SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Lab Manual of Semester U!AEA"# $ A%r&raft Stru&tures Re'a%r Lab

Prepared by J.Karthik Assistant. Professor. Department of Aeronautical Engineering

EL TECH Dr( RR ) Dr(SR TECHNICAL UNI ERSIT* DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

OBJECTIVE To give training on riveting, patchwork, welding and carpentry LIST OF EXPERIMENTS 1. Aircraft wood gluing 2. Study of welded patch repair by TIG, MIG and !ASMA A"#. $. %elded patch repair by MIG &. welded patch repair by TIG '. (abric atch repair ). "iveted patch repair*. +. "epair of co,po*ite*. -. "epair of *andwich panel*. .. Sheet ,etal for,ing. 1/. #ontrol cable in*pection and repair.

E+'( No, - -

A%r&raft .oo/ 0lu%n0-s%n0le s&arf 1o%nt

A%m( To study the aircraft wood gluing-single scarf oint !n this day and age of composite and modern aluminum aircraft it would seem that wood airplanes would be a thing of the past. "orking with wood is more en oyable than other mediums# and also can be less to$ic. "ood aircraft are strong# safe# and easy to build. !f properly protected# the wood will last a lifetime and longer. "ood aircraft can be built lighter# as fast# and as safe as other more modern types of construction. %onstructing an aircraft from wood re&uires only basic hand tools and a few power tools. 'uilding a wood aircraft is a series of small obs. (luing gussets takes only about an hour of time. Def%n%t%on, S&arf 2o%nt( A scarf oint is a lap-style oint where both pieces of wood to be oined are tapered at the same angle then laid on top of one another. The final thickness is the same as the thickness of the plywood itself. S'e&%f%&at%ons !t is recommended that a taper of )*+) to ),+) be used for this type of oint to insure ade&uate surface area for gluing the oint. The ratio is )* times to ), times the thickness of the plywood. -or this application# we are using .mm /0)1234 for the hull sides and rub rails# and ),mm /0)1,34 for the bottom. ! prefer to use a ),+) scarf. -or )123 plywood# the ratio of taper to thickness will be ),5*.,63 7 83. This means that the plywood pieces will be lapped by 83 when glued up. This also means that you technically lose 83 from a sheet of plywood. Two 9: sheets with a ),+) scarf will result in an o;erall length of )6:-<3. To get a ).: sheet a third section must be scared in. Pro&e/ure Joints are made by cutting the ends of lumber to fit each other and subse&uently securing them together by o;erlapping and gluing.

The oint is formed by cutting opposing tapered ends on each member which are then fitted together. "hen working with wood# this gi;es better long grain to long grain gluing surface# which yields a stronger oint than would be achie;ed with a simple butt oint. The tapers are generally cut at an angle between )+9 to )+)*. The ends of a plain scarf are feathered to a fine point which aids in the obscuring of the oint in the finished work# while in other forms of scarf the ends are fre&uently cut to a blunt 3nib3 which engages a matching shoulder in the mating piece. "here scarfed oints are used in the restoration of ;intage aircraft most de;eloped countries will only issue an airworthiness certificate if all such oints ha;e used an angle no less than )+9.

-ig.). 'efore oining Result,

-ig.,. After oining

Thus the study of aircraft wood gluing-single scarf oint has completed.

A%r&raft .oo/ 0lu%n0-/ouble s&arf 1o%nt

A%m( To study the aircraft wood gluing-double scarf oint A s&arf 1o%nt is a method of oining two members end to end in woodworking or metalworking. The scarf oint is used when the material being oined is not a;ailable in the length re&uired. !t is an alternati;e to other oints such as the butt oint and the splice oint and is often fa;ored o;er these in oinery because it yields a barely ;isible glue line. The scarf oint in wood !n woodworking# there are two distinctly different categories of scarf# based on whether the oint has interlocking faces or not. A plain scarf is simply two flat planes meeting on an angle relati;e to the a$is of the stock being oined# and depends entirely on adhesi;e and1or mechanical fastening /screws# bolts# etc.4 for all strength. =ooked# keyed# and nibbed scarfs are some of the many e$ample of interlocking scarfs# offering ;arying degrees of tensile and compressi;e strength# though most still depend on mechanical fastening to keep the oint closed. The plain scarf is not preferred when strength is re&uired# so it is often used in decorati;e situations# such as the application of trim or moulding. The use of modern high-strength adhesi;es can greatly increase the structural performance of a plain scarf. The keyed hook scarf is common in ship and boat-building# as well as timber framing and wooden bridge construction. !n large timbers such as these the scarf is ;irtually always secured with through bolts# and is fre&uently reinforced e$ternally with iron or steel fishplates# and1or strapping. A scarf oint may also be used to fi$ problems caused when a board is cut too short for the application. The board can be cut in half with a tapered cut yielding a scarf oint. "hen the oint is glued together# the tapers are slid against each other so that the two sections are no longer in line with each other. This has the effect of making the board longer. >nce the glue has set# the board can be planed down to an e;en thickness# resulting in a longer but thinner board.

