JUNE - JULY

2013
Summer Training Report

SUBMITTED BY:
PIYUSH GUPTA Roll no. 637/MP/10 NSIT, New Delhi

Contents
1. Acknowledgement03 2. About the company..04 a. Evolution of NTPC b. NTPC group c. Installed Capacity d. NTPC Strategies e. NTPC Faridabad f. International Cell g. NTPC Operations 3. Gas to Electricity Conversion.19 Introduction Gas Turbine Steam Turbine Heat Recovery Steam Generator Deaerator Cooling Towers Condensor

4. Automation and Control System.27 Process Structure Control and Monitoring Mechanisms Pressure Monitoring Temperature Monitoring Flow Measurement Control Valves

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would firstly wish to thank Mr. R. K. Sharma allowing me to undergo summer training at NTPC, Faridabad, all of the HR team of the Institute for their continued guidance. I would also wish to convey my warm regards to Mr. Deepak Puri for providing me with all the knowledge database that I needed for this report.

I would also like to thank all the Engineers who guided me during the plant visit and helped me to overcome my queries.

ABOUT THE COMPANY

Corporate Vision:
A world class integrated power major, powering Indias growth, with increasing global presence

Core Values:
B-Business Ethics C-Customer Focus O-Organizational & Professional pride M-Mutual Respect and Trust I- Innovation & Speed T-Total quality for Excellence NTPC Limited is the largest thermal power generating company of India. A public sector company, it was incorporated in the year 1975 to accelerate power development in the country as a wholly owned company of the Government of India. At present, Government of India holds 89.5% of the total equity shares of the company and the balance 10.5% is held by FIIs, Domestic Banks, Public and others. Within a span of 31 years, NTPC has emerged as a truly national power company, with power generating facilities in all the major regions of the country.

NTPCs core business is engineering, construction and operation of power generating plants. It also provides consultancy in the area of power plant constructions and power generation to companies in India and abroad. As on date the installed capacity of NTPC is 27,904 MW through its 15 coal based (22,895 MW), 7 gas based (3,955 MW) and 4 Joint Venture Projects (1,054 MW). NTPC acquired 50% equity of the SAIL Power Supply Corporation Ltd. (SPSCL). This JV company operates the captive power plants of Durgapur (120 MW), Rourkela (120 MW) and Bhilai (74 MW). NTPC also has 28.33% stake in Ratnagiri Gas & Power Private Limited (RGPPL) a joint venture company between NTPC, GAIL, Indian Financial Institutions and Maharashtra SEB Holding Co. Ltd.

NTPCs share on 31 Mar 2007 in the total installed capacity of the country was 20.18% and it contributed 28.50% of the total power generation of the country during 2006-07.

a. EVOLUTION OF NTPC

1975

NTPC was set up in 1975 with 100% ownership by the Government of India. In the last 30 years, NTPC has grown into the largest power utility in India.

1997

In 1997, Government of India granted NTPC status of Navratna being one of the nine jewels of India, enhancing the powers to the Board of Directors.

2004

NTPC became a listed company with majority Government ownership of 89.5%. NTPC becomes third largest by Market Capitalisation of listed companies

2005

The company rechristened as NTPC Limited in line with its changing business portfolio and transform itself from a thermal power utility to an integrated power utility.

NTPC is the largest power utility in India, accounting for about 20% of Indias installed capacity.

b. NTPC GROUP

NTPC Limited Subsidiaries

NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Limited 100%

NTPC Electric Supply Co. Limited 100%

Pipavav Power Development Co. Ltd 100%

NTPC Hydro Limited 100%

Joint Ventures

NTPC-SAIL Power Company Pvt. Limited 50% NTPC-SAIL Power Company Pvt. Limited 50

Bhilai Electric Supply Co. Pvt. Limited 50%

NTPC Alstom Power Services Pvt. Limited 50%

Utility Powertech Limited 50%

NTPC Tamilnadu Energy Co. Limited 50%

PTC India Limited 8%

Ratnagiri Gas & Power Private Ltd 28.33%

c. INSTALLED CAPACITY
AN OVERVIEW
Projects NTPC OWNED COAL GAS/LIQ. FUEL TOTAL OWNED BY JVCs Coal Gas/LIQ. FUEL GRAND TOTAL 3 1 26 314* 740** 27,904 15 07 22 22,895 3,955 26,850 No. of Projects Commissioned Capacity (MW)

* Captive Power Plant under JVs with SAIL ** Power Plant under JV with GAIL, FIs & MSEB

