated grevillea timber on the variation of compressive strength, static bending and shear along the glue line with changes with moisture content, was found to be 22%. 71

6. The distribution of the computed K values justified the application of the normal theory of distribution in statistical analysis. 7. The K value for use in correcting values for glue laminated grevillea timber is 0.0028. This value was obtained at 76.51% confidence interval and allows for 5% exceedence. The Wilsons equation for glue laminated grevillea timber becomes; Log S = Log Sp + 0.0028(22 M) Where; S Strength value as obtained from tests at moisture content M percent Sp - Strength value at fibre saturation point. 8. Strength values at different moisture content curves for grevillea timber from values in Tables 5.5 and 5.6 are as below;
50 49

Bending strength (N/mm2)

48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Moisture Content (%) Figure 7.1 Modulus of rapture (N/mm 2 ) vs. Moisture content from table 5.5

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40

Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Moisture Content (%) Figure 7.2 Compressive strength (N/mm2 ) vs. Moisture content from table 5.6

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CHAPTER 8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

It is from the above findings and conclusions that the below recommendations are made. For the efficient and safe utilization of glue laminated timber technology in Kenya, the following should be done; 1. Glue laminated timber should be protected from moisture as it reduces its performance in terms of strength and also affects its ability to glue effectively. A clear vanish should therefore used to preserve against moisture entrainment and the aesthetics of the laminated members. 2. Resorcinol formaldehyde (Type W B P: Weatherproof and boilproof glue) is recommended as it makes joints that are highly resistant to weather, micro-organisms, clod and boiling water, and dry heat. This will improve the performance of the laminated structure. 3. The number of test samples to be used to obtain the correction factor K should be large to increase the index of result authenticity. 4. Research institutes that investigate timber properties should issue regular publications on glue laminated timber technology to help timber designers to make effective use of grevillea timber species which is available in the country. 5. Glue laminated timber technology is expensive. Resorcinol formaldehyde which is highly recommended is only distributed by one supplier in the country from Mombasa, one set of 635grams only, costs Ksh.1,600. A detailed study on the economy of using glulam should be conducted. This study should be in a position to balance the gains of laminations to the extra costs of fabrication of the materials.

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CHAPTER 9.0 REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES 1. US Department of Agriculture (1955). Wood handbook. Handbook No. 72. Washington DC, USA. 2. M.A. Ritter, T.G. Williamson (July, 1994). International Council for Building Research Studies and Document Working Commission W18-Timber Structure State of the Art Report: Glulam Timber Bridge Design in the U.S. USDA Forest Products Laboratory. 3. A. Chugg (1964) The Theory and Practice of the Manufacture of Glued Laminated Timber Structures W., Ernest Benn Limited London. 4. KS 1011:2010 Kenya Standard- Seasoning of Timber-Code of Practice. 5. Eng. G.K. Harley (1993). Updated Basic and Grade for Kenyan Grown Cypress and Pine, Unpublished report submitted at the MOW conference. Ministry of Public Works and Housing. 6. World Agroforestry centre (4th Jan 2012), http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/ 7. Harwood CE. Booth TH. (1992). Status of Grevillea Robusta in Agroforestry and Forestry. Proceedings of an international workshop, Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF. 8. FACT 98-05, (September 1998) A quick guide to multipurpose trees from around the world http://www.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/factsh/grevillea.htm 9. E.C Ozelton & J.A Baird (2006) Timber Designers Manual-Glulam Beams. Third Edition (2006) Revised by E.C Ozelton. Blackwell Science. 10. KS 828: 2009 Kenya Standard - Structural use of timber Part 1: Code of practice for Permissible stress design, materials and workmanship 11. Standards worldwide-home (2nd Jan 2012) http://www.astm.org/Standards/D143.htm 12. R. S. Khurmi, (1998) Applied mechanics and strength of materials, S. Chand and Company Limited, New Delhi. 13. Thomas Randall Carson Wilson (March 1932). Strength-moisture relations for wood. Technical bulletin No. 282. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington DC. 14. Forest area (% of land) in Kenya. (9 December 2011). http://www.tradingeconomics.com/kenya/forest-area-percent-of-land-area-wb-data.html 75

15. George Tsoumis (1991). Science and Technology of Wood. 115 Fifth Avenue New York. Chapman & Hall. 16. Kenya Standard- Methods of test for the determination of physical and mechanical properties of wood, an adoption of 150 3130 prepared under the guidance of the Civil Engineering Standard Committee.

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APPENDIX 1
Data tests results and analyses.