DO ETAILED SCARF 2OINT

-ig.). 'efore oining TA3LED SCARF 2OINT

-ig.,. After oining

-ig.). 'efore oining

-ig.,. After oining

TA3LED SCARF 2OINT 4ITH STRAPS

-ig.8. 'efore oining Result,

-ig.2. After oining

Thus the study of aircraft wood gluing-double scarf oint has completed.

E+'( No, - "

Study on MIG, TIG & PLASMA weldin o! "i#$#"!t $o%&onent'

A%m( To study the MIG, TIG 0 !ASMA welding of aircraft co,ponent*. Tun0sten Inert Gas 4el/%n0 (as tungsten arc welding /(TA"4# also known as tungsten inert gas /T!(4 welding# is an arc welding process that uses a non consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas /usually an inert gas such as argon4# and a filler metal is normally used# though some welds# known as autogenous welds# do not re&uire it. A constant-current welding power supply produces energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ioni?ed gas and metal ;apors known as a plasma. T!( is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum# magnesium# and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater control o;er the weld than competing procedures such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding# allowing for stronger# higher &uality welds. =owe;er# T!( is comparati;ely more comple$ and difficult to master# and furthermore# it is significantly slower than most other welding techni&ues. A related process# plasma arc welding# uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated @anual gas tungsten arc welding is often considered the most difficult of all the welding processes commonly used in industry. 'ecause the welder must maintain a short arc length# great care and skill are re&uired to pre;ent contact between the electrode and the work piece. Aimilar to torch welding# T!( normally re&uires two hands# since most applications re&uire that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with one hand while manipulating the welding torch in the other. =owe;er# some welds combining thin materials /known as autogenous or fusion welds4 can be accomplished without filler metalB most notably edge# corner# and butt oints.

To strike the welding arc# a high fre&uency generator pro;ides a sparkB this spark is a conducti;e path for the welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated while the electrode and the work piece are separated# typically about ).6C8 mm /*.*.C*.), in4 apart. This high ;oltage# high fre&uency burst can be damaging to some ;ehicle electrical systems and electronics# because induced ;oltages on ;ehicle wiring can also cause small conducti;e sparks in the ;ehicle wiring or within semiconductor packaging. Dehicle ),D power may conduct across these ioni?ed paths# dri;en by the high-current ),D ;ehicle battery. These currents can be sufficiently destructi;e as to disable the ;ehicleB thus the warning to disconnect the ;ehicle battery power from both E), and ground before using welding e&uipment on ;ehicles. Pro&e/ure >nce the arc is struck# the welder mo;es the torch in a small circle to create a welding pool# the si?e of which depends on the si?e of the electrode and the amount of current. "hile maintaining a constant separation between the electrode and the workpiece# the operator then mo;es the torch back slightly and tilts it backward about )*C)6 degrees from ;ertical. -iller metal is added manually to the front end of the weld pool as it is needed. "elders often de;elop a techni&ue of rapidly alternating between mo;ing the torch forward /to ad;ance the weld pool4 and adding filler metal. The filler rod is withdrawn from the weld pool each time the electrode ad;ances# but it is ne;er remo;ed from the gas shield to pre;ent o$idation of its surface and contamination of the weld. -iller rods composed of metals with low melting temperature# such as aluminum# re&uire that the operator maintain some distance from the arc while staying inside the gas shield. !f held too close to the arc# the filler rod can melt before it makes contact with the weld puddle. As the weld nears completion# the arc current is often gradually reduced to allow the weld crater to solidify and pre;ent the formation of crater cracks at the end of the weld. O'erat%on mo/es T!( can use a positi;e direct current# negati;e direct current or an alternating current# depending on the power supply set up. A negati;e direct current from the electrode causes a stream of electrons to collide with the surface# generating large amounts of heat at the weld region. This creates a deep# narrow weld. !n the opposite process where the electrode is connected to the positi;e power supply terminal# positi;ely charged ions flow from the part being welded to the tip of the electrode instead# so the heating action of the electrons is mostly on the electrode. This