PROJECT PROFILE
Coal Based Power Stations Commissioned Capacity (MW) 2,000 2,100 2,600 1,600 3,260 2,000 1,340 840
9

Coal based 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Singrauli Korba Ramagundam Farakka Vindhyachal Rihand Kahalgaon NTCPP

State Uttar Pradesh Chattisgarh Andhra Pradesh West Bengal Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Bihar Uttar Pradesh

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Talcher Kaniha Unchahar Talcher Thermal Simhadri Tanda Badarpur Sipat Total (Coal)

Orissa Uttar Pradesh Orissa Andhra Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Delhi Chattisgarh

3,000 1,050 460 1,000 440 705 500 22,895

Gas/Liq. Fuel Based Power Stations Commissioned Capacity (MW) 413 652 645 817 648 350 430 3,955

Gas based 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Anta Auraiya Kawas Dadri Jhanor-Gandhar Rajiv Gandhi CCPP Kayamkulam Faridabad Total (Gas)

State Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Kerala Haryana

Power Plants with Joint Ventures

Coal Based 23. Durgapur 24. 25. 26. Rourkela Bhilai RGPPL State West Bengal Orissa Chhattisgarh Maharastra Total(JV) Grand Total (Coal + Gas + JV) Fuel Coal Coal Coal Naptha/LNG Commissioned Capacity (MW) 120 120 74 740 1054 27,904
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Projects Under Implementation

Coal / Hydro

State

Fuel

Additional Capacity Under Implementation (MW) 500 500 1980 500 1980 500 500 500 980 1000 800 600 520 10,860

1.

Kahalgaon Stage II (Phase I) (Phase Bihar II) Sipat (Stage I) (Stage II) Chhattisgarh Barh Bhilai (Exp. Power Project-JV with SAIL) Korba (Stage III) Farakka (Stage III) NCTPP (Stage II) Simhadri (Stage II) Koldam (HEPP) Bihar Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh West Bengal

Coal

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal

Uttar Pradesh Coal Andhra Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Coal Hydro Hydro Hydro

10. Loharinag Pala (HEPP) Uttarakhand 11. Tapovan Vishnugad (HEPP) Uttarakhand

Total (Coal + Hydro)

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d. NTPC STRATEGIES

Sustainable Development

Maintain sector
Nurturing Human Resource Leadership position through expansion

STRATEGIES - NTPC
Technology initiatives Further enhance fuel security

Exploit new business opportunities

Technological Initiatives Introduction of steam generators (boilers) of the size of 800 MW Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Technology Launch of Energy Technology Center -A new initiative for development of technologies with focus on fundamental R&D The company sets aside upto 0.5% of the profits for R&D Roadmap developed for adopting Clean Development Mechanism to help get / earn Certified Emission Reduction
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Corporate Social Responsibility As a responsible corporate citizen NTPC has taken up number of CSR initiatives NTPC Foundation formed to address Social issues at national level NTPC has framed Corporate Social Responsibility Guidelines committing up to 0.5% of net profit annually for Community Welfare Measures on perennial basis The welfare of project affected persons and the local population around NTPC projects are taken care of through well drawn Rehabilitation and Resettlement policies The company has also taken up distributed generation for remote rural areas

NTPC Faridabad has been doing development work in the nearby villages of Mujedi under the guidance of Mrs. Manjula Sengupta with an annual budget of Rs Ten lacs.

Environment Management All stations of NTPC are ISO 14001 certified Various groups to care of environmental issues The Environment Management Group Ash Utilisation Division Afforestation Group Centre for Power Efficiency & Environment Protection Group on Clean Development Mechanism

NTPC is the second largest owner of trees in the country after the Forest department

Partnering government in various initiatives Consultant role to modernize and improvise several plants across the country Disseminate technologies to other players in the sector Consultant role Partnership in Excellence Programme for improvement of PLF of 15 Power Stations of SEBs. Rural Electrification work under Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana

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e. NTPC FARIDABAD PLANT

Village Mujedi,P.O. Neemka,Dist. Faridabad,Haryana 25.07.1997 430MW (Nominal) 2(GT)+1ST GT-143 MW, ST-144MW

Location Govt. approved date Plant Capacity Plant Configuration

Land Availability Fuel Used Gas Source Water Source Financing Project Cost Beneficiary States Commissioning Date

Available Gas and Naptha HBJ Pipeline Rampur distributories of Gurgaon canal OECF, Japan Rs.1163.60 Cr. (IV Qtr.96) Haryana (100%) GT-I : June 1999 GT-II : October 1999 ST : July 2000

International Assistance

OECF

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f.