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Table A1.1 Data table for static bending results and analysis (20x20x300mm samples) Modulus of Rapture (N/mm2) 75.94 56.25 61.88 67.50 64.69 61.88 67.50 61.88 64.69 73.13 Modulus of Rapture (N/mm2) 59.06 64.69 45.00 53.44 50.63 61.88 50.63 53.44 45.00 47.81 Modulus of Rapture (N/mm2) 56.25 42.19 42.19 45.00 47.81 42.19 39.38 45.00 50.63 47.81 Deflection (mm) E (N/mm2) Mass before drying (g) 24.70 24.90 25.80 27.00 25.70 24.80 25.30 26.50 27.00 25.50 Mass before drying (g) 27.70 27.70 27.70 26.30 26.60 27.70 26.67 26.80 27.50 27.50 Mass before drying (g) 29.70 32.80 30.60 31.20 28.80 32.40 30.20 30.30 31.60 32.40 Oven dry Mass (g) 22.00 22.20 22.70 23.50 22.60 22.40 22.50 23.40 23.70 22.50 Oven dry Mass (g) 24.00 23.50 23.80 22.90 23.20 23.90 23.00 23.20 23.50 23.70 Oven dry Mass (g) 24.50 27.10 25.50 26.10 24.30 25.80 25.40 25.20 25.60 26.00 Moisture content (%) 12.27 12.16 13.66 14.89 13.72 10.71 12.44 13.25 13.92 13.33 Moisture content (%) 15.42 17.87 16.39 14.85 14.66 15.90 15.96 15.52 17.02 16.03 Moisture content (%) 21.22 21.03 20.00 19.54 18.52 25.58 18.90 20.24 23.44 24.62

Sample (Dry) DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8 DS9 DS10 Sample (Freshly sawn) FS1 FS2 FS3 FS4 FS5 FS6 FS7 FS8 FS9 FS10 Sample (Wet) WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 WS5 WS6 WS7 WS8 WS9 WS10

WR (N)

1350.00 1000.00 1100.00 1200.00 1150.00 1100.00 1200.00 1100.00 1150.00 1300.00 WR (N)

116.00 121.00 91.00 136.00 98.00 87.00 135.00 99.00 80.00 75.00 Deflection (mm)

1818.43 1743.29 2317.99 1917.61 2152.42 2424.57 1883.37 2130.68 2636.72 2812.50 E (N/mm2)

1050.00 1150.00 800.00 950.00 900.00 1100.00 900.00 950.00 800.00 850.00 WR (N)

105.00 120.00 125.00 117.00 110.00 112.00 121.00 122.00 116.00 119.00 Deflection (mm)

2008.93 1757.81 1687.50 1802.88 1917.61 1883.37 1743.29 1729.00 1818.43 1772.58 E (N/mm2)

1000.00 750.00 750.00 800.00 850.00 750.00 700.00 800.00 900.00 850.00

115.00 129.00 132.00 136.00 139.00 128.00 125.00 131.00 129.00 133.00

1834.24 1635.17 1598.01 1551.01 1517.54 1647.95 1687.50 1610.21 1635.17 1586.00

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Where WR = Failure load (N) E = Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) Table A1.2 Data table for specific gravity results and analysis (20x20x100mm samples) SPECIFIC GRAVITY Oven dry Volume Mass (g) (mm3) 22.00 48.00 22.20 48.00 22.70 48.00 23.50 48.00 22.60 48.00 22.40 48.00 22.50 48.00 23.40 48.00 23.70 48.00 22.50 48.00 24.00 50.00 23.50 50.00 23.80 50.00 22.90 50.00 23.20 50.00 23.90 50.00 23.00 50.00 23.20 50.00 23.50 50.00 23.70 50.00 24.50 52.00 27.10 52.00 25.50 52.00 26.10 52.00 24.30 52.00 25.80 52.00 25.40 52.00 25.20 52.00 25.60 52.00 26.00 52.00

Sample DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8 DS9 DS10 FS1 FS2 FS3 FS4 FS5 FS6 FS7 FS8 FS9 FS10 WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 WS5 WS6 WS7 WS8 WS9 WS10

Specific gravity (SG) 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.49 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.49 0.49 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.52 0.49 0.50 0.47 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.49 0.50

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Table A1.3 Data table for compressive strength results and analysis (20x20x50mm samples) Oven dry Mass (g) 11.70 12.10 12.10 11.90 12.20 11.80 11.90 11.70 12.10 11.90 Oven dry Mass (g) 13.60 13.30 13.20 13.20 13.40 13.30 13.40 13.20 13.60 13.20 Oven dry Mass (g) 11.40 11.30 11.20 11.20 11.30 11.10 11.50 11.40 11.30 11.00 Moisture content (%) 11.11 12.40 12.40 11.76 11.48 11.86 11.76 11.11 12.40 11.76 Moisture content (%) 13.24 13.53 13.64 14.39 14.18 12.78 14.18 14.39 13.24 13.64 Moisture content (%) 21.93 20.35 20.54 24.11 19.47 19.82 20.87 19.30 23.01 20.91