mode also helps to remo;e o$ide layers from the surface of the region to be welded# which is good for metals such as aluminum or magnesium. A shallow# wide weld is produced from this mode# with minimum heat input. Alternating current gi;es a combination of negati;e and positi;e modes# gi;ing a cleaning effect and imparts a lot of heat as well. A''l%&at%ons "hile the aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding# the process is used in a number of other areas. @any industries use T!( for welding thin workpieces# especially nonferrous metals. !t is used e$tensi;ely in the manufacture of space ;ehicles# and is also fre&uently employed to weld small-diameter# thin-wall tubing such as those used in the bicycle industry. !n addition# T!( is often used to make root or first pass welds for piping of ;arious si?es. !n maintenance and repair work# the process is commonly used to repair tools and dies# especially components made of aluminum and magnesium. F))G 'ecause the weld metal is not transferred directly across the electric arc like most open arc welding processes# a ;ast assortment of welding filler metal is a;ailable to the welding engineer. !n fact# no other welding process permits the welding of so many alloys in so many product configurations. -iller metal alloys# such as elemental aluminum and chromium# can be lost through the electric arc from ;olatili?ation. This loss does not occur with the T!( process. 'ecause the resulting welds ha;e the same chemical integrity as the original base metal or match the base metals more closely# T!( welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking o;er long time periods# T!( is the welding procedure of choice for critical welding operations like sealing spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial.F

-igure ). Achematic diagram of T!( welding process

The electrode used in T!( is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy# because tungsten has the highest melting temperature among pure metals# at 8#2,, H% /.#)<, H-4. As a result# the electrode is not consumed during welding# though some erosion /called burn-off4 can occur. Electrodes can ha;e either a clean finish or a ground finishIclean finish electrodes ha;e been chemically cleaned# while ground finish electrodes ha;e been ground to a uniform si?e and ha;e a polished surface# making them optimal for heat conduction. The diameter of the electrode can ;ary between *.6 and ..2 millimeters /*.*, and *.,6 in4# and their length can range from J6 to .)* millimeters /8.* to ,2 in4. Metal Inert Gas 4el/%n0 (as metal arc welding /(@A"4# sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas /@!(4 welding or metal acti;e gas /@A(4 welding# is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun. A constant ;oltage# direct current power source is most commonly used with (@A"# but constant current systems# as well as alternating current# can be used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in (@A"# called globular# short-circuiting# spray# and pulsed-spray# each of which has distinct properties and corresponding ad;antages and limitations. >riginally de;eloped for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the )<2*s# @!( was soon applied to steels because it allowed for lower welding time compared to other welding processes. The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until se;eral years later# when the use of semi-inert gases such as carbon dio$ide became common. -urther de;elopments during the )<6*s and )<.*s ga;e the process more ;ersatility and as a result# it became a highly used industrial process. Today# @!( is the most common industrial welding process# preferred for its ;ersatility# speed and the relati;e ease of adapting the process to robotic automation. The automobile industry in particular uses @!( welding almost e$clusi;ely. Knlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas# such as shielded metal arc welding# it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air ;olatility. A related process# flu$ cored arc welding# often does not utili?e a shielding gas# instead employing a hollow electrode wire that is filled with flu$ on the inside. To perform gas metal arc welding# the basic necessary e&uipment is a welding gun# a wire feed unit# a welding power supply# an electrode wire# and a shielding gas supply.

4el/%n0 0un an/ .%re fee/ un%t The typical @!( welding gun has a number of key partsIa control switch# a contact tip# a power cable# a gas no??le# an electrode conduit and liner# and a gas hose. The control switch# or trigger# when pressed by the operator# initiates the wire feed# electric power# and the shielding gas flow# causing an electric arc to be struck. The contact tip# normally made of copper and sometimes chemically treated to reduce spatter# is connected to the welding power source through the power cable and transmits the electrical energy to the electrode while directing it to the weld area. !t must be firmly secured and properly si?ed# since it must allow the passage of the electrode while maintaining an electrical contact. 'efore arri;ing at the contact tip# the wire is protected and guided by the electrode conduit and liner# which help pre;ent buckling and maintain an uninterrupted wire feed. The gas no??le is used to e;enly direct the shielding gas into the welding ?oneIif the flow is inconsistent# it may not pro;ide ade&uate protection of the weld area. Larger no??les pro;ide greater shielding gas flow# which is useful for high current welding operations# in which the si?e of the molten weld pool is increased. The gas is supplied to the no??le through a gas hose# which is connected to the tanks of shielding gas. Aometimes# a water hose is also built into the welding gun# cooling the gun in high heat operations.F9G The wire feed unit supplies the electrode to the work# dri;ing it through the conduit and on to the contact tip. @ost models pro;ide the wire at a constant feed rate# but more ad;anced machines can ;ary the feed rate in response to the arc length and ;oltage. Aome wire feeders can reach feed Ele&tro/e Electrode selection is based primarily on the composition of the metal being welded# the process ;ariation being used# oint design and the material surface conditions. Electrode selection greatly influences the mechanical properties of the weld and is a key factor of weld &uality. !n general the finished weld metal should ha;e mechanical properties similar to those of the base material with no defects such as discontinuities# entrained contaminants or porosity within the weld. To achie;e these goals a wide ;ariety of electrodes e$ist. All commercially a;ailable electrodes contain deo$idi?ing metals such as silicon# manganese# titanium and aluminum in small percentages to help pre;ent o$ygen porosity. Aome contain denitriding metals such as titanium and ?irconium to a;oid nitrogen porosity.F)2G Depending on the process ;ariation and base material being welded the diameters of the electrodes used in @!( typically range from *.J to ,.2 mm /*.*,9C*.*<6 in4 but can be as large as 2 mm /*.). in4. The smallest electrodes#