NTPC INTERNATIONAL CELL

Keeping its proactive tradition, NTPC launched a separate International Cell to meet the varied needs of IPPs ( Independent Power Producers) and other International clients who are looking for a world class service in power sector. The Cell is especially tuned to meet the requirements of International clients in terms of quick response, flexible service options and to deliver value for money.

Pursuing Business Opportunities in:

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Sri Lanka Saudi Arabia UAE Iran Jordan Bahrain Egypt Malaysia Indonesia Vietnam Thailand Sudan Nigeria Yemen

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g. NTPC OPERATIONS
The operating performance of NTPC has been considerably above the national average. The availability factor for coal stations has increased from 85.03 % in 1997-98 to 90.09 % in 2006-07, which compares favourably with international standards. The PLF has increased from 75.2% in 1997-98 to 89.4% during the year 2006-07 which is the highest since the inception of NTPC.

It may be seen from the table below that while the installed capacity has increased by 56.40% in the last nine years, the employee strength went up by only 3.34%
199798 16,847 97,609 23,585 4.14

Description Installed Capacity Generation No. of employees Generation/employee

Unit MW MUs No. MUs

2006-07 26,350 1,88,674 24,375 7.74

% of increase 56.40 93.29 3.34 86.95

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ECOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAMME

NTPC has undertaken a comprehensive Ecological Monitoring Programme through Satellite Imagery Studies covering an area of about 25 Kms radius around some of its major plants. The studies have been conducted through National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad at its power stations at Ramagundam, Farakka, Korba, Vindhyachal, Rihand and Singrauli. These studies have revealed significant environmental gains in the vicinity areas of the project as a result of pursuing sound environment management practices. Some of these important gains which have been noticed are increase in dense forest area, increase in agriculture area, increase in average rainfall, decrease in waste land etc. In general, the studies, as such, have revealed that there is no significant adverse impact on the ecology due to the project activities in any of these stations. Such studies conducted from time to time around a power project have established comprehensive environment status at various post operational stages of the project.

USE OF WASTE PRODUCTS & SERVICES -ASH UTILIZATION

Ash is the main solid waste which is put into use for various products and services. NTPC has adopted user friendly policy guidelines on ash utilisation. In order to motivate entrepreneurs to come forward with ash utilisation schemes, NTPC offers several facilities and incentives. These include free issue of all types of ash viz. Dry Fly Ash / Pond Ash / Bottom Ash and infrastructure facilities, wherever feasible. Necessary help and assistance is also offered to facilitate procurement of land, supply of electricity etc from Government Authorities. Necessary techno-managerial assistance is given wherever considered necessary. Besides, NTPC uses only ash based bricks and Fly Ash portland pozzolana cement (FAPPC) in most of its construction activities. Demonstration projects are taken up in areas of Agriculture, Building materials, Mine filling etc. The utilisation of ash and ash based products is progressively increasing as a result of the concrete efforts of these groups.

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GAS TO ELECTRICITY CONVERSION

LINE DIAGRAM SHOWING GAS TO ELECTRICITY CONVERSION AT FARIDABAD GAS POWER PLANT

NTPC Faridabad has Two Gas Turbines manufactured by Seimens and One Steam Turbine from BHEL

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Introduction

The basic principle of the Combined Cycle is simple: burning gas in a gas turbine (GT) produces not only power - which can be converted to electric power by a coupled generator but also fairly hot exhaust gases. Routing these gases through a water-cooled heat exchanger produces steam, which can be turned into electric power with a coupled steam turbine and generator.

This set-up of Gas Turbine, waste-heat boiler, steam turbine and generators is called a combined cycle. This type of power plant is being installed in increasing numbers round the world where there is access to substantial quantities of natural gas. This type of power plant produces high power outputs at high efficiencies and with low emissions. It is also possible to use the steam from the boiler for heating purposes so such power plants can operate to deliver electricity alone

Efficiencies are very wide ranging depending on the lay-out and size of the installation. Developments needed for this type of energy conversion is only for the gas turbine. Both waste heat boilers and steam turbines are in common use and well-developed, without specific needs for further improvement.

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Gas turbine
The gas turbine (Brayton) cycle is one of the most efficient cycles for the conversion of gas fuels to mechanical power or electricity. The use of distillate liquid fuels, usually diesel, is also common where the cost of a gas pipeline cannot be justified. Gas turbines have long been used in simple cycle mode for peak lopping in the power generation industry, where natural gas or distillate liquid fuels have been used, and where their ability to start and shut down on demand is essential.

