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Introduction
Vibration is considered in this chapter with particular reference to the design and oper-
ation of engine test facilities, engine mountings and the isolation of engine-induced
disturbances. Torsional vibration is covered as a separate subject in Chapter 9, Cou-
pling the engine to the dynamometer.
The theory of noise generation and control is briefly considered and a brief account
given of the particular problems involved in the design of anechoic cells.
Vibration and noise
Almost always the engine itself is the only significant source of vibration and noise
in the engine test cell.
15
Secondary sources such as the ventilation system, pumps
and circulation systems or the dynamometer are usually swamped by the effects of
the engine.
There are several aspects to this problem:
The engine must be mounted in such a way that neither it nor connections to it
can be damaged by excessive movement or excessive constraint.
Excessive noise levels in the cell should be avoided or contained as far as possible
and the design of alarm signals should take in-cell noise levels into account.
Fundamentals: sources of vibration
Since the vast majority of engines likely to be encountered are single- or multi-
cylinder in-line vertical engines, we shall concentrate on this configuration.
An engine may be regarded as having six degrees of freedom of vibration about
orthogonal axes through its centre of gravity: linear vibrations along each axis and
rotations about each axis (see Fig. 3.1).
22 Engine Testing
Z
Z
X
X
Y
Y
Figure 3.1 Internal combustion engine: principle axes and degrees of freedom
In practice, only three of these modes are usually of importance:
rotation about the Z axis due to unbalanced vertical forces in different transverse
planes.
Torque variations will be considered later. In general, the rotating masses are carefully
balanced but periodic forces due to the reciprocating masses cannot be avoided. The
crank, connecting rod and piston assembly shown in Fig. 3.2 is subject to a periodic
force in the line of action of the piston given approximately by:
f =m
p
w
2
c
r cos 0 +
m
w
2
c
r cos 20
n
where n =I,r (1)
m
f
I
r
In a single cylinder engine, both first- and second-order forces are unbalanced.
For two and four cylinder engines, the second-order forces are unbalanced and
additive.
This last feature is an undesirable characteristic of a four cylinder engine and in some
cases has been eliminated by counter-rotating weights driven at twice crankshaft
speed.
The other consequence of reciprocating unbalance is the generation of rocking
couples about the transverse or Z axis and these are also shown in Fig. 3.1.
k
m
t
k
m
=w
2
0
natural frequency =q
0
=
w
0
2r
=
1
2r
k
m
(3)
the static deflection under the force of gravity =mg/k which leads to a very convenient
expression for the natural frequency of vibration:
q
0
=
1
2r
g
static deflection
(4a)
C of G
Figure 3.3 Engine carried on four exible mountings
26 Engine Testing
or, if static deflection is in millimetres:
0
=
1576
static deflection
(4b)
This relationship is plotted in Fig. 3.4
Next, consider the case where the mass m is subjected to an exciting force of
amplitude f and frequency w/2r. The equation of motion now reads:
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
+kx =] sin wt
the solution includes a transient element; for the steady state condition amplitude of
oscillation is given by:
x =
],k
(1w
2
,w
2
0
)
(5)
here f / k is the static deflection of the mountings under an applied load f. This
expression is plotted in Fig. 3.5 in terms of the amplitude ratio x divided by static
deflection. It has the well-known feature that the amplitude becomes theoretically
infinite at resonance, w =w
0
.
If the mountings combine springs with an element of viscous damping, the equa-
tion of motion becomes:
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
+c
Jx
Jt
+kx =] sin wt
40
30
20
10
5
4
3
2
1
0.2
N
a
t
u
r
a
l
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
(
H
z
)
0.5 1 2 5
Static deflection (mm)
10 20 50 100 300
Figure 3.4 Relationship between static deection and natural frequency
Vibration and noise 27
6
4
2
0
0
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
r
a
t
i
o
1 2
Frequency ratio
1
w
2
w
2
0
2
+
w
2
c
2
mkw
2
0
sin(wt A) (6a)
If we define a dimensionless damping ratio:
C
2
=
c
2
4mk
this equation may be written:
x =
],k
1
w
2
w
2
0
2
+4C
2
w
2
w
2
0
sin(wt A) (6b)
(if C=1 we have the condition of critical damping when, if the mass is displaced
and released, it will return eventually to its original position without overshoot).
The amplitude of the oscillation is given by the first part of this expression:
amplitude =
],k
1
w
2
w
2
0
2
+4C
2
w
2
w
2
0