generally up to ).)2 mm /*.*26 in4F)6G are associated with the short-circuiting metal transfer process# while the most common spray-transfer process mode electrodes are usually at least *.< mm /*.*86 in4.

@!( %ircuit diagram. /)4 "elding torch# /,4 "ork piece# /84 Power source# /24 "ire feed unit# /64 Electrode source# /.4 Ahielding gas supply. Plasma arc welding /PA"4 is an arc welding process similar to gas tungsten arc welding /T!(4. The electric arc is formed between an electrode /which is usually but not always made of sintered tungsten4 and the work piece. The key difference from T!( is that in PA"# by positioning the electrode within the body of the torch# the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding gas en;elope. The plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper no??le which constricts the arc and the plasma e$its the orifice at high ;elocities /approaching the speed of sound4 and a temperature approaching ,*#*** H%. Plasma arc welding is an ad;ancement o;er the T!( process. This process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an arc constricted through a fine-bore copper no??le. PA" can be used to oin all metals that are weldable with T!( /i.e.# most commercial metals and alloys4. Ae;eral basic PA" process ;ariations are possible by ;arying the current# plasma gas flow rate# and the orifice diameter# including+

@icro-plasma /M )6 Amperes4 @elt-in mode /)6C2** Amperes4 Keyhole mode /N)** Amperes4 Plasma arc welding has a greater energy concentration as compared to T!(. A deep# narrow penetration is achie;able# with a ma$imum depth of ), to )9 mm /*.2J to *.J) in4 depending on the material.F)G

(reater arc stability allows a much longer arc length /stand-off4# and much greater tolerance to arc length changes. PA" re&uires relati;ely e$pensi;e and comple$ e&uipment as compared to T!(B proper torch maintenance is critical "elding procedures tend to be more comple$ and less tolerant to ;ariations in fit-up# etc. >perator skill re&uired is slightly greater than for T!(. >rifice replacement is necessary.

Gases At least two separate /and possibly three4 flows of gas are used in PA"+

Plasma gas C flows through the orifice and becomes ioni?ed Ahielding gas C flows through the outer no??le and shields the molten weld from the atmosphere 'ack-purge and trailing gas C re&uired for certain materials and applications.

These gases can all be same# or of differing composition. 5e6 'ro&ess 7ar%ables

%urrent Type and Polarity D%EO from a %% source is standard A% s&uare-wa;e is common on aluminum and magnesium "elding current and pulsing - %urrent can ;ary from *.6 A to ),** AB %urrent can be constant or pulsed at fre&uencies up to ,* k=? (as flow rate /This critical ;ariable must be carefully controlled based upon the current# orifice diameter and shape# gas mi$ture# and the base material and thickness.4 Result, Thus the study of the MIG, TIG 0 !ASMA welding of aircraft co,ponent* has completed.

E+'( No, - 8

(elded 'in le & dou)le V*+oint',

Ai%,

To study the %elded *ingle 0 double 123oint* "elding oints are formed by welding two or more workpieces# made of metals or plastics# according to a particular geometry. The most common types are butt and lap ointsB there are ;arious lesser used welding oints including flange and corner oints. 3utt 1o%nt 0eometr%es There are many types of butt welds# but all fall within one of these categories+ single welded butt oints# double welded butt oint# and open or closed butt oints. A single welded butt oint is the name for a oint that has only been welded from one side. A double welded butt oint is created when the weld has been welded from both sides. "ith double welding# the depths of each weld can ;ary slightly. A closed weld is a type of oint in which the two pieces that will be oined are touching during the welding process. An open weld is the oint type where the two pieces ha;e a small gap in between them during welding. -2o%nts Aingle-D-Joint butt welds are similar to a be;el oint# but instead of only one side ha;ing the be;eled edge# both sides of the weld oint are be;eled. !n thick metals# and when welding can be performed from both sides of the work piece# a double-D- oint is used. "hen welding thicker metals# a double-D- oint re&uires less filler material because there are two narrower D- oints compared to a wider single-D- oint. Also the double-D- oint helps compensate for warping forces. "ith a single-D- oint# stress tends to warp the piece in one direction when the D- oint is filled# but with a double-D- oint# there are welds on both sides of the material# ha;ing opposing stresses# straightening the material. Plate Edge Preparation !n common welding practices# the welding surface needs to be prepared to ensure the strongest weld possible. Preparation is needed for all forms of welding and all types of oints. (enerally#