Sample (Dry) DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8 DS9 DS10 Sample (Freshly sawn) FS1 FS2 FS3 FS4 FS5 FS6 FS7 FS8 FS9 FS10 Sample (Wet) WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 WS5 WS6 WS7 WS8 WS9 WS10

WR (N)

16800.00 16300.00 16900.00 18300.00 16700.00 17500.00 17200.00 18400.00 18300.00 17800.00 WR (N) 16600.00 15800.00 17800.00 16800.00 15400.00 16800.00 15600.00 16200.00 16600.00 15400.00 WR (N)

Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 42.00 40.75 42.25 45.75 41.75 43.75 43.00 46.00 45.75 44.50 Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 41.50 39.50 44.50 42.00 38.50 42.00 39.00 40.50 41.50 38.50 Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 31.25 34.00 34.75 35.75 34.50 37.50 34.50 35.50 36.50 34.00

Mass before drying (g) 13.00 13.60 13.60 13.30 13.60 13.20 13.30 13.00 13.60 13.30 Mass before drying (g) 15.40 15.10 15.00 15.10 15.30 15.00 15.30 15.10 15.40 15.00 Mass before drying (g) 13.90 13.60 13.50 13.90 13.50 13.30 13.90 13.60 13.90 13.30

12500.00 13600.00 13900.00 14300.00 13800.00 15000.00 13800.00 14200.00 14600.00 13600.00

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Table A1.4 Data table for shear results and analysis (20x20x20mm samples) Oven dry Mass (g) 5.76 5.96 5.96 5.86 6.01 5.81 5.86 5.76 5.96 5.86 Oven dry Mass (g) 6.54 6.39 6.35 6.35 6.44 6.39 6.44 6.35 6.54 6.35 Oven dry Mass (g) 5.48 5.43 5.38 5.38 5.43 5.34 5.53 5.48 5.43 5.29

Sample (Dry) DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8 DS9 DS10 Sample (Freshly sawn) FS1 FS2 FS3 FS4 FS5 FS6 FS7 FS8 FS9 FS10 Sample (Wet) WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 WS5 WS6 WS7 WS8 WS9 WS10

WR (N) 4800.00 4200.00 5300.00 3500.00 3700.00 4600.00 4800.00 5000.00 4000.00 4200.00 WR (N) 4500.00 4000.00 4800.00 4500.00 3700.00 4600.00 3500.00 3700.00 3400.00 3500.00 WR (N) 2000.00 1800.00 1800.00 1900.00 2100.00 2000.00 2100.00 1900.00 1800.00 1900.00

Mass before drying (g) 6.50 6.80 6.80 6.65 6.80 6.60 6.65 6.50 6.80 6.65 Mass before drying (g) 7.70 7.55 7.50 7.55 7.65 7.50 7.65 7.55 7.70 7.50 Mass before drying (g) 6.95 6.80 6.75 6.95 6.75 6.65 6.95 6.80 6.95 6.65 81

Moisture content (%) 12.78 14.08 14.08 13.44 13.15 13.54 13.44 12.78 14.08 13.44 Moisture content (%) 17.76 18.08 18.18 18.97 18.75 17.29 18.75 18.97 17.76 18.18 Moisture content (%) 26.81 25.17 25.36 29.07 24.25 24.61 25.70 24.07 27.93 25.75

Table A1.5 Data table for shear results and analysis (20x20x20mm samples) Sample DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8 DS9 DS10 FS1 FS2 FS3 FS4 FS5 FS6 FS7 FS8 FS9 FS10 WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 WS5 WS6 WS7 WS8 WS9 WS10 WR (N) 4800.00 4200.00 5300.00 3500.00 3700.00 4600.00 4800.00 5000.00 4000.00 4200.00 4500.00 4000.00 4800.00 4500.00 3700.00 4600.00 3500.00 3700.00 3400.00 3500.00 2000.00 1800.00 1800.00 1900.00 2100.00 2000.00 2100.00 1900.00 1800.00 1900.00 Area (mm2) 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 400.00 Shear stress at Failure (N/mm2) 12.00 10.50 13.25 8.75 9.25 11.50 12.00 12.50 10.00 10.50 11.25 10.00 12.00 11.25 9.25 11.50 8.75 9.25 8.50 8.75 5.00 4.50 4.50 4.75 5.25 5.00 5.25 4.75 4.50 4.75 Moisture content (%) 12.78 14.08 14.08 13.44 13.15 13.54 13.44 12.78 14.08 13.44 17.76 18.08 18.18 18.97 18.75 17.29 18.75 18.97 17.76 18.18 26.81 25.17 25.36 29.07 24.25 24.61 25.70 24.07 27.93 25.75

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APPENDIX 2
The force (KN) vs. extension (mm) curves from the laboratory tests.

83