Gas turbines have also been used in simple cycle mode for base load mechanical power and electricity generation in the oil and gas industries, where natural gas and process gases have been used as fuel. Gas fuels give reduced maintenance costs compared with liquid fuels, but the cost of natural gas supply pipelines is generally only justified for base load operation.

More recently, as simple cycle efficiencies have improved and as natural gas prices have fallen, gas turbines have been more widely adopted for base load power generation, especially in combined cycle mode, where waste heat is recovered in waste heat boilers, and the steam used to produce additional electricity. The efficiency of operation of a gas turbine depends on the operating mode, with full load operation giving the highest efficiency, with efficiency deteriorating rapidly with declining power output.

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Steam turbine
The operation of the turbine of steam is based on the thermodynamic principle that expresses that when the steam expands it diminishes its temperature and it decreases its internal energy This situation reduction of the energy becomes mechanical energy for the acceleration of the particles of steam, what allows have a great quantity of energy directly. When the steam expands, the reduction of its internal energy can produce an increase of the speed from the particles. To these speeds the available energy is very high, although the particles are very slight. The action turbine, it is the one that the jets of the turbine are subject of the shell of the turbine and the poles are prepared in the borders of wheels that rotate around a central axis. The steam passes through the mouthpieces and it reaches the shovels. These absorb a part of the kinetic energy of the steam in expansion that it makes rotate the wheel that with her the axis to the one that this united one. The steam enters in an end it expands through a series of mouthpieces until it has lost most of its internal energy. So that the energy of the steam is used efficiently in turbines it is necessary to use several steps in each one of which it becomes kinetic energy a part of the thermal energy of the steam. If the energy conversion was made in a single step the rotational speed of the wheel was very excessive.

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Heat Recovery Steam Generator

In the design of an HRSG, the first step normally is to perform a theoretical heat balance which will give us the relationship between the tube side and shell side process. We must decide the tube side components which will make up our HRSG unit, but only it considers the three primary coil types that may be present, Evaporator, Superheater and Economizer.

Evaporator Section: The most important component would, of course, be the Evaporator
Section. So an evaporator section may consist of one or more coils. In these coils, the effluent (water), passing through the tubes is heated to the saturation point for the pressure it is flowing.

Superheater Section: The Superheater Section of the HRSG is used to dry the saturated vapour
being separated in the steam drum. In some units it may only be heated to little above the saturation point where in other units it may be superheated to a significant temperature for additional energy storage. The Superheater Section is normally located in the hotter gas stream, in front of the evaporator.

Economizer Section: The Economizer Section, sometimes called a preheater or preheat coil,
is used to preheat the feedwater being introduced to the system to replace the steam (vapour) being removed from the system via the superheater or steam outlet and the water loss through blowdown. It is normally located in the colder gas downstream of the evaporator. Since the evaporator inlet and outlet temperatures are both close to the saturation temperature for the system pressure, the amount of heat that may be removed from the flue gas is limited due to the approach to the evaporator, whereas the economizer inlet temperature is low, allowing the flue gas temperature to be taken lower.

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Deaerator
The deaerating boiler feedwater system eliminates the need of expensive oxygen scavenger chemicals and also offers the following advantages: Removes carbon dioxide as well as oxygen. Raises the boiler feedwater temperature, eliminating thermal shock in boilers. Improves overall boiler room efficiency. Feedwater pumps are sized for each individual application - assuring total compatibility and optimum operation.

How does it work?

Undeaerated fresh water is fed into the deaerator through the inlet water connection. This water passes through the steam-filled heating and venting section. The water temperature is raised and many of the undissolved gases are released. As the water passes through the assembly, it flows to a scrubber section where final deaeration is accomplished by scrubbing the water with oxygen free steam. This steam is induced through a stainless steel spray valve assembly which causes the high velocity steam to break the water down to a fine mist through a violent scrubbing action. The deaerated water spills over to the tanks storage compartment for use by the boiler, and the gases are vented to the atmosphere.

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Cooling towers
A cooling tower is an equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently discharged into the atmosphere The tower vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 meters tall and 100 meters in diameter, or rectangular structure that can be over 40 meters tall and 80 meters long Cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the frame, casing, louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the cold-water basin was made of concrete. Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct cooling towers. Materials are chosen to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fiber, and concrete are widely used in tower construction, as well as aluminum and plastics for some components.