butt welds re&uire ;ery little preparation# but some is still needed for the best results. Plate edges can be prepared for butt oints in ;arious ways# but the fi;e most common techni&ues are o$yacetylene cutting /o$y-fuel welding and cutting4# machining# chipping# grinding# and air carbon-arc cutting or gouging. Each techni&ue has uni&ue ad;antages to their use. -or steel materials# o$yacetylene cutting is the most common form of preparation. This techni&ue is ad;antageous because of its speed# low cost# and adaptability. @achining is the most effecti;e for reproducibility and mass production of parts. Preparation of J or K oints is common prepared by machining due to the need for high accuracy. The chipping method is used to prepare parts that were produced by casting. The use of grinding to prepare pieces is reser;ed for small sections that cannot be prepared by other methods. Air carbon arc welding is common in industries that work with stainless steels# cast iron# or ordinary carbon steel

-igure.). "elding sections Result, Thus the study of the he %elded *ingle 0 double 123oint* has completed.

E+'( No, - !

Fabr%& 'at&9 re'a%r.

AIM:
Making repair to the fabric covered surface in a manner that will return original strength and tautness

THEORY:
Introduction:
Fabric covering of aircraft has been in use for many years because of its low cost, ease of installation, ease of repair, light weight strength and durability. Aircraft covering fabrics are made of cotton, polyester fiber, glass fiber.

NOMENCLATURE OF FABRICS:
BIAS: A cut, fold or seam made diagonally across the ward and fill fibres of a piece of cloth. BLEACHING: A chemical process used to whiten textile materials. CALENDARING: A process of ironing fabric by threading it wet FILL: The fibers are a piece of fabric of fabric that are woven into the warp fibre. These fibres run perpendicular to the length of fabrics. SELVAGE: The bond edge of a length of fabric. The selvage is where the till fibres turn around and go back through the warp fibres.

TYPES OF FABRICS:
.!rganic fabrics ". #norganic fabrics ORGANIC FABRICS: !rganic fabrics are those made from plant materials e !"#$e: merceri$ed cotton cloth INORANIC FABRICS: #norganic fibres is one that re%uires chemical processing to create the fiber. e !"#$e: polyesters, fiber glass

TOOLS AND E%UIPMENTS FOR COVERING:

HARNESS TOOL: This tool is udeful for making small holes in fabrics. MAGNETIC TAC& HAMMER: This is most useful for picking up and holding tacks that are too small to be held in the fingers. POC&ET &NIFE: This knife is useful for cutting textile materials . NEEDLES: &eedles are re%uired for rib lacing and hand seving. BENT'HANDLE TRIMMER(S SHEAR(S: This is re%uired for cutting fabrics, tapes etc... STEEL MEASURING TAPE: This is necessary for measuring wings, fuselages and length of fabrics. SE)ING THIMBLE: This is useful for pushing a needle through thick seams where extra pressure is necessary. EASEL: This may be useful to support the airfoil in a vertical position while the fabric covering is being rib lased. TRESTLES: This is needed to support wing panels in hori$antal. FABRIC SEAMS: These are used to 'oin piece of fabric together and to attach fabric to the aircraft structure. TYPES OF SEAMS: . (lain overlap ". Folded fell ). French fell *. Modified trench fell

COVERING METHODS:
. +nvelope ". ,lanket +nvelope method involves making or buying a sleeve that can slide over the prepare structure. ,lanket method covering involves the use of fabrics as it comes off the roll. it is cut to si$e and folded over the structure to be covered.

REPAIR OF FABRIC COVERING:

TEAR IN FABRIC: Tears in a fabric covering can usually be re%uired by sewing and doping on a fabric patch. The ob'ective is restore the original strength and finish to the repaired area. -ewing the tear using a base ball stitch. .ock has been done every / to 0 inches. METHOD OF SE)ING A V'TYPE TEAR:

SE)N IN PATCH: The damage does not exceed 1 inch in any direction , a sewn2in patch can be used. The first step is to trim out the damge in a rectangular shape. the dope is then removed for atleast )./ cm from edge of fabric. A patch of material of the same type as being repaired is then cut to be sewn into the opening. Tack stichers are used to hold the patch in position. The patch is then sewed in using a base ball stich. DOPED ON A PANEL REPAIR: 3hen the damage to an alc fabric surface is greater than 1 inches.A panel should be doped on. DOPE: 4ope is defined as collidial solution of a cellulose acetate butyrate or cellulose nitrate, have been developed that serve the function of dope for sealing, tautening and protecting airplane fabric covering. SA)N IN PANEL REPAIR: #f a panel repair cannot give the proper tautness by using the doped on panel repair, a sawn repair, a sawn in panel repair can be performed. .

Result, Thus the study of the fabric patch repair has completed.

E+'( No, - :

Ri-eted &"t$. #e&"i#'.

Ai%/

To study the riveted patch repair*. The many ad;antages of the material properties afforded by today:s ad;anced composite materials ha;e brought about their wide use in the manufacture of many of today:s aerospace ;ehicles. Particularly in military aircraft# the beha;iour of damaged composites and subse&uent repairs are of great interest. The current repair techni&ues for the repair of battle damaged composite panels# based on simplicity# speed# and reliability of the repair# re&uire that an aluminium patch be fastened with bolts: o;er the damaged section of the composite panel. The purpose of repair is not to fully restore the original properties of the panel. !t is# instead intended to match the properties closely enough that the aircraft can be returned to ser;ice in a timely manner or# if damaged beyond the repair abilities of the unit# allow the aircraft to safely fly to a more capable repair facility. Knderstanding of how these repairs might affect the natural fre&uencies of the panel is essential. The natural fre&uency is the fre&uency that a lightly damped structure can ;ibrate at a continually increasing amplitude. To a;oid a failure of the section under otherwise normal operating condition# the effect of the repair on the natural fre&uency should be ascertained. The core material is nome$ honey comb. =owe;er# this core alone is not strong enough 9 layers of carbon# fiber# Ke;lar# and glass material are bounded to increase stiffness. -inally# the panel is pi;oted with polyurethane point for the resistance. These skins although incredibly strong# still get damaged from baggage holders# debris on run way whether this happens the plane are taken to composite repair facility. Damage is repaired as fast as possible. Although difficult to see in photo# abo;e the gauge is centered in concentric circle drawn by repair personnel with appro$imately 9 inch radius. The skin with in the circle will be carefully cut and remo;ed from honey comb core. After top layer of fiber material is remo;ed# the damages of honey comb care and surroundings area is then remo;ed. A new honey comb core section is cut to appropriate si?e and potted to plane using aerospace adhesi;e.

Three layers of fabric are then laminated o;er new honey comb# the second layer is slightly beyond. -irst and outside layer e$tends to edge of remo;ed skit. 'y laminating new fibre reinforcement material beyond distance of remo;ed honey comb an inefficient lap oint is created# thus pre;enting further damage to structure. The final surface is then slightly sanded to remo;e e$cess resin# the prepped and primed for polyurethane and aircraft is ready to continue ser;ice. Result, Thus# the repair of fabric patch is studied.

E+'( No, - ;

Tube ben/%n0 an/ flar%n0

Ai%/

To study the tube bending and flaring. Tubes are usually used as flow lines for gases and fluids in the food processing# medical# hydraulic# and pneumatic or process industries. Tubes are cylindrical# hollow items used in tube bending# the si?e of which is indicated by an outside diameter usually in inches. Pipes can be used for transporting fluids and solids in many types of industries. Pipes are more rigid than tubes# with their si?e indicated by the inside diameter usually in inches. Aome tubes can be found in s&uare# rectangular# round and o;al shapes. Tubes that can be bent are made from carbon steel# stainless steel# aluminum# brass# copper# poly;inyl choride /PD%4# titanium# superalloys# nickel alloys and plastics. Tube ben/%n0 Aome specifications that are re&uired for tube bending# includes the wall thickness# the outside diameter referred to as the >.D.# the inside diameter referred to as the !.D. and the radius of the bend. The degree of bend /D>'4# the length or position of the bend and the plane or orientation are also needed to complete the tube bending process. The cost of tooling for tube bending can be reduced by using a bend radii that is considered a standard si?e and readily a;ailable at the tube bending company you chose. Also opting to use the same radius for se;eral bends will reduce set-up costs for tube bending. Tube bending includes flaring# beading or swaging# also referred to as end forming# are processes used to interconnect tubes or eliminate the need for connectors. Tube beading is used in the bending process to amplify the efficiency of a connection and to lessen ;ibrations in e$haust systems or fuel systems. Awaging reduces or increases the end diameter by using a compressi;e force to reshape the tube. The medical# automoti;e# aerospace# and commercial industries utili?e