25

Condensor
The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to allow it to be pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the exhaust steam is reduced and efficiency of the cycle increases.

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes.

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 C where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of noncondensable air into the closed loop must be prevented.

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AUTOMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM

AUTOMATION: THE DEFINITION
The word automation is widely used today in relation to various types of applications, such as office automation, plant or process automation.

This subsection presents the application of a control system for the automation of a process / plant, such as a power station. In this last application, the automation actively controls the plant during the three main phases of operation: plant start-up, power generation in stable or put During plant start-up and shut-down, sequence controllers as well as long range modulating controllers in or out of operation every piece of the plant, at the correct time and in coordinated modes, taking into account safety as well as overstressing limits.

During stable generation of power, the modulating portion of the automation system keeps the actual generated power value within the limits of the desired load demand.

During major load changes, the automation system automatically redefines new set points and switches ON or OFF process pieces, to automatically bring the individual processes in an optimally coordinated way to the new desired load demand. This load transfer is executed according to preprogrammed adaptively controlled load gradients and in a safe way.

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AUTOMATION: THE BENEFITS

The main benefits of plant automation are to increase overall plant availability and efficiency. The increase of these two factors is achieved through a series of features summarized as follows:

Optimisation of house load consumption during plant start- up, shut-down and operation, via:
Faster plant start-up through elimination of control errors creating delays. Faster sequence of control actions compared to manual ones. Figures 1 shows the sequence of a rapid restart using automation for a typical coal-fired station. Even a well- trained operator crew would probably not be able to bring the plant to full load in the same time without considerable risks. Co-ordination of house load to the generated power output.

Ensure and maintain plant operation, even in case of disturbances in the

control system, via:

Coordinated ON / OFF and modulating control switchover capability from a sub process to a redundant one. Prevent sub-process and process tripping chain reaction following a process component trip.

Reduce plant / process shutdown time for repair and maintenance as well

as repair costs, via:

Protection of individual process components against overstress (in a stable or unstable plant operation). Bringing processes in a safe stage of operation, where process components are protected against overstress

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PROCESS STRUCTURE
Analysis of processes in Power Stations and Industry advocates the advisability of dividing the complex overall process into individual sub-processes having distinctly defined functions. This division of the process in clearly defined groups, termed as FUNCTIONAL GROUPS, results in a hierarchical process structure. While the hierarchical structure is governed in the horizontal direction by the number of drives (motorised valves, fans, dampers, pumps, etc.) in other words the size of the process; in the vertical direction, there is a distinction made between three fundamental levels, these being the: Drive Level Function Group Level Unit Level. To the Drive Level, the lowest level, belong the individual process equipment and associated electrical drives.

The Function Group is that part of the process that fulfils a particular defined task e.g., Induced Draft Control, Feed Water Control, Blooming Mill Control, etc. Thus at the time of planning it is necessary to identify each function group in a clear manner by assigning it to a particular process activity. Each function group contains a combination of its associated individual equipment drives. The drive levels are subordinate to this level. The function groups are combined to obtain the overall process control function at the Unit Level.

The above three levels are defined with regard to the process and not from the control point of view.

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CONTROL SYSTEM STRUCTURE

The primary requirement to be fulfilled by any control system architecture is that it be capable of being organized and implemented on true process-oriented lines. In other words, the control system structure should map on to the hierarchy process structure. BHELs PROCONTROL P, a microprocessor based intelligent remote multiplexing system, meets this requirement completely.

SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The control and automation system used here is a micro based intelligent multiplexing system This system, designed on a modular basis, allows to tighten the scope of control hardware to the particular control strategy and operating requirements of the process

Regardless of the type and extent of process to control provides system uniformity and integrity for: Signal conditioning and transmission Modulating controls

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CONTROL AND MONITORING MECHANISMS

There are basically two types of Problems faced in a Power Plant Metallurgical Mechanical

Mechanical Problemcan be related to Turbines that is the max speed permissible for a turbine is 3000 rpm , so speed should be monitored and maintained at that level Metallurgical Problem can be view as the max Inlet Temperature for Turbile is 1060 oC so temperature should be below the limit.

Monitoring of all the parameters is necessary for the safety of both:

Employees Machines

So the Parameters to be monitored are :

Speed Temperature Current Voltage Pressure Eccentricity Flow of Gases Vaccum Pressure Valves Level Vibration
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PRESSURE MONITORING
Pressure can be monitored by three types of basic mechanisms

Switches Gauges Transmitter type

For gauges we use Bourden tubes : The Bourdon Tube is a non-liquid pressure measurement device. It is widely used in applications where inexpensive static pressure measurements are needed. A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube that is open to external pressure input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other end, as shown schematically below.