swaging in the tube bending process. Tube flaring increases the efficiency of li&uid or air tight connections in the automoti;e# aircraft# cooling# hydraulic or heating industries. The hand tube bender shown in figure consists of four parts - handle# radius block /mandrel4# clip#and slide bar. The radius block is marked in degrees of bend ranging from * to )9*. The slide bar has a mark which is lined up with the ?ero mark on the radius block. The tube is inserted in the tool# and after lining up the marks# the slide bar is mo;ed around until the mark on the slide bar reaches the desired degrees of bend on the radius block. -ollow the procedure indicated in figure. This type of bender is furnished in 81).@# )123# 61).3# 8193# and )1,3 si?es. -or larger si?es of tubing similar mandrel-type benders are used. The only difference is that these larger benders are geared for greater mechanical ad;antage. Tube flar%n0 Tube flaring is a method of forming the end of a tube into a funnel shape so that it can be held by a threaded fitting. A partially threaded flare nut is slipped o;er the tube# the end of the tube is flared# the flare is seated with the inside of the flare against the end of a fitting which has threads on the outside# and then the flare nut is screwed onto the fitting# pushing the outside of the flare against the seating surface of the fitting. The tube-flaring tool shown in figure is one type which is commonly used to flare copper tubing. To flare the end of tubing# first check to see that it has been cut off s&uarely and has the burrs remo;ed from both inside and outside. Pemember to slip the flare nut on the tube before you make the flare. Then# as shown in figure# open the flaring tool at the die which corresponds to the si?e of the tubing being flared. !nsert the end of the tubing to protrude slightly abo;e the top face of the die blocks. The amount by which the tubing e$tends abo;e the blocks determines the finished diameter of the flare. The flare must be large enough so that it will seat properly against the fitting# but small enough so that the threads of the flare nut will slide o;er it. Qou determine the correct si?e by trial-and-error. Then# close the die block and secure the tool with the wing nut. Kse the handle of the yoke to tighten the wing nut. Then place the yoke o;er the end of the tubing# and tighten the handle to force the cone into the end of the tubing. The completed flare should be slightly ;isible abo;e the face of the die blocks.

-igure ). Tube bending

-igure ,. -laring metallic tubing Result, Thus# the study of the tube bending and flaring has performed.

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S.eet %et"l !o#%in

Ai%/

To study the *heet ,etal for,ing. The shaping of thin sheets of metal /usually less than R in. or . mm4 by applying pressure through male or female dies or both. Parts formed of sheet metal ha;e such di;erse geometries that it is difficult to classify them. Aheet forming is accomplished basically by processes such as stretching# bending# deep drawing# embossing# bulging# flanging# roll forming# and spinning. !n most of these operations there are no intentional ma or changes in the thickness of the sheet metal. Atretch forming is a process in which the sheet metal is clamped between aws and stretched o;er a form block. The process is used primarily in the aerospace industry to form large panels with ;arying cur;atures. 'ending is one of the most common processes in sheet forming. The part may be bent not only along a straight line# but also along a cur;ed path /stretching# flanging4. !n addition to male and female dies used in most bending operations# the female die can be replaced by a rubber pad /-ig. )4. The roll-forming process replaces the ;ertical motion of the dies by the rotary motion of rolls with ;arious profiles. Each successi;e roll bends the strip a little further than the preceding roll.

-igure )+ Achematic Diagram of Ahearing "ith Punch and Die

'ending process with a rubber pad. /a4 'efore forming. /b4 After forming. "hile many sheet-forming processes are carried out in a press with male and female dies usually made of metal# there are some processes which utili?e rubber to replace one of the dies. The simplest of these processes is the (uerin process /-ig. ,4.

(uerin process# the simplest rubber forming process. /a4 'efore forming. /b4 After forming. A great ;ariety of parts are formed by the deep-drawing process /-ig. 84# the successful operation of which re&uires a careful control of factors such as blank-holder pressure# lubrication# clearance# material properties# and die geometry.

Deep-drawing process. @any parts re&uire one or more additional processes. Embossing consists of forming a pattern on the sheet by shallow drawing. %oining consists of putting impressions on the surface by a process that is essentially forging# the best e$ample being the two faces of a coin. Ahearing is separation of the material by the cutting action of a pair of sharp tools# similar to a pair of scissors. Aee also %oining. The spinning process forms parts with rotational symmetry o;er a mandrel with the use of a tool or roller. There are two basic types of spinning+ con;entional or manual spinning# and shear spinning. The con;entional spinning process forms the material o;er a rotating mandrel with little or no change in the thickness of the original blank. !n shear spinning /hydrospin-ning# floturning4 the deformation is carried out with a roller in such a manner that the diameter of the original blank does not change but the thickness of the part decreases by an amount dependent on the mandrel angle. Ahear spinning produces parts with ;arious shapes /conical# cur;ilinear# and also tubular by tube spinning on a cylindrical mandrel4 with good surface finish# close tolerances# and impro;ed mechanical properties. Result, Thus# the study of the *heet ,etal for,ing has done.