Typical Bourdon Tube Pressure Gages

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Transmitter types use transducers (electrical to electrical normally) continuous monitoring is required Normally capacitive transducers are used

they are used where

For Switches pressure swithes are used and they can be used for digital means of monitoring as swith being ON is referred as high and being OFF is as low.

All the monitored data is converted to either Current or Voltage parameter.

The Plant standard for current and voltage are as under Voltage : 0 10 Volts range Current : 4 20 milliAmperes

We use 4mA as the lower value so as to check for disturbances and wire breaks.

Accuracy of such systems is very high . ACCURACY : + - 0.1 %

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The whole system used is SCADA based

INPUT

4-20 mA

ANALOG INPUT MODULE

MICRO PROCESSOR

ALARM We use DDCMIC control for this process. Programmable Logic Circuits ( PLCs) are used in the process as they are the heardt of Instrumentation .

HL switch

Pressure in line
LL switch

Pressure Electricity Level low Level High High level Electricity Pressure

Start

AND

pump

OR

Stop

Electricity

BASIC PRESSURE CONTROL MECHANISM

Hence PLC selection depends upon the Criticality of the Process

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TEMPERATURE MONITORING
We can use Thernocouples or RTDs for temperature monitoring Normally RTDs are used for low temperatures.

Thermocoupkle selection depends upon two factors:

Temperature Range Accuracy Required

Normally used Thermocouple is K Type Thermocouple:

Chromel (Nickel-Chromium Alloy) / Alumel (Nickel-Aluminium Alloy) This is the most commonly used general purpose thermocouple. It is inexpensive and, owing to its popularity, available in a wide variety of probes. They are available in the 200 C to +1200 C range. Sensitivity is approximately 41 V/C.

RTDs are also used but not in protection systems due to vibrational errors.

We pass a constant curre t through the RTD. So that if R changes then the Voltage also changes

RTDs used in Industries are Pt100 and Pt1000 Pt100 : 0 0C 100 ( 1 = 2.5 0C ) Pt1000 : 0 0C - 1000 Pt1000 is used for higher accuracy

The gauges used for Temperature measurements are mercury filled Temperature gauges.

For Analog medium thermocouples are used And for Digital medium Switches are used which are basically mercury switches.
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FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow measurement does not signify much and is measured just for metering purposes and for monitoring the processes

ROTAMETERS:
A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube. It is occasionally misspelled as 'rotometer'.

It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing some measurable effect.

A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical ellipses being the most common. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This allows you to tell if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is not.

For Digital measurements Flap system is used.

For Analog measurements we can use the following methods : Flowmeters Venurimeters / Orifice meters Turbines Massflow meters ( oil level ) Ultrasonic Flow meters Magnetic Flowmeter ( water level )

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Selection of flow meter depends upon the purpose , accuracy and liquid to be measured so different types of meters used. Turbine type are the simplest of all. They work on the principle that on each rotation of the turbine a pulse is generated and that pulse is counted to get the flow rate.

VENTURIMETERS :

Referring to the diagram, using Bernoulli's equation in the special case of incompressible fluids (such as the approximation of a water jet), the theoretical pressure drop at the constriction would be given by (/2)(v22 - v12).

And we know that rate of flow is given by:

Flow = k (D.P)
Where DP is Differential Presure or the Pressure Drop.

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CONTROL VALVES
A valve is a device that regulates the flow of substances (either gases, fluidized solids, slurries, or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically pipe fittings, but usually are discussed separately.

Valves are used in a variety of applications including industrial, military, commercial, residential, transportation. Plumbing valves are the most obvious in everyday life, but many more are used.

Some valves are driven by pressure only, they are mainly used for safety purposes in steam engines and domestic heating or cooking appliances. Others are used in a controlled way, like in Otto cycle engines driven by a camshaft, where they play a major role in engine cycle control.

Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the valve stem. If the handle is turned a quarter of a full turn (90) between operating positions, the valve is called a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly valves, ball valves, and plug valves are often quarter-turn valves. Valves can also be controlled by devices called actuators attached to the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid, pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure, or hydraulic actuators which are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water.

So there are basically three types of valves that are used in power industries besides the handle valves. They are : Pneumatic Valves they are air or gas controlled which is compressed to turn or move them Hydraulic valves they utilize oil in place of Air as oil has better compression Motorised valves these valves are controlled by electric motors

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