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Pre'arat%on of 0lass e'o+6 of &om'os%te lam%nates an/ s'e&%mens(

A%m( To prepare the glass epo$y composite laminates and specimens. A composite material is a macroscopic combination of two or more distinct materials# ha;ing a recogni?able interface between them. %omposite laminate is a combination of fiber and resin mi$ed in proper form. >ne of the uni&ue properties of composite laminate is that it has high specific strength. %omposites are being utili?ed as ;iable alternati;es to metallic materials in structures where weight is a ma or consideration# e.g.# aerospace structures# highspeed boats and trains. =owe;er# their beha;iour under impact loading is one of the ma or concerns # since impacts do occur during manufacture# normal operations# maintenance and so on. A list of the studies on the impact response of composite materials and structures can be found in pre;ious literatures. The resulting damage due to impacts# often in the form of delaminations# matri$ cracking and fibre failures may se;erely reduce the structural strength and stability. E;en though fibre breakage is the ultimate failure mode# the damage would initiate in the form of matri$ cracking1lamina splitting and would lead to delaminations. Damage-free composites are necessary for their effecti;e use. Fabr%&at%on of Com'os%tes The chopped glass fiber1epo$y composite laminates were fabricated by wet lay-up methodB the chopped glass fiber cloth of re&uired dimension was laid o;er a mould and then cataly?ed epo$y resin was poured absorbed o;er the reinforcement. The ;olume fraction of glass fibers is appro$imately .6S. !dentical wo;en fabric layers were selected depending on the thickness of the composite laminates and fabricated by hand lay-up process. The wet composite was rolled# to distribute the resin and to remo;e the air pockets. The se&uence was repeated until the desired thickness was obtained. The layered structure was allowed to harden on cure. !t was cured at room temperature for 29 hours. After curing# the laminate was cut into the re&uired si?e for 8-

point bend /Ahort-'eam Ahear4 test by diamond cutter. Then stability test was done for the composite laminates. =ere the laminates were weighed and then heated in an o;en at 6* H%. The weight is intermittently checked till we get a stable weight# that is# with further heating there is no change in the weight of the composite. Result, Thus# the preparation of the glass epo$y composite laminates and specimens has completed.

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Determination of elastic constants of composite specimens.

A%m( To e;aluate and determine the elastic constants of composite specimens. %omposite materials ha;e the characteristics of high modulus1weight and strength1weight ratios# e$cellent fatigue properties# and non-corroding beha;iour. These ad;antages encourage the e$tensi;e application of composite materials# for e$ample# in sports and aerospace. The understanding of the mechanical beha;iour of composite materials is essential for their design and application. Although composite materials are often heterogeneous# they are presumed homogeneous from the ;iewpoint of macromechanics and only the a;eraged apparent mechanical properties are considered. The trans;erse properties of unidirectional composite laminates such as stiffness# strength# delamination fracture toughness# etc.# depend on the bre1matri$ adhesion &uality. -or a trans;ersely isotropic composite material# fi;e elastic constants are necessary to describe the linear stress-strain relationship. !f the geometry of the material could be considered as two-dimensional# four independent constants are necessary due to the assumption about the out-of-plane shear modulus or PoissonTs ratio. The determination of stiffness parameters for comple$ materials such as fibre-reinforced composites is much more complicated than for isotropic materials since composites are anisotropic and non-homogeneous. The most common method to determine these constants is static testing. The prepared laminates were further cut into specimens. The glass fibre-reinforced plates /see -ig. )4 were prepared with gi;en geometric parameters. The total number of plies was eight in order to get a plate thickness of appro$imately , mm. To impro;e the &uality of the plates and to reduce the ;oid content# the plates were placed in a ;acuum before curing. Apecimens are cut out with a diamond wheel and kept under standard conditions /,8H% and 6*S of relati;e humidity4 until testing. All tests are performed in the same conditions. The fibre content of the specimens was about measured for each specimen. (lass1Epo$y tabs of thickness of ,.6 mm thick and 6* mm long with tapered ends were bonded to the specimens using Araldite AD)89@ and hardener =D<<9 in the weight ratio )*+2.These 6*.).6 ;olS. The density was

tabs ensure gripping of the specimens on the hydraulic grip of the testing machine and hence it allows smooth transfer of load from the grip to the specimen. Ksing uni;ersal testing machine# tensile load of the composite specimen can be determined.

-ig. ). (eometry of the unidirectional reinforced plate.

-ig. , Dimensions of the specimen used in tensile testing. Result, Thus# the study of elastic constants determination of composite specimens has completed.